Chapter II: Part 2

AYTOUN, WILLIAM EDMONSTONE (1813-1865).--Poet and humorist, _s._ of Roger A., a Writer to the Signet, was _b._ in Edinburgh and _ed._ there, and was brought up to the law, which, however, as he said, he "followed but could never overtake." He became a contributor to _Blackwood's Magazine_ in 1836, and continued his connection with it until his death. In it appeared most of his humorous prose pieces, such as _The Glenmutchkin Railway_, _How I Became a Yeoman_, and _How I Stood for the Dreepdaily Burghs_, all full of vigorous fun. In the same pages began to appear his chief poetical work, the _Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers_, and a novel, partly autobiographical, _Norman Sinclair_. Other works were _The Bon Gaultier Ballads_, jointly with Theodore Martin, and _Firmilian, a Spasmodic Tragedy_, under the _nom-de-plume_ of T. Percy Jones, intended to satirise a group of poets and critics, including Gilfillan, Dobell, Bailey, and Alexander Smith. In 1845 A. obtained the Chair of Rhetoric and Belles Lettres in Edinburgh University, which he filled with great success, raising the attendance from 30 to 150, and in 1852 he was appointed sheriff of Orkney and Shetland. He was married to a _dau._ of Professor Wilson (Christopher North).

BACON, FRANCIS, LORD VERULAM, AND VISCOUNT ST. ALBAN'S (1561-1626).--Philosopher and statesman, was the youngest _s._ of Sir Nicholas B., Lord Keeper, by his second wife, a _dau._ of Sir Anthony Cooke, whose sister married William Cecil, Lord Burghley, the great minister of Queen Elizabeth. He was _b._ at York House in the Strand on Jan. 22, 1561, and in his 13th year was sent with his elder brother Anthony to Trinity Coll., Cambridge. Here he first met the Queen, who was impressed by his precocious intellect, and was accustomed to call him "the young Lord Keeper." Here also he became dissatisfied with the Aristotelian philosophy as being unfruitful and leading only to resultless disputation. In 1576 he entered Gray's Inn, and in the same year joined the embassy of Sir Amyas Paulet to France, where he remained until 1579. The death of his _f._ in that year, before he had completed an intended provision for him, gave an adverse turn to his fortunes, and rendered it necessary that he should decide upon a profession. He accordingly returned to Gray's Inn, and, after an unsuccessful attempt to induce Burghley to give him a post at court, and thus enable him to devote himself to a life of learning, he gave himself seriously to the study of law, and was called to the Bar in 1582. He did not, however, desert philosophy, and _pub._ a Latin tract, _Temporis Partus Maximus_ (the Greatest Birth of Time), the first rough draft of his own system. Two years later, in 1584, he entered the House of Commons as member for Melcombe, sitting subsequently for Taunton (1586), Liverpool (1589), Middlesex (1593), and Southampton (1597). In the Parliament of 1586 he took a prominent part in urging the execution of Mary Queen of Scots. About this time he seems again to have approached his powerful uncle, the result of which may possibly be traced in his rapid progress at the Bar, and in his receiving, in 1589, the reversion to the Clerkship of the Star Chamber, a valuable appointment, into the enjoyment of which, however, he did not enter until 1608. About 1591 he formed a friendship with the Earl of Essex, from whom he received many tokens of kindness ill requited. In 1593 the offices of Attorney-general, and subsequently of Solicitor-general became vacant, and Essex used his influence on B.'s behalf, but unsuccessfully, the former being given to Coke, the famous lawyer. These disappointments may have been owing to a speech made by B. on a question of subsidies. To console him for them Essex presented him with a property at Twickenham, which he subsequently sold for £1800, equivalent to a much larger sum now. In 1596 he was made a Queen's Counsel, but missed the appointment of Master of the Rolls, and in the next year (1597), he _pub._ the first edition of his _Essays_, ten in number, combined with _Sacred Meditations_ and the _Colours of Good and Evil_. By 1601 Essex had lost the Queen's favour, and had raised his rebellion, and B. was one of those appointed to investigate the charges against him, and examine witnesses, in connection with which he showed an ungrateful and indecent eagerness in pressing the case against his former friend and benefactor, who was executed on Feb. 25, 1601. This act B. endeavoured to justify in _A Declaration of the Practices and Treasons, etc., of ... the Earl of Essex, etc._ His circumstances had for some time been bad, and he had been arrested for debt: he had, however, received a gift of a fine of £1200 on one of Essex's accomplices. The accession of James VI. in 1603 gave a favourable turn to his fortunes: he was knighted, and endeavoured to set himself right with the new powers by writing his _Apologie_ (defence) of his proceedings in the case of Essex, who had favoured the succession of James. In the first Parliament of the new king he sat for St. Alban's, and was appointed a Commissioner for Union with Scotland. In 1605 he _pub._ _The Advancement of Learning_, dedicated, with fulsome flattery, to the king. The following year he married Alice Barnham, the _dau._ of a London merchant, and in 1607 he was made Solicitor-General, and wrote _Cogita et Visa_, a first sketch of the _Novum Organum_, followed in 1609 by _The Wisdom of the Ancients_. Meanwhile (in 1608), he had entered upon the Clerkship of the Star Chamber, and was in the enjoyment of a large income; but old debts and present extravagance kept him embarrassed, and he endeavoured to obtain further promotion and wealth by supporting the king in his arbitrary policy. In 1613 he became Attorney-General, and in this capacity prosecuted Somerset in 1616. The year 1618 saw him Lord Keeper, and the next Lord Chancellor and Baron Verulam, a title which, in 1621, he exchanged for that of Viscount St. Albans. Meanwhile he had written the _New Atlantis_, a political romance, and in 1620 he presented to the king the _Novum Organum_, on which he had been engaged for 30 years, and which ultimately formed the main part of the _Instauratio Magna_. In his great office B. showed a failure of character in striking contrast with the majesty of his intellect. He was corrupt alike politically and judicially, and now the hour of retribution arrived. In 1621 a Parliamentary Committee on the administration of the law charged him with corruption under 23 counts; and so clear was the evidence that he made no attempt at defence. To the lords, who sent a committee to inquire whether the confession was really his, he replied, "My lords, it is my act, my hand, and my heart; I beseech your lordships to be merciful to a broken reed." He was sentenced to a fine of £40,000, remitted by the king, to be committed to the Tower during the king's pleasure (which was that he should be released in a few days), and to be incapable of holding office or sitting in parliament. He narrowly escaped being deprived of his titles. Thenceforth he devoted himself to study and writing. In 1622 appeared his _History of Henry VII._, and the 3rd part of the _Instauratio_; in 1623, _History of Life and Death_, the _De Augmentis Scientarum_, a Latin translation of the _Advancement_, and in 1625 the 3rd edition of the _Essays_, now 58 in number. He also _pub._ _Apophthegms_, and a translation of some of the _Psalms_. His life was now approaching its close. In March, 1626, he came to London, and shortly after, when driving on a snowy day, the idea struck him of making an experiment as to the antiseptic properties of snow, in consequence of which he caught a chill, which ended in his death on 9th April 1626. He left debts to the amount of £22,000. At the time of his death he was engaged upon _Sylva Sylvarum_. The intellect of B. was one of the most powerful and searching ever possessed by man, and his developments of the inductive philosophy revolutionised the future thought of the human race. The most popular of his works is the _Essays_, which convey profound and condensed thought in a style that is at once clear and rich. His moral character was singularly mixed and complex, and bears no comparison with his intellect. It exhibits a singular coldness and lack of enthusiasm, and indeed a bluntness of moral perception and an absence of attractiveness rarely combined with such extraordinary mental endowments. All that was possible to be done in defence of his character and public conduct has been done by his accomplished biographer and editor, Mr. Spedding (_q.v._). Singular, though of course futile, attempts, supported sometimes with much ingenuity, have been made to claim for B. the authorship of Shakespeare's plays, and have indeed been extended so as to include those of Marlowe, and even the _Essays_ of Montaigne.

SUMMARY.--_B._ London 1561, _ed._ Trinity Coll., Cambridge, dissatisfied with Aristotelean philosophy, entered Gray's Inn 1576, in France 1576-79, called to Bar 1582, enters Parliament 1584, became friend of Essex 1591, who presents him with estate 1593, _pub._ 1st ed. of _Essays_ 1597, prosecutes Essex 1601, _pub._ _Advancement of Learning_ 1605, Solicitor-Gen. 1607, _pub._ _Wisdom of the Ancients_ 1609, Attorney-Gen. 1613, prosecuted Somerset 1616, Lord Keeper 1618, Lord Chancellor with title of Verulam 1619, Visc. St. Albans 1621, _pub._ _Novum Organum_ 1620, charged with corruption, and retires from public life 1621, _pub._ _Henry VII._ and 3rd part of _Instauratio_ 1622, _d._ 1626.

The standard edition of B.'s works is that of Spedding, Ellis, and Heath (14 vols. 1857-74), including _Life and Letters_ by Spedding. See also Macaulay's _Essays_; Dean Church in _Men of Letters Series_; Dr. Abbott's _Life_ (1885), etc. For philosophy Fowler's _Novum Organum_ (1878).

BACON, ROGER (1214?-1294).--Philosopher, studied at Oxford and Paris. His scientific acquirements, regarded in that age as savouring of witchcraft, and doubtless also his protests against the ignorance and immorality of the clergy, excited the jealousy and hatred of the Franciscans, and he was in consequence imprisoned at Paris for ten years. Clement IV., who had been a sympathiser, desired on his accession to see his works, and in response B. sent him _Opus Majus_, a treatise on the sciences (grammar, logic, mathematics, physics, and philosophy), followed by _Opus Secundum_ and _Opus Tertium_. Clement, however, was near death when they arrived. B. was comparatively free from persecution for the next ten years. But in 1278 he was again imprisoned for upwards of ten years. At the intercession of some English noblemen he was at last released, and spent his remaining years at Oxford. He possessed one of the most commanding intellects of his own, or perhaps of any, age, and, notwithstanding all the disadvantages and discouragements to which he was subjected, made many discoveries, and came near to many more. There is still preserved at Oxford a rectified calendar in which he approximates closely to the truth. He received the sobriquet of the "Doctor Mirabilis."

BAGE, ROBERT (1728-1801).--Novelist, _b._ in Derbyshire, was the _s._ of a paper-maker. It was not until he was 53 that he took to literature; but in the 15 years following he produced 6 novels, of which Sir Walter Scott says that "strong mind, playful fancy, and extensive knowledge are everywhere apparent." B., though brought up as a Quaker, imbibed the principles of the French Revolution. He was an amiable and benevolent man, and highly esteemed. _Hermsprong; or, Man as He is Not_ (1796) is considered the best of his novels, of which it was the last. The names of the others are _Mount Kenneth_ (1781), _Barham Downs_ (1784), _The Fair Syrian_ (1787), _James Wallace_ (1788), and _Man as He is_ (1792).

BAGEHOT, WALTER (1826-1877).--Economist, _s._ of a banker, _b._ at Langport, Somerset, _ed._ at University Coll., London, and called to the Bar, but did not practise, and joined his _f._ in business. He wrote for various periodicals, and from 1860 was editor of _The Economist_. He was the author of _The English Constitution_ (1867), a standard work which was translated into several languages; _Physics and Politics_ (1872), and _Lombard Street_ (1873), a valuable financial work. A collection of essays, biographical and economic, was _pub._ after his death.

BAILEY, PHILIP JAMES (1816-1902).--Poet, _s._ of a journalist, _b._ at Nottingham, and _ed._ there and at Glasgow, of which he was made an LL.D. in 1891. His life was a singularly uneventful one. He lived at Nottingham, Jersey, Ilfracombe, London, and again at Nottingham, where he _d._ He travelled a good deal on the Continent. He was by profession a barrister, but never practised, and devoted his whole energies to poetry. His first poem, _Festus_ (1839), is, for the daring of its theme and the imaginative power and moral altitude which it displays, one of the most notable of the century; as the work of one little past boyhood it is a prodigy of intellectual precocity. Along with its great qualities it has many faults in execution, and its final place in literature remains to be determined. It was _pub._ anonymously, and had great success, but has fallen into unmerited, but perhaps temporary, neglect. Among its greatest admirers was Tennyson. The subsequent poems of B., _The Angel World_ (1850), _The Mystic_ (1855), _The Age_ (1858), and _The Universal Hymn_ (1867), were failures, and the author adopted the unfortunate expedient of endeavouring to buoy them up by incorporating large extracts in the later editions of _Festus_, with the effect only of sinking the latter, which ultimately extended to over 40,000 lines. B. was a man of strikingly handsome appearance, and gentle and amiable character.

BAILLIE, JOANNA (1762-1851).--Dramatist and poetess, _dau._ of the minister of Bothwell, afterwards Professor of Divinity at Glasgow. Her mother was a sister of the great anatomists, William and John Hunter, and her brother was the celebrated physician, Matthew B., of London. She received a thorough education at Glasgow, and at an early age went to London, where the remainder of her long, happy, and honoured, though uneventful, life was passed. In 1798, when she was 36, the first vol. of her _Plays on the Passions_ appeared, and was received with much favour, other two vols. followed in 1802 and 1812, and she also produced _Miscellaneous Plays_ in 1804, and 3 vols. of _Dramatic Poetry_ in 1836. In all her works there are many passages of true and impressive poetry, but the idea underlying her _Plays on the Passions_, that, namely, of exhibiting the principal character as acting under the exclusive influence of one passion, is artificial and untrue to nature.

BAILLIE, LADY GRIZEL (1665-1746).--Poetess, _dau._ of Sir Patrick Home or Hume, afterwards Earl of Marchmont, was married to George Baillie of Jerviswoode. In her childhood she showed remarkable courage and address in the services she rendered to her father and his friend, Robert Baillie of Jerviswoode, the eminent Scottish patriot, when under persecution. She left many pieces both prose and verse in MS., some of which were _pub._ The best known is the beautiful song, _Were na my heart licht I wad die_.

BAILLIE, ROBERT (1599-1662).--Historical writer, _s._ of B. of Jerviston, _ed._ at Glasgow, he entered the Church of Scotland and became minister of Kilwinning in Ayrshire. His abilities soon made him a leading man. He was a member of the historic Assembly of 1638, when Presbyterianism was re-established in Scotland, and also of the Westminster Assembly, 1643. In 1651 he was made Professor of Divinity in Glasgow, and 10 years later Principal. His _Letters and Journals_, edited for the Bannatyne Club by D. Laing (_q.v._), are of the greatest value for the interesting light they throw on a period of great importance in Scottish history. He was one of the wisest and most temperate churchmen of his time.

BAIN, ALEXANDER (1818-1903).--Philosopher, _b._ at Aberdeen, and graduated at Marischal Coll. there, became in 1860 Professor of Logic in his university, and wrote a number of works on philosophy and psychology, including _The Senses and the Intellect_ (1855), _The Emotions and the Will_, _Mental and Moral Science_ (1868), _Logic_ (1870), and _Education as a Science_ (1879). In 1881 he was elected Lord Rector of Aberdeen University.

BAKER, SIR RICHARD (1568-1645).--Historian and religious writer, studied law, was knighted in 1603, and was High Sheriff of Oxfordshire 1620. B. was the author of _The Chronicle of the Kings of England_ (1643), which was for long held as a great authority among the country gentlemen. It has, however, many errors. B. fell on evil days, was thrown into the Fleet for debt incurred by others, for which he had made himself responsible, and _d._ there. It was during his durance that the _Chronicle_ and some religious treatises were composed. The _Chronicle_ was continued by Edward Phillips, Milton's nephew, who became a strong Royalist.

BAKER, SIR SAMUEL WHITE (1821-1893).--Traveller, _b._ in London, and after being a planter in Ceylon, and superintending the construction of a railway between the Danube and the Black Sea, went with his wife, a Hungarian lady, in search of the sources of the Nile, and discovered the great lake, Albert Nyanza. B. was knighted in 1866, and was for 4 years Governor-General of the Equatorial Nile Basin. His books, which are all on travel and sport, are well written and include _Albert Nyanza_ (1866), _Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia_ (1867).

BALE, JOHN (1495-1563).--Historian and controversialist, _b._ at Cove, Suffolk, and _ed._ as a Carmelite friar, but becoming a Protestant, engaged in violent controversy with the Roman Catholics. After undergoing persecution and flying to Flanders, he was brought back by Edward VI. and made Bishop of Ossory. On the death of Edward he was again persecuted, and had to escape from Ireland to Holland, but returned on the accession of Elizabeth, who made him a Prebendary of Canterbury. His chief work is a Latin _Account of the Lives of Eminent Writers of Great Britain_. Besides this he wrote some dramas on scriptural subjects, and an account of the trial and death of Sir John Oldcastle. He wrote in all 22 plays, of which only 5 have come down, the names of certain of which give some idea of their nature, _e.g._, _The Three Leaves of Nature_, _Moses and Christ_, and _The Temptacyon of Our Lord_.

BALLANTINE, JAMES (1808-1877).--Artist and author, _b._ in Edinburgh, began life as a house painter. He studied art, and became one of the first to revive the art of glass-painting, on which subject he wrote a treatise. He was the author of _The Gaberlunzie's Wallet_ (1843), _Miller of Deanhaugh_ (1845), _Poems_ (1856), _100 Songs with Music_ (1865), and a _Life of David Roberts, R.A._ (1866).

BALLANTYNE, ROBERT MICHAEL (1825-1894).--Writer of tales for boys, _b._ in Edinburgh, was a connection of the well-known printers. As a youth he spent some years in the service of the Hudson's Bay Co., and was then a member of Constable's printing firm. In 1856 he took to literature as a profession, and _pub._ about 80 tales, which, abounding in interesting adventure and information, and characterised by a thoroughly healthy tone, had great popularity. Among them are _The Young Fur Traders_ (1856), _The Coral Island_, _Fighting the Flames_, _Martin Rattler_, _The World of Ice_, _The Dog Crusoe_, _Erling the Bold_, and _Black Ivory_. B. was also an accomplished water-colour artist, and in all respects lived up to the ideals he sought to instil into his readers. He _d._ at Rome.

BANCROFT, GEORGE (1800-1891).--American historian, _b._ at Worcester, Massachusetts, and after _grad._ at Harvard, studied in Germany, where he became acquainted and corresponded with Goethe, Hegel, and other leaders of German thought. Returning to America he began his _History of the United States_ (1834-74). The work covers the period from the discovery of the Continent to the conclusion of the Revolutionary War in 1782. His other great work is _The History of the Formation of the Constitution of the United States_ (1882). B. filled various political offices, and was in 1846 Minister Plenipotentiary to England, and in 1867 Minister to Prussia. His writing is clear and vigorous, and his facts generally accurate, but he is a good deal of a partisan.

BANIM, JOHN (1798-1842).--Novelist, began life as a miniature painter, but was led by the success of his first book, _Tales of the O'Hara Family_, to devote himself to literature. The object which he set before himself was to become to Ireland what Scott has been to Scotland, and the influence of his model is distinctly traceable in his writings. His strength lies in the delineation of the characters of the Irish lower classes, and the impulses, often misguided and criminal, by which they are influenced, and in this he has shown remarkable power. The first series of the _O'Hara Tales_ appeared in 1825, the second in 1826. Other works are _The Croppy_ (1828), _The Denounced_ (1830), _The Smuggler_ (1831), _The Mayor of Windgap_, and his last, _Father Connell_. Most of these deal with the darker and more painful phases of life, but the feeling shown in the last-named is brighter and tenderer. B. latterly suffered from illness and consequent poverty, which were alleviated by a pension from Government. He also wrote some poems, including _The Celt's Paradise_, and one or two plays. In the _O'Hara Tales_, he was assisted by his brother, MICHAEL BANIM (1796-1874), and there is difficulty in allocating their respective contributions. After the death of John, Michael wrote _Clough Fionn_ (1852), and _The Town of the Cascades_ (1864).

BANNATYNE, RICHARD (_d._ 1605).--Secretary to John Knox, compiled _Memorials of Transactions in Scotland from 1569 to 1573_.

BARBAULD, ANNA LETITIA (1743-1825).--Poetess, etc., _dau._ of Dr. John Aikin (_q.v._), was _b._ at Kibworth-Hencourt, Leicestershire. Her _f._ kept an academy for boys, whose education she shared, and thus became acquainted with the classics. In 1773 she _pub._ a collection of miscellaneous poems, which was well received, and in the following year she married the Rev. R. Barbauld, a French Protestant and dissenting minister, who also conducted a school near Palgrave in Suffolk. Into this enterprise Mrs. B. threw herself with great energy, and, mainly owing to her talents and reputation, it proved a success and was afterwards carried on at Hampstead and Newington Green. Meantime, she continued her literary occupations, and brought out various devotional works, including her _Hymns in Prose for Children_. These were followed by _Evenings at Home_, _Selections from the English Essayists_, _The Letters of Samuel Richardson_, with a life prefixed, and a selection from the British novelists with introductory essay.

BARBOUR, JOHN (1316?-1395).--Poet. Of B.'s youth nothing is certainly known, but it is believed that he was _b._ near Aberdeen, and studied at Oxford and Paris. He entered the Church, and rose to ecclesiastical preferment and Royal favour. He is known to have been Archdeacon of Aberdeen in 1357, when, and again in 1364, he went with some young scholars to Oxford, and he also held various civil offices in connection with the exchequer and the King's household. His principal poem, _The Bruce_, was in progress in 1376. It consists of 14,000 octosyllabic lines, and celebrates the praises of Robert the Bruce and James Douglas, the flowers of Scottish chivalry. This poem is almost the sole authority on the history it deals with, but is much more than a rhyming chronicle; it contains many fine descriptive passages, and sings the praises of freedom. Its style is somewhat bald and severe. Other poems ascribed to B. are _The Legend of Troy_, and _Legends of the Saints_, probably translations. B. devoted a perpetual annuity of 20 shillings, bestowed upon him by the King, to provide for a mass to be sung for himself and his parents, and this was duly done in the church of St. Machar until the Reformation.

_The Bruce_, edited by C. Innes for Spalding Club (1856), and for Early Engl. Text Soc. by W.W. Skeat, 1870-77; and for Scott. Text Soc. (1894); _The Wallace_ and _The Bruce_ re-studied, J.T.T. Brown, 1900; G. Neilson in Chambers' Cyc. Eng. Lit. (1903).

BARCLAY, ALEXANDER (1475?-1552).--Poet, probably of Scottish birth, was a priest in England. He is remembered for his satirical poem, _The Ship of Fools_ (1509), partly a translation, which is of interest as throwing light on the manners and customs of the times to which it refers. He also translated Sallust's _Bellum Jugurthinum_, and the _Mirrour of Good Manners_, from the Italian of Mancini, and wrote five _Eclogues_. His style is stiff and his verse uninspired.

BARCLAY, JOHN (1582-1621).--Satirist, _s._ of a Scotsman, who was Professor of Law at Pont-à-Mousson, Lorraine, came with his _f._ to England about 1603. He wrote several works in English and Latin, among which are _Euphormionis Satyricon_, against the Jesuits, and _Argenis_, a political romance, resembling in certain respects the _Arcadia_ of Sidney, and the _Utopia_ of More.

BARCLAY, ROBERT (1648-1690).--Apologist of the Quakers, _s._ of Col. David B. of Ury, _ed._ at the Scots Coll. in Paris, of which his uncle was Rector, made such progress in study as to gain the admiration of his teachers, specially of his uncle, who offered to make him his heir if he would remain in France, and join the Roman Catholic Church. This he refused to do, and, returning to Scotland, he in 1667 adopted the principles of the Quakers as his _f._ had already done. Soon afterwards he began to write in defence of his sect, by _pub._ in 1670 _Truth cleared of Calumnies_, and _a Catechism and Confession of Faith_ (1673). His great work, however, is his _Apology for the Quakers_, _pub._ in Latin in 1676, and translated into English in 1678. It is a weighty and learned work, written in a dignified style, and was eagerly read. It, however, failed to arrest the persecution to which the Quakers were exposed, and B. himself, on returning from the Continent, where he had gone with Foxe and Penn, was imprisoned, but soon regained his liberty, and was in the enjoyment of Court favour. He was one of the twelve Quakers who acquired East New Jersey, of which he was appointed nominal Governor. His latter years were spent at his estate of Ury, where he _d._ The essential view which B. maintained was, that Christians are illuminated by an inner light superseding even the Scriptures as the guide of life. His works have often been reprinted.

BARHAM, RICHARD HARRIS (1788-1845).--Novelist and humorous poet, _s._ of a country gentleman, was _b._ at Canterbury, _ed._ at St. Paul's School and Oxford, entered the church, held various incumbencies, and was Divinity Lecturer, and minor canon of St. Paul's. It is not, however, as a churchman that he is remembered, but as the author of the _Ingoldsby Legends_, a series of comic and serio-comic pieces in verse, sparkling with wit, and full of striking and often grotesque turns of expression, which appeared first in _Bentley's Miscellany_. He also wrote, in _Blackwood's Magazine_, a novel, _My Cousin Nicholas_.

BARLOW, JOEL (1754-1812).--Poet, _b._ at Reading, Connecticut, served for a time as an army chaplain, and thereafter betook himself to law, and finally to commerce and diplomacy, in the former of which he made a fortune. He was much less successful as a poet than as a man of affairs. His writings include _Vision of Columbus_ (1787), afterwards expanded into the _Columbiad_ (1807), _The Conspiracy of Kings_ (1792), and _The Hasty Pudding_ (1796), a mock-heroic poem, his best work. These are generally pompous and dull. In 1811 he was _app._ ambassador to France, and met his death in Poland while journeying to meet Napoleon.

BARNARD, LADY ANNE (LINDSAY) (1750-1825).--Poet, _e. dau._ of the 5th Earl of Balcarres, married Andrew Barnard, afterwards Colonial Secretary at Cape Town. On the _d._ of her husband in 1807 she settled in London. Her exquisite ballad of _Auld Robin Gray_ was written in 1771, and _pub._ anonymously. She confessed the authorship to Sir Walter Scott in 1823.

BARNES, BARNABE (1569?-1609).--Poet, _s._ of Dr. Richard B. Bishop, of Durham, was _b._ in Yorkshire, and studied at Oxford. He wrote _Parthenophil_, a collection of sonnets, madrigals, elegies, and odes, _A Divine Centurie of Spirituall Sonnets_, and _The Devil's Charter_, a tragedy. When at his best he showed a true poetic vein.

BARNES, WILLIAM (1801-1886).--Poet and philologist, _s._ of a farmer, _b._ at Rushay, Dorset. After being a solicitor's clerk and a schoolmaster, he entered the Church, in which he served various cures. He first contributed to a newspaper, _Poems in Dorset Dialect_, separately _pub._ in 1844. _Hwomely Rhymes_ followed in 1858, and a collected edition of his poems appeared in 1879. His philological works include _Philological Grammar_ (1854), _Se Gefylsta, an Anglo-Saxon Delectus_ (1849). _Tiw, or a View of Roots_ (1862), and a _Glossary of Dorset Dialect_ (1863). B.'s poems are characterised by a singular sweetness and tenderness of feeling, deep insight into humble country life and character, and an exquisite feeling for local scenery.

BARNFIELD, RICHARD (1574-1627).--Poet, _e.s._ of Richard B., gentleman, was _b._ at Norbury, Shropshire, and _ed._ at Oxford. In 1594 he _pub._ _The Affectionate Shepherd_, a collection of variations in graceful verse of the 2nd Eclogue of Virgil. His next work was _Cynthia, with certain Sonnets and the Legend of Cassandra_ in 1595; and in 1598 there appeared a third vol., _The Encomion of Lady Pecunia, etc._, in which are two songs ("If music and sweet poetrie agree," and "As it fell upon a day") also included in _The Passionate Pilgrim_, an unauthorised collection, and which were long attributed to Shakespeare. From this time, 1599, B. produced nothing else, and seems to have retired to the life of a country gentleman at Stone in Staffordshire, in the church of which he was buried in 1627. He was for long neglected; but his poetry is clear, sweet, and musical. His gift indeed is sufficiently attested by work of his having passed for that of Shakespeare.

BARROW, ISAAC (1630-1677).--Divine, scholar, and mathematician, _s._ of a linen-draper in London, was _ed._ at Charterhouse, Felsted, Peterhouse, and Trinity Coll., Cambridge, where his uncle and namesake, afterwards Bishop of St. Asaph, was a Fellow. As a boy he was turbulent and pugnacious, but soon took to hard study, distinguishing himself in classics and mathematics. Intending originally to enter the Church, he was led to think of the medical profession, and engaged in scientific studies, but soon reverted to his first views. In 1655 he became candidate for the Greek Professorship at Cambridge, but was unsuccessful, and travelled for four years on the Continent as far as Turkey. On his return he took orders, and, in 1660, obtained the Greek Chair at Cambridge, and in 1662 the Gresham Professorship of Geometry, which he resigned on being appointed first Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the same university. During his tenure of this chair he _pub._ two mathematical works of great learning and elegance, the first on Geometry and the second on Optics. In 1669 he resigned in favour of his pupil, Isaac Newton, who was long considered his only superior among English mathematicians. About this time also he composed his _Expositions of the Creed_, _The Lord's Prayer_, _Decalogue_, and _Sacraments_. He was made a D.D. by royal mandate in 1670, and two years later Master of Trinity Coll., where he founded the library. Besides the works above mentioned, he wrote other important treatises on mathematics, but in literature his place is chiefly supported by his sermons, which are masterpieces of argumentative eloquence, while his treatise on the _Pope's Supremacy_ is regarded as one of the most perfect specimens of controversy in existence. B.'s character as a man was in all respects worthy of his great talents, though he had a strong vein of eccentricity. He _d._ unmarried in London at the early age of 47. B.'s theological works were edited by Napier, with memoir by Whewell (9 vols., 1839).

BARTON, BERNARD (1784-1849).--Poet, _b._ of Quaker parentage, passed nearly all his life at Woodbridge, for the most part as a clerk in a bank. He became the friend of Southey, Lamb, and other men of letters. His chief works are _The Convict's Appeal_ (1818), a protest against the severity of the criminal code of the time, and _Household Verses_ (1845), which came under the notice of Sir R. Peel, through whom he obtained a pension of £100. With the exception of some hymns his works are now nearly forgotten, but he was a most amiable and estimable man--simple and sympathetic. His _dau._ Lucy, who married Edward Fitzgerald, the translator of _Omar Khayyam_, _pub._ a selection of his poems and letters, to which her husband prefixed a biographical introduction.

BAYNES, THOMAS SPENCER (1823-1887).--Philosopher, _s._ of a Baptist minister, _b._ at Wellington, Somerset, intended to study for Baptist ministry, and was at a theological seminary at Bath with that view, but being strongly attracted to philosophical studies, left it and went to Edin., when he became the favourite pupil of Sir W. Hamilton (_q.v._), of whose philosophical system he continued an adherent. After working as ed. of a newspaper in Edinburgh, and after an interval of rest rendered necessary by a breakdown in health, he resumed journalistic work in 1858 as assistant ed. of the _Daily News_. In 1864 he was appointed Prof. of Logic and English Literature at St. Andrews, in which capacity his mind was drawn to the study of Shakespeare, and he contributed to the _Edinburgh Review_ and _Fraser's Magazine_ valuable papers (chiefly relating to his vocabulary and the extent of his learning) afterwards collected as _Shakespeare Studies_. In 1873 he was appointed to superintend the ninth ed. of the _Encyclopædia Britannica_, in which, after 1880, he was assisted by W. Robertson Smith (_q.v._).

BAXTER, RICHARD (1615-1691).--Divine scholar and controversialist, was _b._ of poor, but genteel, parents at Rowton in Shropshire, and although he became so eminent for learning, was not _ed._ at any university. Circumstances led to his turning his attention to a career at court under the patronage of the Master of the Revels, but a short experience of this sufficed; and giving himself to the Christian ministry, he was ordained in 1638, and, after being master of a school at Dudley, exercised his ministry successively at Bridgnorth and Kidderminster. His learning and capacity for business made him the leader of the Presbyterian party. He was one of the greatest preachers of his own day, and consistently endeavoured to exert a moderating influence, with the result that he became the object of attack by extremists of opposing views. Though siding with the Parliament in the Civil War, he opposed the execution of the King and the assumption of supreme power by Cromwell. During the war he served with the army as a chaplain. On the return of Charles II., B. was made one of his chaplains, and was offered the see of Hereford, which he declined, and his subsequent request to be allowed to return to Kidderminster was refused. He subsequently suffered persecution at the hands of Judge Jeffreys. After the Revolution he had a few years of peace and quiet. His literary activity was marvellous in spite of ill-health and outward disturbance. He is said to have written 168 works, the best known of which are _The Saints' Everlasting Rest_ (1650), and _Call to the Unconverted_ (1657), manuals of practical religion; and, among his controversial writings, _Methodus Theologiæ_ (1681), and _Catholic Theology_ (1675), in which his theological standpoint--a compromise between Arminianism and Calvinism--is set forth. Dr. Isaac Barrow says that "his practical writings were never mended, and his controversial seldom confuted," and Dean Stanley calls him "the chief English Protestant schoolman." B. left an autobiography, _Reliquiæ Baxterianæ_, which was a favourite book with both Johnson and Coleridge. Other works by him are _The Life of Faith_ (1670), _Reasons of the Christian Religion_ (1672), and _Christian Directory_ (1675). _Practical Works_ in 23 vols. (1830) edited with memoirs by W. Orme, also _Lives_ by A.B. Grosart (1879), Dean Boyle (1883), and J.H. Davies (1886).

BAYLY, ADA ELLEN (_d._ 1903).--Novelist, wrote several stories under the name of "Edna Lyall," which were very popular. They include _Autobiography of a Slander_, _Donovan_, _Hope the Hermit_, _In the Golden Days_, _To Right the Wrong_, _We Two_, and _Won by Waiting_.

BAYLY, THOMAS HAYNES (1797-1839).--Miscellaneous writer, _s._ of a wealthy lawyer in Bath. Originally intended for the law, he changed his mind and thought of entering the Church, but abandoned this idea also, and gave himself to writing for the stage and the periodical press. He is chiefly known for his songs, of which he wrote hundreds, which, set to the music of Bishop and other eminent composers, found universal acceptance. Some were set to his own music. He also wrote several novels and a number of farces, etc. Although making a large income from his writings, in addition to that of his wife, he fell into embarrassed circumstances. Among the best known of his songs are _I'd be a Butterfly_, _Oh, no, we never mention Her_, and _She wore a Wreath of Roses_. He may be regarded as, excepting Moore, the most popular song writer of his time.

BEACONSFIELD, BENJAMIN DISRAELI, 1ST EARL of (1804-1881).--Statesman and novelist, was the _s._ of Isaac D. (_q.v._). Belonging to a Jewish family settled first in Spain, whence in the 15th century they migrated to Italy, he was _b._ in London in 1804 and privately _ed._ His _f._ destined him for the law, and he was articled to a solicitor. The law was, however, uncongenial, and he had already begun to write. After some journalistic work, he brought himself into general notice by the publication, in 1827, of his first novel, _Vivian Grey_, which created a sensation by its brilliance, audacity, and slightly veiled portraits of living celebrities. After producing a _Vindication of the British Constitution_, and some political pamphlets, he followed up his first success by a series of novels, _The Young Duke_ (1831), _Contarini Fleming_ (1832), _Alroy_ (1833), _Venetia and Henrietta Temple_ (1837). During the same period he had also written _The Revolutionary Epic_ and three burlesques, _Ixion_, _The Infernal Marriage_, and _Popanilla_. These works had gained for him a brilliant, if not universally admitted, place in literature. But his ambition was by no means confined to literary achievement; he aimed also at fame as a man of action. After various unsuccessful attempts to enter Parliament, in which he stood, first as a Radical, and then as a Tory, he was in 1837 returned for Maidstone, having for his colleague Mr. Wyndham Lewis, whose widow he afterwards married. For some years after entering on his political career, D. ceased to write, and devoted his energies to parliamentary work. His first speech was a total failure, being received with shouts of laughter, but with characteristic courage and perseverance he pursued his course, gradually rose to a commanding position in parliament and in the country, became leader of his party, was thrice Chancellor of the Exchequer, 1852, 1858-59, and 1866-68, in which last year he became Prime Minister, which office he again held from 1874 till 1880. To return to his literary career, in 1844 he had _pub._ _Coningsby_, followed by _Sybil_ (1845), and _Tancred_ (1847), and in 1848 he wrote a life of Lord G. Bentinck, his predecessor in the leadership of the Protectionist party. His last novels were _Lothair_ (1870), and _Endymion_ (1880). He was raised to the peerage as Earl of Beaconsfield in 1876, and was a Knight of the Garter. In his later years he was the intimate friend as well as the trusted minister of Queen Victoria. The career of D. is one of the most remarkable in English history. With no family or political influence, and with some personal characteristics, and the then current prejudices in regard to his race to contend with, he rose by sheer force of will and intellect to the highest honours attainable in this country. His most marked qualities were an almost infinite patience and perseverance, indomitable courage, a certain spaciousness of mind, and depth of penetration, and an absolute confidence in his own abilities, aided by great powers of debate rising occasionally to eloquence. Though the object, first of a kind of contemptuous dislike, then of an intense opposition, he rose to be universally regarded as, at all events, a great political force, and by a large part of the nation as a great statesman. As a writer he is generally interesting, and his books teem with striking thoughts, shrewd maxims, and brilliant phrases which stick in the memory. On the other hand he is often artificial, extravagant, and turgid, and his ultimate literary position is difficult to forecast.

_Lives_ by Froude (1890), Hitchman (1885), see also _Dictionary of Nat. Biog. etc._

BEATTIE, JAMES (1735-1803).--Poet and philosophical writer, _s._ of a shopkeeper and small farmer at Laurencekirk, Kincardineshire, and _ed._ at Aberdeen; he was, in 1760, appointed Professor of Moral Philosophy there. In the following year he _pub._ a vol. of poems, which attracted attention. The two works, however, which brought him most fame were: (1) his _Essay on Truth_ (1770), intended as an answer to Hume, which had great immediate success, and led to an introduction to the King, a pension of £200, and the degree of LL.D. from Oxford; and (2) his poem of _The Minstrel_, of which the first book was _pub._ in 1771 and the second in 1774, and which constitutes his true title to remembrance. It contains much beautiful descriptive writing. The _Essay on Truth_ and his other philosophical works are now forgotten. B. underwent much domestic sorrow in the death of his wife and two promising sons, which broke down his own health and spirits.

BEAUMONT, FRANCIS (1584-1616), AND FLETCHER, JOHN (1579-1625).--Poets and dramatists. As they are indissolubly associated in the history of English literature, it is convenient to treat of them in one place. B. was the _s._ of Francis B., a Judge of the Common Pleas, and was _b._ at the family seat, Grace Dieu, Leicestershire. He was _ed._ at Oxford, but his _f._ dying in 1598, he left without taking his degree. He went to London and entered the Inner Temple in 1600, and soon became acquainted with Ben Jonson, Drayton, and other poets and dramatists. His first work was a translation from Ovid, followed by commendatory verses prefixed to certain plays of Jonson. Soon afterwards his friendship with F. began. They lived in the same house and had practically a community of goods until B.'s marriage in 1613 to Ursula, _dau._ and co-heiress of Henry Isley of Sundridge in Kent, by whom he had two _dau._ He _d._ in 1616, and is buried in Westminster Abbey. F. was the youngest _s._ of Richard F., Bishop of London, who accompanied Mary Queen of Scots to the scaffold. He went to Cambridge, but it is not known whether he took a degree, though he had some reputation as a scholar. His earliest play is _The Woman Hater_ (1607). He is said to have died of the plague, and is buried in St. Saviour's Church, Southwark. The plays attributed to B. and F. number 52 and a masque, and much labour has been bestowed by critics in endeavouring to allocate their individual shares. It is now generally agreed that others collaborated with them to some extent--Massinger, Rowley, Shirley, and even Shakespeare. Of those believed to be the joint work of B. and F. _Philaster_ and _The Maid's Tragedy_ are considered the masterpieces, and are as dramas unmatched except by Shakespeare. _The Two Noble Kinsmen_ is thought to contain the work of Shakespeare. As regards their respective powers, B. is held to have had the graver, solider, and more stately genius, while F. excelled in brightness, wit, and gaiety. The former was the stronger in judgment, the latter in fancy. The plays contain many very beautiful lyrics, but are often stained by gross indelicacy. The play of _Henry VIII._ included in Shakespeare's works, is now held to be largely the work of F. and Massinger. Subjoined is a list of the plays with the authorship according to the latest authorities.

(1) BEAUMONT.--_The Masque_. (2) FLETCHER.--_Woman Hater_ (1607), _Faithful Shepherdess_ (1609), _Bonduca_ (_Boàdicea_) (1618-19), _Wit without Money_ (1614?), _Valentinian_ (1618-19), _Loyal Subjects_ (1618), _Mad Lover_ (1618-19), _Humorous Lieutenant_ (1618?), _Women Pleased_ (1620?), _Island Princess_ (1621), _Pilgrim_ (1621), _Wild Goose Chase_ (1621), _Woman's Prize_ (? _pub._ 1647), _A Wife for a Month_ (1624), _Chances_ (late, _p._ 1647), perhaps _Monsieur Thomas_ (_p._ 1639), and _Sea Voyage_ (1622). (3) BEAUMONT and FLETCHER.--_Four Plays in One_ (1608), _King and No King_ (1611), _Cupid's Revenge_ (1611?), _Knight of Burning Pestle_ (1611), _Maid's Tragedy_ (1611), _Philaster_ (1611), _Coxcomb_ (1612-13), _Wits at Several Weapons_ (1614), _Scornful Lady_ (1616), doubtfully, _Thierry and Theodoret_ (1616), and _Little French Lawyer_ (1620) perhaps by F. and Massinger, and _Laws of Candy_ (?) perhaps by B. and Massinger. (4) FLETCHER and OTHERS.--_Honest Man's Fortune_ (1613), F., Mass., and Field; _The Captain_ (1613), and _Nice Valour_ (_p._ 1647), F. and Middleton (?); _Bloody Brothers_ (1616-17), F., Mid., and Rowley or Fielding and B. Jonson (?); _Queen of Corinth_ (1618-19), F. and Row. or Mass. and Mid.; _Barneveld_ (1619), by F. and Massinger; _Knight of Malta_ (1619), _False One_ (1620), _A Very Woman_ (1621?), _Double Marriage_ (1620), _Elder Brother_ (_p._ 1637), _Lover's Progress_ (_p._ 1647), _Custom of the Country_ (1628), _Prophetess_ (1622), _Spanish Curate_ (1622), by F. and Shakespeare; _Henry VIII._ (1617), and _Two Noble Kinsmen_ (_p._ 1634), by F. and Rowley, or Massinger; _Maid of the Mill_ (1625-6), _Beggar's Bush_ (?) (1622), by F. and Shirley; _Noble Gentleman_ (?) _Night Walker_ (1633?), _Lovers Pilgrimage_ (1623?), _Fair Maid of the Inn_ (1625-26), also with Middleton?

The latest ed. is that of Mr. Bullen (11 vols., 1904), and A.R. Waller (7 vols., _pub._ C.U.P., 1909); Dyce (11 vols., 1843-46); _Francis Beaumont_, G.C. Macaulay (1883); _Lyric Poems_ of B. and F., E. Rhys (1897); _Bibliography_, A.C. Potter in _Harvard Bibliograph. Contributions_, 1891.

BEAUMONT, SIR JOHN (1582-1627?).--Poet, elder brother of Francis B., the dramatist (_q.v._). His poems, of which the best known is _Bosworth Field_, _pub._ by his _s._, 1629. Another, _The Crown of Thorns_, is lost.

BECKFORD, WILLIAM (_c._ 1760-1844).--Miscellaneous writer, only _s._ of William B., Lord Mayor of London, the associate and supporter of John Wilkes, inherited at the age of 9 an enormous fortune. In these circumstances he grew up wayward and extravagant, showing, however, a strong bent towards literature. His education was entrusted to a private tutor, with whom he travelled extensively on the Continent. At the age of 22 he produced his oriental romance, _Vathek_ (_c._ 1781), written originally in French and, as he was accustomed to boast, at a single sitting of three days and two nights. There is reason, however, to believe that this was a flight of imagination. It is an impressive work, full of fantastic and magnificent conceptions, rising occasionally to sublimity. His other principal writings are _Memoirs of Extraordinary Painters_ (1780), a satirical work, and _Letters from Italy with Sketches of Spain and Portugal_ (1835), full of brilliant descriptions of scenes and manners. B.'s fame, however, rests nearly as much upon his eccentric extravagances as a builder and collector as upon his literary efforts. In carrying out these he managed to dissipate his fortune of £100,000 a year, only £80,000 of his capital remaining at his death. He sat in parliament for various constituencies, and one of his two _dau._ became Duchess of Hamilton.

BEDDOES, THOMAS LOVELL (1803-1849).--Dramatic poet and physiologist, _s._ of Dr. Thos. B., an eminent physician, and nephew of Maria Edgeworth. _Ed._ at the Charterhouse and Oxford, he _pub._ in 1821 _The Improvisatore_, which he afterwards endeavoured to suppress. His next venture was _The Bride's Tragedy_ (1822), which had considerable success, and won for him the friendship of "Barry Cornwall." Thereafter he went to Göttingen and studied medicine. He then wandered about practising his profession, and expounding democratic theories which got him into trouble. He _d._ at Bale in mysterious circumstances. For some time before his death he had been engaged upon a drama, _Death's Jest Book_, which was published in 1850 with a memoir by his friend, T.F. Kelsall. B. had not the true dramatic instinct, but his poetry is full of thought and richness of diction. Some of his short pieces, _e.g._: "If there were dreams to sell," and "If thou wilt ease thine heart," are masterpieces of intense feeling exquisitely expressed.

BEDE or BÆDA (673-735).--Historian and scholar. B., who is sometimes referred to as "the father of English history," was in his youth placed under the care of Benedict Biscop, Abbot of Wearmouth, and of Ceolfrith, afterwards Abbot of Jarrow. Ordained deacon in 692 and priest in 703, he spent most of his days at Jarrow, where his fame as a scholar and teacher of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew brought him many disciples. Here likewise he _d._ and was buried, but his bones were, towards the beginning of the 11th century, removed to Durham. The well-deserved title of "Venerable" usually prefixed to his name first appears in 836. He was the most learned Englishman of his age. His industry was marvellous, and its results remain embodied in about 40 books, of which about 25 are commentaries on books of Scripture. The others are lives of saints and martyrs, and his two great works, _The Ecclesiastical History of England_ and the scientific treatise, _De Natura Rerum_. The former of these gives the fullest and best information we have as to the history of England down to the year 731, and the latter is an encyclopædia of the sciences as then known. In the anxious care with which he sought out and selected reliable information, and referred to authorities he shows the best qualities of the modern historian, and his style is remarkable for "a pleasing artlessness."

_History of Early Engl. Lit._, Stopford Brooke (2 vols., 1892), etc.

BEECHER, HENRY WARD (1813-1887).--Orator and divine, _s._ of Lyman B. and _bro._ of Harriet Beecher Stowe, was one of the most popular of American preachers and platform orators, a prominent advocate of temperance and of the abolition of slavery. His writings, which had a wide popularity, include _Summer in the Soul_ and _Life Thoughts_.

BEHN, APHRA (JOHNSTON) (1640-1689).--Novelist and dramatist, _dau._ of a barber named Johnston, but went with a relative whom she called father to Surinam, of which he had been appointed Governor. He, however, _d._ on the passage thither, and her childhood and youth were passed there. She became acquainted with the celebrated slave Oronoko, afterwards the hero of one of her novels. Returning to England in 1658 she _m._ Behn, a Dutch merchant, but was a widow at the age of 26. She then became attached to the Court, and was employed as a political spy at Antwerp. Leaving that city she cultivated the friendship of various playwrights, and produced many plays and novels, also poems and pamphlets. The former are extremely gross, and are now happily little known. She was the first English professional authoress. Among her plays are _The Forced Marriage_, _Abdelazer_, _The Rover_, _The Debauchee_, etc., and her novels include _Oronoko_ and _The Nun_. The former of these was the first book to bring home to the country a sense of the horrors of slavery, for which let her have credit.

BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1805-1874).--Poet and historian, was a member of the Scottish Bar, and became Sheriff of Lanarkshire. He wrote a _Life of Mary Queen of Scots_ (1830), strongly in her defence, and two vols. of poetry, _Summer and Winter Hours_ (1831), and _My Old Portfolio_, the latter also containing pieces in prose.

BELLENDEN, or BALLANTYNE, JOHN (_fl._ 1533-1587?).--Poet, _b._ towards the close of the 15th century, and _ed._ at St. Andrews and Paris. At the request of James V. he translated the _Historia Gentis Scotorum_ of Boece. This translation, _Chroniklis of Scotland_ is a very free one, with a good deal of matter not in the original, so that it may be almost considered as a new work. It was _pub._ in 1536, and is the earliest existing specimen of Scottish literary prose. He also translated the first five books of Livy. He enjoyed the Royal favour, and was Archdeacon of Moray. He latterly, however, became involved in controversy which led to his going to Rome, where he _d._, according to one account, about 1550. Another authority, however, states that he was living in 1587.

BENTHAM, JEREMY (1748-1832).--Writer on jurisprudence and politics, _b._ in London, _s._ of a prosperous attorney, _ed._ at Westminster and Oxford, was called to the Bar at Lincoln's Inn, but disliking the law, he made little or no effort to practise, but devoted himself to physical science and the theory of jurisprudence. In 1776 he _pub._ anonymously his _Fragment on Government_, an able criticism of Blackstone's _Commentaries_, which brought him under the notice of Lord Shelburne, and in 1780 his _Introduction to Principles of Morals and Legislation_. Other works were _Panopticon_, in which he suggested improvements on prison discipline, _Discourse on Civil and Penal Legislation_ (1802), _Punishments and Rewards_ (1811), _Parliamentary Reform Catechism_ (1817), and _A Treatise on Judicial Evidence_. By the death of his _f._ he inherited a competency on which he was able to live in frugal elegance, not unmixed with eccentricity. B. is the first and perhaps the greatest of the "philosophical radicals," and his fundamental principle is utilitarianism or "the greatest happiness of the greatest number," a phrase of which he is generally, though erroneously, regarded as the author. The effect of his writings on legislation and the administration of the law has been almost incalculable. He left his body to be dissected; and his skeleton, clothed in his usual attire, is preserved in University College, London.