Chapter XII: Part III: Syntax (2)

432. As to these two expressions, over which a little war has so long been buzzing, we think it not necessary to say more than that both are in good use; not only so in popular speech, but in literary English. Instances of both are given below.

The meaning intended is the same, and the reader gets the same idea from both: hence there is properly a perfect liberty in the use of either or both.

[Sidenote: First three, _etc._]

For Carlyle, and Secretary Walsingham also, have been helping
them heart and soul for the _last two_ years.--KINGSLEY.

The delay in the _first three_ lines, and conceit in the last,
jar upon us constantly.--RUSKIN.

The _last dozen_ miles before you reach the suburbs.--DE QUINCEY.

Mankind for the _first seventy thousand_ ages ate their meat
raw.--LAMB.

The _first twenty_ numbers were expressed by a corresponding
number of dots. The _first five_ had specific names.--PRESCOTT.

[Sidenote: Three first, _etc._]

These are the _three first_ needs of civilized life.--RUSKIN.

He has already finished the _three first_ sticks of it.--ADDISON.

In my _two last_ you had so much of Lismahago that I suppose you
are glad he is gone.--SMOLLETT.

I have not numbered the lines except of the _four first_ books.
--COWPER.

The _seven first_ centuries were filled with a succession of
triumphs.--GIBBON.

ARTICLES.

[Sidenote: _Definite article_.]

433. The definite article is repeated before each of two modifiers of the same noun, when the purpose is to call attention to the noun expressed and the one understood. In such a case two or more separate objects are usually indicated by the separation of the modifiers. Examples of this construction are,--

[Sidenote: _With a singular noun_.]

The merit of _the Barb_, _the Spanish_, and _the English_ breed
is derived from a mixture of Arabian blood.--GIBBON.

_The righteous_ man is distinguished from _the unrighteous_ by
his desire and hope of justice.--RUSKIN.

He seemed deficient in sympathy for concrete human things either
on _the sunny_ or _the stormy_ side.--CARLYLE.

It is difficult to imagine a greater contrast than that between
_the first_ and _the second_ part of the volume.--_The Nation_,
No. 1508.

[Sidenote: _With a plural noun_.]

There was also a fundamental difference of opinion as to whether
the earliest cleavage was between _the Northern_ and _the
Southern_ languages.--TAYLOR, _Origin of the Aryans_.

434. The same repetition of the article is sometimes found before nouns alone, to distinguish clearly, or to emphasize the meaning; as,--

In every line of _the Philip_ and _the Saul_, the greatest poems,
I think, of the eighteenth century.--MACAULAY.

He is master of the two-fold Logos, _the thought_ and _the word_,
distinct, but inseparable from each other.--NEWMAN.

_The flowers_, and _the presents_, and _the trunks and bonnet
boxes_ ... having been arranged, the hour of parting
came.--THACKERAY.

[Sidenote: The _not repeated. One object and several modifiers, with a singular noun_.]

435. Frequently, however, the article is not repeated before each of two or more adjectives, as in Sec. 433, but is used with one only; as,--

Or fanciest thou _the red and yellow_ Clothes-screen yonder is
but of To-day, without a Yesterday or a To-morrow?--CARLYLE.

_The lofty_, _melodious_, _and flexible_ language.--SCOTT.

_The fairest and most loving_ wife in Greece.--TENNYSON.

[Sidenote: _Meaning same as in Sec. 433, with a plural noun_.]

Neither can there be a much greater resemblance between _the
ancient and modern_ general views of the
town.--HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS.

At Talavera _the English and French_ troops for a moment
suspended their conflict.--MACAULAY.

The Crusades brought to the rising commonwealths of _the Adriatic
and Tyrrhene_ seas a large increase of wealth.--_Id._

Here the youth of both sexes, of _the higher and middling_
orders, were placed at a very tender age.--PRESCOTT.

[Sidenote: _Indefinite article_.]

436. The indefinite article is used, like the definite article, to limit two or more modified nouns, only one of which is expressed. The article is repeated for the purpose of separating or emphasizing the modified nouns. Examples of this use are,--

We shall live _a better_ and _a higher_ and _a nobler_
life.--BEECHER.

The difference between the products of _a well-disciplined_ and
those of _an uncultivated_ understanding is often and admirably
exhibited by our great dramatist.--S.T. COLERIDGE.

Let us suppose that the pillars succeed each other, _a round_ and
_a square_ one alternately.--BURKE.

As if the difference between _an accurate_ and _an inaccurate_
statement was not worth the trouble of looking into the most
common book of reference.--MACAULAY.

To every room there was _an open_ and _a secret_
passage.--JOHNSON.

Notice that in the above sentences (except the first) the noun expressed is in contrast with the modified noun omitted.

[Sidenote: _One article with several adjectives._]

437. Usually the article is not repeated when the several adjectives unite in describing one and the same noun. In the sentences of Secs. 433 and 436, one noun is expressed; yet the same word understood with the other adjectives has a different meaning (except in the first sentence of Sec. 436). But in the following sentences, as in the first three of Sec. 435, the adjectives assist each other in describing the same noun. It is easy to see the difference between the expressions "_a red-and-white_ geranium," and "_a red and a white_ geranium."

Examples of several adjectives describing the same object:--

To inspire us with _a free and quiet_ mind.--B. JONSON.

Here and there _a desolate and uninhabited_ house.--DICKENS.

James was declared _a mortal and bloody_ enemy.--MACAULAY.

So wert thou born into a tuneful strain,
_An early, rich, and inexhausted_ vein.
--DRYDEN.

[Sidenote: _For rhetorical effect._]

438. The indefinite article (compare Sec. 434) is used to lend special emphasis, interest, or clearness to each of several nouns; as,--

James was declared _a_ mortal and bloody _enemy, a tyrant, a
murderer_, and _a usurper_.--MACAULAY.

Thou hast spoken as _a patriot_ and _a Christian_.--BULWER.

He saw him in his mind's eye, _a collegian, a parliament man--a
Baronet_ perhaps.--THACKERAY.

VERBS.

CONCORD OF VERB AND SUBJECT IN NUMBER.

[Sidenote: _A broad and loose rule._]

439. In English, the number of the verb follows the meaning rather than the form of its subject.

It will not do to state as a general rule that the verb agrees with its subject in person and number. This was spoken of in Part I., Sec. 276, and the following illustrations prove it.

The statements and illustrations of course refer to such verbs as have separate forms for singular and plural number.

[Sidenote: _Singular verb._]

440. The singular form of the verb is used--

[Sidenote: _Subject of singular form._]

(1) When the subject has a singular form and a singular meaning.

Such, then, _was_ the earliest American _land_.--AGASSIZ.

_He was_ certainly a happy fellow at this time.--G. ELIOT.

_He sees_ that it is better to live in peace.--COOPER.

[Sidenote: _Collective noun of singular meaning._]

(2) When the subject is a _collective noun_ which represents a number of persons or things _taken as one unit_; as,--

The larger _breed_ [of camels] _is_ capable of transporting a
weight of a thousand pounds.--GIBBON.

Another _school professes_ entirely opposite principles.--_The
Nation._

In this work there _was_ grouped around him _a score_ of men.--W.
PHILLIPS

A _number_ of jeweled paternosters _was_ attached to her
girdle.--FROUDE.

_Something like a horse load_ of books _has_ been written to
prove that it was the beauty who blew up the booby.--CARLYLE

This usage, like some others in this series, depends mostly on the writer's own judgment. Another writer might, for example, prefer a plural verb after _number_ in Froude's sentence above.

[Sidenote: _Singulars connected by_ or _or_ nor.]

(3) When the subject consists of two or more singular nouns connected by _or_ or _nor_; as,--

It is by no means sure that either our _literature_, or the great
intellectual _life_ of our nation, _has_ got already, without
academies, all that academies can give.--M. ARNOLD.

_Jesus is_ not dead, nor _John_, nor _Paul_, nor _Mahomet_.
--EMERSON.

[Sidenote: _Plural form and singular meaning._]

(4) When the subject is _plural in form_, but represents a number of things to be taken together as _forming one unit_; for example,--

Thirty-four years _affects_ one's remembrance of some
circumstances.--DE QUINCEY.

Between ourselves, three pounds five shillings and two pence _is_
no bad day's work.--GOLDSMITH.

Every twenty paces _gives_ you the prospect of some villa; and
every four hours, that of a large town.--MONTAGUE

Two thirds of this _is_ mine by right.--SHERIDAN

The singular form is also used with book titles, other names, and
other singulars of plural form; as,--

Politics _is_ the only field now open for me.--WHITTIER.

"Sesame and Lilies" _is_ Ruskin's creed for young
girls.--_Critic_, No. 674

The Three Pigeons _expects_ me down every moment.--GOLDSMITH.

[Sidenote: _Several singular subjects to one singular verb._]

(5) With _several singular subjects not_ disjoined by _or_ or _nor_, in the following cases:--

(_a_) Joined by _and_, but considered as meaning about the same thing, or as making up one general idea; as,--

In a word, all his conversation and knowledge _has been_ in the
female world--ADDISON.

The strength and glare of each [color] _is_ considerably
abated.--BURKE

To imagine that debating and logic _is_ the triumph.--CARLYLE

In a world where even to fold and seal a letter adroitly _is_ not
the least of accomplishments.--DE QUINCEY

The genius and merit of a rising poet _was_ celebrated.--GIBBON.

When the cause of ages and the fate of nations _hangs_ upon the
thread of a debate.--J.Q. ADAMS.

(_b_) Not joined by a conjunction, but each one emphatic, or considered as appositional; for example,--

The unbought grace of life, the cheap defense of nations, the
nurse of manly sentiment and heroic enterprise, _is_
gone.--BURKE.

A fever, a mutilation, a cruel disappointment, a loss of wealth,
a loss of friends, _seems_ at the moment unpaid loss.--EMERSON

The author, the wit, the partisan, the fine gentleman, _does_ not
take the place of the man.--_Id._

To receive presents or a bribe, to be guilty of collusion in any
way with a suitor, _was_ punished, in a judge, with
death.--PRESCOTT.

[Sidenote: _Subjects after the verb._]

This use of several subjects with a singular verb is especially frequent when the subjects are after the verb; as,--

There _is_ a right and a wrong in them.--M ARNOLD.

There _is_ a moving tone of voice, an impassioned countenance, an
agitated gesture.--BURKE

There _was_ a steel headpiece, a cuirass, a gorget, and greaves,
with a pair of gauntlets and a sword hanging beneath.--HAWTHORNE.

Then _comes_ the "Why, sir!" and the "What then, sir?" and the
"No, sir!"--MACAULAY.

For wide _is_ heard the thundering fray,
The rout, the ruin, the dismay.
--SCOTT.

(_c_) Joined by _as well as_ (in this case the verb agrees with the first of the two, no matter if the second is plural); thus,--

Asia, as well as Europe, _was_ dazzled.--MACAULAY.

The oldest, as well as the newest, wine
_Begins_ to stir itself.
--LONGFELLOW.

Her back, as well as sides, _was_ like to crack.--BUTLER.

The Epic, as well as the Drama, _is_ divided into tragedy and
Comedy.--FIELDING

(_d_) When each of two or more singular subjects is preceded by _every_, _each_, _no_, _many a_, and such like adjectives.

Every fop, every boor, every valet, _is_ a man of wit.--MACAULAY.

Every sound, every echo, _was_ listened to for five hours.--DE
QUINCEY

Every dome and hollow _has_ the figure of Christ.--RUSKIN.

Each particular hue and tint _stands_ by itself.--NEWMAN.

Every law and usage _was_ a man's expedient.--EMERSON.

Here _is_ no ruin, no discontinuity, no spent ball.--_Id._

Every week, nay, almost every day, _was_ set down in their
calendar for some appropriate celebration.--PRESCOTT.

[Sidenote: _Plural verb._]

441. The plural form of the verb is used--

(1) When the subject is plural _in form and in meaning_; as,--

These _bits_ of wood _were_ covered on every square.--SWIFT.

Far, far away thy children _leave_ the land.--GOLDSMITH.

The Arabian poets _were_ the historians and moralists.--GIBBON.

(2) When the subject is a _collective noun_ in which _the individuals_ of the collection are thought of; as,--

A multitude _go_ mad about it.--EMERSON.

A great number of people _were_ collected at a vendue.--FRANKLIN.

All our household _are_ at rest.--COLERIDGE.

A party of workmen _were_ removing the horses.--LEW WALLACE

The fraternity _were_ inclined to claim for him the honors of
canonization.--SCOTT.

The travelers, of whom there _were_ a number.--B. TAYLOR.

(3) When the subject consists of _several singulars connected by
and_, making up a plural subject, for example,--

Only Vice and Misery _are_ abroad.--CARLYLE

But its authorship, its date, and its history _are_ alike a
mystery to us.--FROUDE.

His clothes, shirt, and skin _were_ all of the same color--SWIFT.

Aristotle and Longinus _are_ better understood by him than
Littleton or Coke.--ADDISON.

[Sidenote: _Conjunction omitted._]

The conjunction may be omitted, as in Sec. 440 (5, _b_), but the verb is plural, as with a subject of plural form.

A shady grove, a green pasture, a stream of fresh water, _are_
sufficient to attract a colony.--GIBBON.

The Dauphin, the Duke of Berri, Philip of Anjou, _were_ men of
insignificant characters.--MACAULAY

(4) When a singular is joined with a plural by a disjunctive
word, the verb agrees with the one nearest it; as,--

One or two of these perhaps _survive_.--THOREAU.

One or two persons in the crowd _were_ insolent.--FROUDE.

One or two of the ladies _were_ going to leave.--ADDISON

One or two of these old Cromwellian soldiers _were_ still alive
in the village.--THACKERAY

One or two of whom _were_ more entertaining.--DE QUINCEY.

But notice the construction of this,--

A ray or two _wanders_ into the darkness.--RUSKIN.

AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT IN PERSON.

[Sidenote: _General usage_.]

442. If there is only one person in the subject, the ending of the verb indicates the person of its subject; that is, in those few cases where there are forms for different persons: as,--

Never once _didst_ thou revel in the vision.--DE QUINCEY.

Romanism wisely _provides_ for the childish in men.--LOWELL.

It _hath_ been said my Lord would never take the
oath.--THACKERAY.

[Sidenote: _Second or third and first person in the subject_.]

443. If the subject is made up of the first person joined with the second or third by _and_, the verb takes the construction of the first person, the subject being really equivalent to _we_; as,--

I flatter myself you and I _shall_ meet again.--SMOLLETT.

You and I _are_ farmers; we never talk politics.--D WEBSTER.

Ah, brother! only I and thou
_Are_ left of all that circle now.
--WHITTIER.

You and I _are_ tolerably modest people.--THACKERAY.

Cocke and I _have_ felt it in our bones--_Gammer Gurton's Needle_

[Sidenote: _With adversative or disjunctive connectives_.]

444. When the subjects, of different persons, are connected by adversative or disjunctive conjunctions, the verb usually agrees with the pronoun nearest to it; for example,--

Neither you nor I _should_ be a bit the better or wiser.--RUSKIN.

If she or you _are_ resolved to be miserable.--GOLDSMITH.

Nothing which Mr. Pattison or I _have_ said.--M. ARNOLD.

Not Altamont, but thou, _hadst_ been my lord.--ROWE.

Not I, but thou, his blood _dost_ shed.--BYRON.

This construction is at the best a little awkward. It is avoided either by using a verb which has no forms for person (as, "He or I _can_ go," "She or you _may_ be sure," etc.), or by rearranging the sentence so as to throw each subject before its proper person form (as, "You _would_ not be wiser, nor _should_ I;" or, "I _have_ never said so, nor _has_ she").

[Sidenote: _Exceptional examples_.]

445. The following illustrate exceptional usage, which it is proper to mention; but the student is cautioned to follow the regular usage rather than the unusual and irregular.

Exercise.

Change each of the following sentences to accord with standard usage, as illustrated above (Secs. 440-444):--

1. And sharp Adversity will teach at last
Man,--and, as we would hope,--perhaps the devil,
That neither of their intellects are vast.
--BYRON.

2. Neither of them, in my opinion, give so accurate an idea of
the man as a statuette in bronze.--TROLLOPE.

3. How each of these professions are crowded.--ADDISON.

4. Neither of their counselors were to be present.--_Id._

5. Either of them are equally good to the person to whom they are
significant.--EMERSON.

6. Neither the red nor the white are strong and glaring.--BURKE.

7. A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or
murder.--ADDISON.

8. Neither of the sisters were very much deceived.--THACKERAY.

9. Nor wood, nor tree, nor bush are there,
Her course to intercept.--SCOTT.

10. Both death and I am found eternal.--MILTON.

11. In ascending the Mississippi the party was often obliged to
wade through morasses; at last they came upon the district of
Little Prairie.--G. BANCROFT.

12. In a word, the whole nation seems to be running out of their
wits.--SMOLLETT.

SEQUENCE OF TENSES (VERBS AND VERBALS).

[Sidenote: _Lack of logical sequence in verbs_.]

446. If one or more verbs depend on some leading verb, each should be in the tense that will convey the meaning intended by the writer.

In this sentence from Defoe, "I expected every wave would have swallowed us up," the verb _expected_ looks forward to something in the future, while _would have swallowed_ represents something completed in past time: hence the meaning intended was, "I expected every wave _would swallow_" etc.

[Sidenote: _Also in verbals_.]

In the following sentence, the infinitive also fails to express the exact thought:--

I had hoped never to have seen the statues again.--MACAULAY.

The trouble is the same as in the previous sentence; _to have seen_ should be changed to _to see_, for exact connection. Of course, if the purpose were to represent a prior fact or completed action, the perfect infinitive would be the very thing.

It should be remarked, however, that such sentences as those just quoted are in keeping with the older idea of the unity of the sentence. The present rule is recent.

Exercise.

Explain whether the verbs and infinitives in the following sentences convey the right meaning; if not, change them to a better form:--

1. I gave one quarter to Ann, meaning, on my return, to have
divided with her whatever might remain.--DE QUINCEY

2. I can't sketch "The Five Drapers," ... but can look and be
thankful to have seen such a masterpiece.--THACKERAY.

3. He would have done more wisely to have left them to find their
own apology than to have given reasons which seemed
paradoxes.--R.W. CHURCH.

4. The propositions of William are stated to have contained a
proposition for a compromise.--PALGRAVE

5. But I found I wanted a stock of words, which I thought I
should have acquired before that time.--FRANKLIN

6. I could even have suffered them to have broken Everet
Ducking's head.--IRVING.

INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

[Sidenote: _Definitions_.]

_447_. Direct discourse--that is, a direct quotation or a direct question--means the identical words the writer or speaker used; as,--

"I hope you have not killed him?" said Amyas.--KINGSLEY.

Indirect discourse means reported speech,--the thoughts of a writer or speaker put in the words of the one reporting them.

[Sidenote: _Two samples of indirect discourse_.]

448. Indirect discourse may be of two kinds:--

(1) Following the thoughts and also the exact words as far as consistent with the rules of logical sequence of verbs.

(2) Merely a concise representation of the original words, not attempting to follow the entire quotation.

The following examples of both are from De Quincey:--

[Sidenote: _Indirect_.]

1. Reyes remarked that it was not in his power to oblige the clerk as to that, but that he could oblige him by cutting his throat.

[Sidenote: _Direct_.]

His exact words were, "I _cannot_ oblige _you_ ..., but I _can_ oblige _you_ by cutting _your_ throat."

[Sidenote: _Indirect_.]

Her prudence whispered eternally, that safety there was none for her until she had laid the Atlantic between herself and St. Sebastian's.

[Sidenote: _Direct_.]

She thought to herself, "Safety there _is_ none for _me_ until _I_ have laid," etc.

[Sidenote: _Summary of the expressions_.]

2. Then he laid bare the unparalleled ingratitude of such a step. Oh, the unseen treasure that had been spent upon that girl! Oh, the untold sums of money that he had sunk in that unhappy speculation!

[Sidenote: _Direct synopsis_.]

The substance of his lamentation was, "Oh, unseen treasure _has_ been spent upon that girl! Untold sums of money _have I_ sunk," etc.

449. From these illustrations will be readily seen the grammatical changes made in transferring from direct to indirect discourse. Remember the following facts:--

(1) Usually the main, introductory verb is in the past tense.

(2) The indirect quotation is usually introduced by _that_, and the indirect question by _whether_ or _if_, or regular interrogatives.

(3) Verbs in the present-tense form are changed to the past-tense form. This includes the auxiliaries _be_, _have_, _will_, etc. The past tense is sometimes changed to the past perfect.

(4) The pronouns of the first and second persons are all changed to the third person. Sometimes it is clearer to introduce the antecedent of the pronoun instead.

Other examples of indirect discourse have been given in Part I., under interrogative pronouns, interrogative adverbs, and the subjunctive mood of verbs.

Exercise.

Rewrite the following extract from Irving's "Sketch Book," and change it to a direct quotation:--

He assured the company that it was a fact, handed down from his ancestor the historian, that the Catskill Mountains had always been haunted by strange beings; that it was affirmed that the great Hendrick Hudson, the first discoverer of the river and country, kept a kind of vigil there every twenty years, with his crew of the Half-moon, being permitted in this way to revisit the scenes of his enterprise, and keep a guardian eye upon the river and the great city called by his name; that his father had once seen them in their old Dutch dresses playing at ninepins in a hollow of the mountain; and that he himself had heard, one summer afternoon, the sound of their balls, like distant peals of thunder.

VERBALS.

PARTICIPLES.

[Sidenote: _Careless use of the participial phrase._]

450. The following sentences illustrate a misuse of the participial phrase:--

Pleased with the "Pilgrim's Progress," my first collection was of
John Bunyan's works.--B. FRANKLIN.

My farm consisted of about twenty acres of excellent land, having
given a hundred pounds for my predecessor's goodwill.--GOLDSMITH.

Upon asking how he had been taught the art of a cognoscente so
suddenly, he assured me that nothing was more easy.--_Id._

Having thus run through the causes of the sublime, my first
observation will be found nearly true.--BURKE

He therefore remained silent till he had repeated a paternoster,
being the course which his confessor had enjoined.--SCOTT

Compare with these the following:--

[Sidenote: _A correct example._]

Going yesterday to dine with an old acquaintance, I had the
misfortune to find his whole family very much dejected.--ADDISON.

[Sidenote: _Notice this._]

The trouble is, in the sentences first quoted, that the main subject of the sentence is not the same word that would be the subject of the participle, if this were expanded into a verb.

[Sidenote: _Correction._]

Consequently one of two courses must be taken,--either change the participle to a verb with its appropriate subject, leaving the principal statement as it is; or change the principal proposition so it shall make logical connection with the participial phrase.

For example, the first sentence would be, either "_As I was_ pleased, ... my first collection was," etc., or "Pleased with the 'Pilgrim's Progress,' I made my first collection John Bunyan's works."

Exercise.--Rewrite the other four sentences so as to correct the careless use of the participial phrase.

INFINITIVES.

[Sidenote: _Adverb between_ to _and the infinitive._]

451. There is a construction which is becoming more and more common among good writers,--the placing an adverb between _to_ of the infinitive and the infinitive itself. The practice is condemned by many grammarians, while defended or excused by others. Standard writers often use it, and often, purposely or not, avoid it.

The following two examples show the adverb before the infinitive:--

[Sidenote: _The more common usage._]

He handled it with such nicety of address as sufficiently _to
show_ that he fully understood the business.--SCOTT.

It is a solemn, universal assertion, deeply _to be kept_ in mind
by all sects.--RUSKIN.

This is the more common arrangement; yet frequently the desire seems to be to get the adverb snugly against the infinitive, to modify it as closely and clearly as possible.

Exercise.

In the following citations, see if the adverbs can be placed before or after the infinitive and still modify it as clearly as they now do:--

1. There are, then, many things _to be_ carefully _considered_,
if a strike is to succeed.--LAUGHLIN.

2. That the mind may not have to go backwards and forwards in
order _to_ rightly _connect_ them.--HERBERT SPENCER.

3. It may be easier to bear along all the qualifications of an
idea ... than _to_ first imperfectly _conceive_ such idea.--_id._

4. In works of art, this kind of grandeur, which consists in
multitude, is _to be_ very cautiously _admitted_.--BURKE.

5. That virtue which requires _to be_ ever _guarded_ is
scarcely worth the sentinel.--GOLDSMITH.

6. Burke said that such "little arts and devices" were not _to
be_ wholly _condemned_.--_The Nation_, No. 1533.

7. I wish the reader _to_ clearly _understand_.--RUSKIN.

8. Transactions which seem _to be_ most widely _separated_ from
one another.--DR. BLAIR.

9. Would earnestly advise them for their good to order this
paper _to be_ punctually _served up_.--ADDISON.

10. A little sketch of his, in which a cannon ball is supposed
_to have_ just _carried off_ the head of an
aide-de-camp.--TROLLOPE.

11. The ladies seem _to have been_ expressly _created_ to form
helps meet for such gentlemen.--MACAULAY.

12. Sufficient to disgust a people whose manners were beginning
_to be_ strongly _tinctured_ with austerity.--_Id._

13. The spirits, therefore, of those opposed to them seemed _to
be_ considerably _damped_ by their continued success.--SCOTT.

ADVERBS.

[Sidenote: _Position of_ only, even, _etc._]

A very careful writer will so place the modifiers of a verb that the reader will not mistake the meaning.

The rigid rule in such a case would be, to put the modifier in such a position that the reader not only can understand the meaning intended, but _cannot misunderstand_ the thought. Now, when such adverbs as _only_, _even_, etc., are used, they are usually placed in a strictly correct position, if they modify single words; but they are often removed from the exact position, if they modify phrases or clauses: for example, from Irving, "The site is _only_ to be traced by fragments of bricks, china, and earthenware." Here _only_ modifies the phrase _by fragments of bricks_, etc., but it is placed before the infinitive. This misplacement of the adverb can be detected only by analysis of the sentence.

Exercise.

Tell what the adverb modifies in each quotation, and see if it is placed in the proper position:--

1. Only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed
for us in the verses of his rival.--PALGRAVE.

2. Do you remember pea shooters? I think we only had them on
going home for holidays.--THACKERAY.

3. Irving could only live very modestly. He could only afford
to keep one old horse.--_Id._

4. The arrangement of this machinery could only be accounted
for by supposing the motive power to have been steam.--WENDELL
PHILLIPS.

5. Such disputes can only be settled by arms.--_Id._

6. I have only noted one or two topics which I thought most
likely to interest an American reader.--N.P. WILLIS.

7. The silence of the first night at the farmhouse,--stillness
broken only by two whippoorwills.--HIGGINSON.

8. My master, to avoid a crowd, would suffer only thirty people
at a time to see me.--SWIFT.

9. In relating these and the following laws, I would only be
understood to mean the original institutions.--_Id._

10. The perfect loveliness of a woman's countenance can only
consist in that majestic peace which is founded in the memory of
happy and useful years.--RUSKIN.

11. In one of those celestial days it seems a poverty that we can
only spend it once.--EMERSON.

12. My lord was only anxious as long as his wife's anxious face
or behavior seemed to upbraid him.--THACKERAY.

13. He shouted in those clear, piercing tones that could be even
heard among the roaring of the cannon.--COOPER.

14. His suspicions were not even excited by the ominous face of
Gérard.--MOTLEY.

15. During the whole course of his administration, he scarcely
befriended a single man of genius.--MACAULAY.

16. I never remember to have felt an event more deeply than his
death.--SYDNEY SMITH.

17. His last journey to Cannes, whence he was never destined to
return.--MRS. GROTE.

USE OF DOUBLE NEGATIVES.

[Sidenote: _The old usage._]

453. In Old and Middle English, two negatives strengthened a negative idea; for example,--

He _nevere_ yet _no_ vileineye _ne_ sayde,
In al his lyf unto _no_ maner wight.--CHAUCER.

_No_ sonne, were he never so old of yeares, might _not_ marry.
--ASCHAM.

The first of these is equivalent to "He didn't never say no villainy in all his life to no manner of man,"--four negatives.

This idiom was common in the older stages of the language, and is still kept in vulgar English; as,--

I tell you she _ain'_ been _nowhar_ ef she don' know we all.
--PAGE, in _Ole Virginia_.

There _weren't no_ pies to equal hers.--MRS. STOWE.

[Sidenote: _Exceptional use._]

There are sometimes found two negatives in modern English with a negative effect, when one of the negatives is a connective. This, however, is not common.

I never did see him again, _nor never_ shall.--DE QUINCEY.

However, I did _not_ act so hastily, _neither_.--DEFOE.

The prosperity of no empire, _nor_ the grandeur of _no_ king, can
so agreeably affect, etc.--BURKE.

[Sidenote: _Regular law of negative in modern English._]

But, under the influence of Latin syntax, the usual way of regarding the question now is, that _two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative_, denying each other.

Therefore, if two negatives are found together, it is a sign of ignorance or carelessness, or else a purpose to make an affirmative effect. In the latter case, one of the negatives is often a prefix; as _in_frequent, _un_common.

Exercise.

Tell whether the two or more negatives are properly used in each of the following sentences, and why:--

1. The red men were not so infrequent visitors of the English
settlements.--HAWTHORNE.

2. "Huldy was so up to everything about the house, that the
doctor didn't miss nothin' in a temporal way."--MRS. STOWE.

3. Her younger sister was a wide-awake girl, who hadn't been to
school for nothing.--HOLMES.

4. You will find no battle which does not exhibit the most
cautious circumspection.--BAYNE.

5. Not only could man not acquire such information, but ought not
to labor after it.--GROTE.

6. There is no thoughtful man in America who would not consider a
war with England the greatest of calamities.--LOWELL.

7. In the execution of this task, there is no man who would not
find it an arduous effort.--HAMILTON.

8. "A weapon," said the King, "well worthy to confer honor, nor
has it been laid on an undeserving shoulder."--SCOTT.

CONJUNCTIONS.

[Sidenote: And who, and which.]

454. The sentences given in Secs. 419 and 420 on the connecting of pronouns with different expressions may again be referred to here, as the use of the conjunction, as well as of the pronoun, should be scrutinized.

[Sidenote: _Choice and proper position of correlatives._]

455. The most frequent mistakes in using conjunctions are in handling correlatives, especially _both_ ... _and, neither_ ... _nor, either_ ... _or, not_ _only_ ... _but, not merely_ ... _but_ (_also_).

The following examples illustrate the correct use of correlatives as to both choice of words and position:--

_Whether_ at war _or_ at peace, there we were, a standing menace
to all earthly paradises of that kind.--LOWELL.

These idols of wood can _neither_ hear _nor_ feel.--PRESCOTT.

_Both_ the common soldiery _and_ their leaders and commanders
lowered on each other as if their union had not been more
essential than ever, _not only_ to the success of their common
cause, _but_ to their own safety.--SCOTT.

[Sidenote: _Things to be watched._]

In these examples it will be noticed that _nor_, not _or_ is the proper correlative of _neither_; and that all correlatives in a sentence ought to have corresponding positions: that is, if the last precedes a verb, the first ought to be placed before a verb; if the second precedes a phrase, the first should also. This is necessary to make the sentence clear and symmetrical.

[Sidenote: _Correction._]

In the sentence, "I am _neither_ in spirits to enjoy it, _or_ to reply to it," both of the above requirements are violated. The word _neither_ in such a case had better be changed to _not_ ... _either_,--"I am not in spirits _either_ to enjoy it, _or_ to reply to it."

Besides _neither ... or_, even _neither ... nor_ is often changed to _not_--_either ... or_ with advantage, as the negation is sometimes too far from the verb to which it belongs.

A noun may be preceded by one of the correlatives, and an equivalent pronoun by the other. The sentence, "This loose and inaccurate manner of speaking has misled us _both_ in the theory of taste _and_ of morals," may be changed to "This loose ... misled us _both_ in the theory of taste _and_ in _that_ of morals."

Exercise.

Correct the following sentences:--

1. An ordinary man would neither have incurred the danger of
succoring Essex, nor the disgrace of assailing him.--MACAULAY.

2. Those ogres will stab about and kill not only strangers, but
they will outrage, murder, and chop up their own kin.--THACKERAY.

3. In the course of his reading (which was neither pursued with
that seriousness or that devout mind which such a study requires)
the youth found himself, etc.--_Id._

4. I could neither bear walking nor riding in a carriage over its
pebbled streets.--FRANKLIN.

5. Some exceptions, that can neither be dissembled nor eluded,
render this mode of reasoning as indiscreet as it is
superfluous.--GIBBON.

6. They will, too, not merely interest children, but grown-up
persons.--_Westminster Review._

7. I had even the satisfaction to see her lavish some kind looks
upon my unfortunate son, which the other could neither extort by
his fortune nor assiduity.--GOLDSMITH.

8. This was done probably to show that he was neither ashamed of
his name or family.--ADDISON.

[Sidenote: Try and _for_ try to.]

456. Occasionally there is found the expression _try and_ instead of the better authorized _try to_; as,--

We will try _and_ avoid personalities altogether.--THACKERAY.

Did any of you ever try _and_ read "Blackmore's Poems"?--_Id._

Try _and_ avoid the pronoun.--BAIN.

We will try _and_ get a clearer notion of them.--RUSKIN.

[Sidenote: But what.]

457. Instead of the subordinate conjunction _that_, _but_, or _but that_, or the negative relative _but_, we sometimes find the bulky and needless _but what_. Now, it is possible to use _but what_ when _what_ is a relative pronoun, as, "He never had any money _but what_ he absolutely needed;" but in the following sentences _what_ usurps the place of a conjunction.

Exercise.

In the following sentences, substitute _that_, _but_, or _but that_ for the words _but what_:--

1. The doctor used to say 'twas her young heart, and I don't know
_but what_ he was right.--S.O. JEWETT.

2. At the first stroke of the pickax it is ten to one _but what_
you are taken up for a trespass.--BULWER.

3. There are few persons of distinction _but what_ can hold
conversation in both languages.--SWIFT.

4. Who knows _but what_ there might be English among those
sun-browned half-naked masses of panting wretches?--KINGSLEY.

5. No little wound of the kind ever came to him _but what_ he
disclosed it at once.--TROLLOPE.

6. They are not so distant from the camp of Saladin _but what_
they might be in a moment surprised.--SCOTT.

PREPOSITIONS.

458. As to the placing of a preposition after its object in certain cases, see Sec. 305.

[Sidenote: Between _and_ among.]

459. In the primary meaning of between and among there is a sharp distinction, as already seen in Sec. 313; but in Modern English the difference is not so marked.

Between is used most often with two things only, but still it is frequently used in speaking of several objects, some relation or connection between two at a time being implied.

Among is used in the same way as _amid_ (though not with exactly the same meaning), several objects being spoken of in the aggregate, no separation or division by twos being implied.

Examples of the distinctive use of the two words:--

[Sidenote: _Two things._]

The contentions that arise _between_ the parson and the
squire.--ADDISON.

We reckoned the improvements of the art of war _among_ the
triumphs of science.--EMERSON.

Examples of the looser use of _between_:--

[Sidenote: _A number of things._]

Natural objects affect us by the laws of that connection which
Providence has established _between_ certain motions of
bodies.--BURKE.

Hence the differences _between_ men in natural endowment are
insignificant in comparison with their common wealth.--EMERSON.

They maintain a good correspondence _between_ those wealthy
societies of men that are divided from one another by seas and
oceans.--ADDISON.

Looking up at its deep-pointed porches and the dark places
_between_ their pillars where there were statues once.--RUSKIN

What have I, a soldier of the Cross, to do with recollections of
war _betwixt_ Christian nations?--SCOTT.

[Sidenote: _Two groups or one and a group._]

Also _between_ may express relation or connection in speaking of two groups of objects, or one object and a group; as,--

A council of war is going on beside the watch fire, _between_ the
three adventurers and the faithful Yeo.--KINGSLEY.

The great distinction _between_ teachers sacred or
literary,--_between_ poets like Herbert and poets like
Pope,--_between_ philosophers like Spinoza, Kant, and Coleridge,
and philosophers like Locke, Paley, Mackintosh, and Stewart, etc.
--EMERSON.

460. Certain words are followed by particular prepositions.

Some of these words show by their composition what preposition should follow. Such are _absolve_, _involve_, _different_.

Some of them have, by custom, come to take prepositions not in keeping with the original meaning of the words. Such are _derogatory_, _averse_.

Many words take one preposition to express one meaning, and another to convey a different meaning; as, _correspond_, _confer_.

And yet others may take several prepositions indifferently to express the same meaning.

[Sidenote: _List I_.: _Words with particular prepositions_.]

461. LIST I.

Absolve _from_. Conversant _with_.
Abhorrent _to_. Dependent _on_ (_upon_).
Accord _with_. Different _from_.
Acquit _of_. Dissent _from_.
Affinity _between_. Derogatory _to_.
Averse _to_. Deprive _of_.
Bestow _on_ (_upon_). Independent _of_.
Conform _to_. Involve _in_.
Comply _with_.

"Different _to_" is frequently heard in spoken English in England, and sometimes creeps into standard books, but it is not good usage.

[Sidenote: _List II_.: _Words taking different prepositions for different meanings._]

462. LIST II.

Agree _with_ (a person). Differ _from_ (note below).
Agree _to_ (a proposal). Differ _with_ (note below).
Change_ for_ (a thing). Disappointed _in_ (a thing
Change _with_ (a person). obtained).
Change _to_ (become). Disappointed _of_ (a thing not
Confer _with_ (talk with). obtained).
Confer _on_ (_upon_) (give to). Reconcile _to_ (note below).
Confide _in_ (trust in). Reconcile _with_ (note below).
Confide _to_ (intrust to). A taste _of_ (food).
Correspond _with_ (write to). A taste _for_ (art, etc.).
Correspond _to_ (a thing).

"Correspond _with_" is sometimes used of things, as meaning _to be in keeping with_.

"Differ _from_" is used in speaking of unlikeness between things or persons; "differ _from_" and "differ _with_" are both used in speaking of persons disagreeing as to opinions.

"Reconcile _to_" is used with the meaning of _resigned to_, as, "The exile became reconciled _to_ his fate;" also of persons, in the sense of making friends with, as, "The king is reconciled _to_ his minister." "Reconcile _with_" is used with the meaning of _make to agree with_, as, "The statement must be reconciled _with_ his previous conduct."

[Sidenote: _List III_.: _Words taking anyone of several prepositions for the same meaning_.]

463. LIST III.

Die _by_, die _for_, die _from_, die _of_, die _with_.
Expect _of_, expect _from_.
Part _from_, part _with_.

Illustrations of "die _of_," "die _from_," etc.:--

[Sidenote: "_Die_ of."]

The author died _of_ a fit of apoplexy.--BOSWELL.

People do not die _of_ trifling little colds.--AUSTEN

Fifteen officers died _of_ fever in a day.--MACAULAY.

It would take me long to die _of_ hunger.--G. ELIOT.

She died _of_ hard work, privation, and ill treatment.--BURNETT.

[Sidenote: "_Die_ from."]

She saw her husband at last literally die _from_ hunger.--BULWER.

He died at last without disease, simply _from_ old age.
--_Athenæum._

No one _died from_ want at Longfeld.--_Chambers' Journal._

[Sidenote: "_Die_ with."]

She would have been ready to die _with_ shame.--G. ELIOT.

I am positively dying _with_ hunger.--SCOTT.

I thought the two Miss Flamboroughs would have died _with_
laughing.--GOLDSMITH.

I wish that the happiest here may not die _with_ envy.--POPE.

[Sidenote: "_Die_ for." (_in behalf of_).]

Take thought and die _for_ Cæsar.--SHAKESPEARE.

One of them said he would die _for_ her.--GOLDSMITH.

It is a man of quality who dies _for_ her.--ADDISON.

[Sidenote: "_Die_ for." (_because of_).]

Who, as Cervantes informs us, died _for_ love of the fair
Marcella.--FIELDING.

Some officers had died _for_ want of a morsel of
bread.--MACAULAY.

[Sidenote: "_Die_ by." (_material cause, instrument_).]

If I meet with any of 'em, they shall die _by_ this hand.
--THACKERAY.

He must purge himself to the satisfaction of a vigilant tribunal
or die _by_ fire.--MACAULAY.

He died _by_ suicide before he completed his eighteenth
year.--SHAW.

464. Illustrations of "expect _of_," "expect _from:_"--

[Sidenote: "_Expect_ of."]

What do I expect _of_ Dublin?--_Punch._

That is more than I expected _of_ you.--SCOTT.

_Of_ Doctor P. nothing better was to be expected.--POE.

Not knowing what might be expected _of_ men in general.--G.
ELIOT.

[Sidenote: "_Expect_ from."]

She will expect more attention _from_ you, as my
friend.--WALPOLE.

There was a certain grace and decorum hardly to be expected
_from_ a man.--MACAULAY.

I have long expected something remarkable _from_ you.--G. ELIOT.

465. "Part _with_" is used with both persons and things, but "part _from_" is less often found in speaking of things.

Illustrations of "part _with_," "part _from_:"--

[Sidenote: "_Part_ with."]

He was fond of everybody that he was used to, and hated to part
_with_ them.--AUSTEN.

Cleveland was sorry to part _with_ him.--BULWER.

I can part _with_ my children for their good.--DICKENS.

I part _with_ all that grew so near my heart.--WALLER.

[Sidenote: "_Part_ from."]

To part _from_ you would be misery.--MARRYAT.

I have just seen her, just parted _from_ her.--BULWER.

Burke parted _from_ him with deep emotion.--MACAULAY.

His precious bag, which he would by no means part _from_.--G.
ELIOT.

[Sidenote: _Kind_ in _you_, _kind_ of _you_.]

466. With words implying behavior or disposition, either _of_ or _in_ is used indifferently, as shown in the following quotations:--

[Sidenote: Of.]

It was a little bad _of_ you.--TROLLOPE.

How cruel _of_ me!--COLLINS.

He did not think it handsome _of_ you.--BULWER.

But this is idle _of_ you.--TENNYSON.

[Sidenote: In.]

Very natural _in_ Mr. Hampden.--CARLYLE.

It will be anything but shrewd _in_ you.--DICKENS.

That is very unreasonable _in_ a person so young.--BEACONSFIELD.

I am wasting your whole morning--too bad _in_ me.--BULWER.

Miscellaneous Examples for Correction.

1. Can you imagine Indians or a semi-civilized people engaged on a work like the canal connecting the Mediterranean and the Red seas?

2. In the friction between an employer and workman, it is commonly said that his profits are high.

3. None of them are in any wise willing to give his life for the life of his chief.

4. That which can be done with perfect convenience and without loss, is not always the thing that most needs to be done, or which we are most imperatively required to do.

5. Art is neither to be achieved by effort of thinking, nor explained by accuracy of speaking.

6. To such as thee the fathers owe their fame.

7. We tread upon the ancient granite that first divided the waters into a northern and southern ocean.

8. Thou tread'st, with seraphims, the vast abyss.

9. Eustace had slipped off his long cloak, thrown it over Amyas's head, and ran up the alley.

10. This narrative, tedious perhaps, but which the story renders necessary, may serve to explain the state of intelligence betwixt the lovers.

11. To the shame and eternal infamy of whomsoever shall turn back from the plow on which he hath laid his hand!

12. The noise of vast cataracts, raging storms, thunder, or artillery, awake a great and awful sensation in the mind.

13. The materials and ornaments ought neither to be white, nor green, nor yellow, nor blue, nor of a pale red.

14. This does not prove that an idea of use and beauty are the same thing, or that they are any way dependent on each other.

15. And were I anything but what I am,
I would wish me only he.

16. But every man may know, and most of us do know, what is a just and unjust act.

17. You have seen Cassio and she together.

18. We shall shortly see which is the fittest object of scorn, you or me.

19. Richard glared round him with an eye that seemed to seek an enemy, and from which the angry nobles shrunk appalled.

20. It comes to whomsoever will put off what is foreign and proud.

21. The difference between the just and unjust procedure does not lie in the number of men hired, but in the price paid to them.

22. The effect of proportion and fitness, so far at least as they proceed from a mere consideration of the work itself, produce approbation, the acquiescence of the understanding.

23. When the glass or liquor are transparent, the light is sometimes softened in the passage.

24. For there nor yew nor cypress spread their gloom.

25. Every one of these letters are in my name.

26. Neither of them are remarkable for precision.

27. Squares, triangles, and other angular figures, are neither beautiful to the sight nor feeling.

28. There is not one in a thousand of these human souls that cares to think where this estate is, or how beautiful it is, or what kind of life they are to lead in it.

29. Dryden and Rowe's manner are quite out of fashion.

30. We were only permitted to stop for refreshment once.

31. The sight of the manner in which the meals were served were enough to turn our stomach.

32. The moody and savage state of mind of the sullen and ambitious man are admirably drawn.

33. Surely none of our readers are so unfortunate as not to know some man or woman who carry this atmosphere of peace and good-will about with them. (Sec. 411.)

34. Friday, whom he thinks would be better than a dog, and almost as good as a pony.

35. That night every man of the boat's crew, save Amyas, were down with raging fever.

36. These kind of books fill up the long tapestry of history with little bits of detail which give human interest to it.

37. I never remember the heather so rich and abundant.

38. These are scattered along the coast for several hundred miles, in conditions of life that seem forbidding enough, but which are accepted without complaint by the inhabitants themselves.

39. Between each was an interval where lay a musket.

40. He had four children, and it was confidently expected that they would receive a fortune of at least $200,000 between them.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 1: More for convenience than for absolute accuracy, the stages of our language have been roughly divided into three:--

(1) Old English (with Anglo-Saxon) down to the twelfth century.

(2) Middle English, from about the twelfth century to the sixteenth century.

(3) Modern English, from about 1500 to the present time.]

INDEX.

THE NUMBERS REFER TO PAGES.

A, origin of, 119.
syntax of, 310.
uses of, 124.

Absolute, nominative, 47.

Abstract nouns, 20.
with article, 25, 124.

Active voice, 133.

Address, nominative of, 47.

Adjective clauses, 260.

Adjective pronouns, demonstrative, 90.
distinguished from adjectives, 89.
distributive, 91.
numeral, 92.

Adjectives, adverbs used as, 116.
as complements, 239.
comparison of, 107.
definition of, 98.
demonstrative, 102.
from nouns, used as nouns, 27.
function of, 97.
how to parse, 115, 116.
in predicate, 239.
not compared, 109.
of quality, 99.
of quantity, 101.
ordinal, 103.
plural of, 106.
pronominal, 104.
syntax of, 303.

Adverbial clauses, 262.

Adverbial objective, 48, 242.

Adverbs, between _to_ and infinitive, 323.
classes of, 185, 187.
definition of, 184.
distinguished from adjectives, 190.
how to parse, 191.
position of, in sentence, 325.
same form as adjectives, 190.
syntax of, 325.
used as adjectives, 116.
used as nouns, 27.
what they modify, 183.

Adversative conjunction, 194.

_After_, uses of, 114, 195, 207.

_Against_, uses of, 207.

Agreement, kinds of, 275.
of adjective with noun, 303.
of personal pronoun with antecedent, 287.
of relative pronoun with antecedent, 291.
of verb with subject, 148, 316.

_All_, syntax of, 302.

_Alms_, 42.

Alternative conjunctions, 194, 328.

_Among, between_, 207, 331.

_An_. See _A_.

Anacoluthon with _which_, 295.

Analysis, definition of, 231.
of complex sentences, 264.
of compound sentences, 271.
of simple sentences, 252.

_And who_, _and which_, 296.

Antecedent, agreement of pronoun and. See _Agreement_.
definition of, 74.
of _it_, 67.
of personal pronouns, 74, 287.
of _which_, 79.

_Any_, as adjective, 101.
as pronoun, 90.
syntax of, 300.

Apostrophe in possessive, 51.

Apposition, words in, 47, 49, 67, 240.

_Are_, derivation of, 150.

Arrangement in syntax, 275.

Articles, definite, 120.
definition of, 120.
how to parse, 127.
indefinite, 124.
syntax of, 309.

_As_, after _same_, 294.
uses of, 84, 225.

_As if_, _as though_, 198.

_At_, uses of, 208.

Auxiliary verbs, 148.

_Bad_, comparison of, 110.

_Be_, conjugation of, 149.
uses of, 150.

_Better_, _best_, 110, 111.

_Between._ See _Among_.

_Brethren_, 39.

_Bridegroom_, 37.

_But_, uses of, 84, 224.
with nominative of pronoun, 283.

_But what_, 330.

_By_, uses of, 210.

_Can_, _could_, 161.

Case, definition of, 46.

Case, double possessive, of nouns, 54.
of pronouns, 64.
forms, number of, in Old and Modern English, 46.
nominative, of nouns, 47.
of pronouns, 62, 279.
objective, of nouns, 48.
of pronouns, 66, 279.
possessive, of nouns, 49, 278.
of pronouns, 63.
syntax of, 278.

Cause, clauses of, 262.
conjunctions of, 194, 195.

_Cherub_, plurals of, 45.

_Children_, 39.

Clause, adjective, 260.
adverb, 262.
definition of, 257.
kinds of, 257.
noun, 258.

_Cleave_, forms of, 158.

_Clomb_, 157.

_Cloths_, _clothes_, 43.

Collective nouns, 18.
syntax of, and verb, 312, 315.

Colloquial English, 12.

Common nouns, 18.
derived from material, 24.
derived from proper, 23.

Comparative and superlative, double, 113, 307.
syntax of, 307.

Comparison, defective, 111.
definition of, 108.
degrees of, 108.
irregular, 110.
of adjectives, 107.
of adverbs, 189.
syntax of, 305.

Complement of predicate, 239.

Complementary infinitive, 248.

Complex sentence, analysis of, 264.
definition of, 257.

Compound nouns, plural of, 43.
possessive of, 53.

Compound predicate and subject, 244.

Compound sentence, 268.
analysis of, 271.

Concessive clause, in analysis, 263.
with subjunctive, 143.

Concord. See _Agreement_.

Conditional clause, in analysis, 263.
with subjunctive, 138.

Conditional conjunctions, 196.

Conditional sentences, 139.

Conjugation, definition of, 149.
of _be_, 149.
of other verbs, 151.

Conjunctions, and other parts of speech, same words, 195, 207.
coördinate, 194.
correlative, 194.
definition of, 193.
how to parse, 199.
subordinate, 195.
syntax of, 328.

Conjunctive adverbs, 188.

Conjunctive pronoun. See _Relative pronoun_.

Contracted sentences, analysis of, 255.

Coördinate clauses, 269.

Coördinate conjunctions. See _Conjunctions_.

Coördinating _vs._ restrictive use of relative pronouns, 289.

Copulative conjunction, 194.

_Could._ See _Can_.

Dative case, in Old English, replaced by objective, 66.

Declarative sentence, 231.

Declension of interrogative pronouns, 73.

Declension, of nouns, 51.
of personal pronouns, 60.
of relative pronouns, 80.

Defective verbs, 160.

Definite article. See _Articles_.

Definite tenses, 148, 152.

Degree, adverbs of, 185.

Degrees. See _Comparison_.

Demonstrative adjectives, 102.
syntax of, 303.

Demonstrative pronouns, 90.

Dependent clause. See _Subordinate clause_.

Descriptive adjectives, 99.

Descriptive use of nouns, 26.

_Dice_, _dies_, 43.

_Die by_, _for_, _from_, _of_, _with_, 333.

Direct discourse, 320.

Direct object, _vs._ indirect, 48, 242.
retained with passive verb, 242.

Distributive adjectives, 102.
syntax of, 287, 315.

Distributive pronouns, 91.
syntax of, 288, 300.

Double comparative. See _Comparative_.

Double possessive. See _Case_.

_Drake_, _duck_, 35.

_Drank_, _drunk_, 158.

_Each_, adjective, 102.
pronoun, 90, 92.
syntax of, 287.

_Each other_, _one another_, 92, 299.

_Eat_ (ĕt), 158.

_Eaves_, 42.

_Either_, as adjective, 102.
syntax of, 287.
as conjunction, 194.
syntax of, 328.
as pronoun, 90, 92.
syntax of, 300.

_Elder_, _older_, 110, 112.

Elements of the sentence, 234, 257.

Ellipsis, a source of error in pronouns, 280.
in complex sentence, 255.

_'Em_, origin of, 62.

_Empress_, 34.

_-En_, added to plural, 39.
feminine suffix, 32.
plural suffix, original, 38.

English, literary, spoken, vulgar, 12.
periods of, 33.

Enlargement of predicate, 241.
of subject, object, complement, 240.

_-Es_ original of possessive ending, 51.
plural suffix, 40.

_-Ess_, feminine suffix, 33.

_Every_, adjective, 102.
syntax of, 287.

_Expect of_, _expect from_, 334.

_Expected to have gone_, etc., 319.

Factitive object, 48, 235.

_Farther, further_, 110, 112, 189.

Feminine, 30.

_Few, a few_, 126.

_First_, 103, 112.

_First two_, _two first_, etc., 308.

_Fish_, _fishes_, 43.

_For_, redundant, with infinitive, used as a noun, 212, 238.
uses of, 211.

Foreign plurals, 45.

_Former, the_, adjective, 102.
pronoun, 91.

_From_, uses of, 212.

_Further._ See _Farther_.

Future tense, 147, 152.

Future perfect, 148, 152.

_Gander_, _goose_, 36.

_Gender_, "common gender," 31.
definition of, 30.
distinguished from sex, 30.
in English, as compared with other languages, 29.
modes of marking, in nouns, 32.
of personal pronouns, 60.
of relative pronouns, 80.

_Genii_, _geniuses_, 43.

Gerund, distinguished from participle and verbal noun, 177.
forms of, 176.
in syntax, possessive case with, 285.

_Girl_, 35.

_Got_, 159.

Government, definition of, kinds of, 275.

Grammar, basis of, 12.
definition of, 12.
divisions of, 13.
opinions on, 9.
province of, 10.

H, _an_ before, 120.

_Had better_, _had rather_, 175.

_Hanged_, _hung_, 159.