Chapter VIII: Part I: The Parts of Speech (5)

5. He informed us, that in the course of another day's march we would reach the prairies on the banks of the Grand Canadian.

6. What shall we do with him? This is the sphinx-like riddle which we must solve if we would not be eaten.

7. Will not our national character be greatly injured? Will we not be classed with the robbers and destroyers of mankind?

8. Lucy stood still, very anxious, and wondering whether she should see anything alive.

9. I would be overpowered by the feeling of my disgrace.

10. No, my son; whatever cash I send you is yours: you will spend it as you please, and I have nothing to say.

11. But I will doubtless find some English person of whom to make inquiries.

12. Without having attended to this, we will be at a loss to understand several passages in the classics.

13. "I am a wayfarer," the stranger said, "and would like permission to remain with you a little while."

14. The beast made a sluggish movement, then, as if he would have more of the enchantment, stirred her slightly with his muzzle.

WEAK VERBS.

255. Those weak verbs which add _-d_ or _-ed_ to form the past tense and past participle, and have no change of vowel, are so easily recognized as to need no special treatment. Some of them are already given as secondary forms of the strong verbs.

But the rest, which may be called irregular weak verbs, need some attention and explanation.

256. The irregular weak verbs are divided into two classes,--

[Sidenote: _The two classes of irregular weak verbs._]

(1) Those which retain the _-d_ or _-t_ in the past tense, with some change of form for the past tense and past participle.

(2) Those which end in _-d_ or _-t_, and have lost the ending which formerly was added to this.

The old ending to verbs of Class II. was _-de_ or _-te_; as,--

This worthi man ful wel his wit _bisette_ [used].--CHAUCER.

Of smale houndes _hadde_ she, that sche _fedde_ With rosted
flessh, or mylk and wastel breed.--_Id._

This ending has now dropped off, leaving some weak verbs with the same form throughout: as set, set, set; put, put, put.

257. Irregular Weak Verbs.--Class I.

_Present Tense_. _Past Tense_. _Past Participle_.

bereave bereft, bereave bereft, bereaved
beseech besought besought
burn burned, burnt burnt
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
creep crept crept
deal dealt dealt
dream dreamt, dreamed dreamt, dreamed
dwell dwelt dwelt
feel felt felt
flee fled fled
have had had (_once_ haved)
hide hid hidden, hid
keep kept kept
kneel knelt knelt
lay laid laid
lean leaned, leant leaned, leant
leap leaped, leapt leaped, leapt
leave left left
lose lost lost
make made (_once_ maked) made
mean meant meant
pay paid paid
pen [inclose] penned, pen penned, pent
say said said
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
shoe shod shod
sleep slept slept
spell spelled, spelt spelt
spill spilt spilt
stay staid, stayed staid, stayed
sweep swept swept
teach taught taught
tell told told
think thought thought
weep wept wept
work worked, wrought worked, wrought

258. Irregular Weak Verbs.--Class II.

_Present Tense_. _Past Tense_. _Past Participle_.

bend bent, bended bent, bended
bleed bled bled
breed bred bred
build built built
cast cast cast
cost cost cost
feed fed fed
gild gilded, gilt gilded, gilt
gird girt, girded girt, girded
hit hit hit
hurt hurt hurt
knit knit, knitted knit, knitted
lead led led
let let let
light lighted, lit lighted, lit
meet met met
put put put
quit quit, quitted quit, quitted
read read read
rend rent rent
rid rid rid
send sent sent
set set set
shed shed shed
shred shred shred
shut shut shut
slit slit slit
speed sped sped
spend spent spent
spit spit [_obs._ spat] spit [_obs._ spat]
split split split
spread spread spread
sweat sweat sweat
thrust thrust thrust
wed wed, wedded wed, wedded
wet wet, wetted wet, wetted

[Sidenote: _Tendency to phonetic spelling._]

250. There seems to be in Modern English a growing tendency toward phonetic spelling in the past tense and past participle of weak verbs. For example, _-ed_, after the verb _bless_, has the sound of _t_: hence the word is often written _blest_. So with _dipt_, _whipt_, _dropt_, _tost_, _crost_, _drest_, _prest_, etc. This is often seen in poetry, and is increasing in prose.

Some Troublesome Verbs.

[Sidenote: Lie _and_ lay _in use and meaning._]

260. Some sets of verbs are often confused by young students, weak forms being substituted for correct, strong forms.

Lie and lay need close attention. These are the forms:--

_Present Tense._ _Past Tense._ _Pres. Participle._ _Past Participle._

1. Lie lay lying lain
2. Lay laid laying laid

The distinctions to be observed are as follows:--

(1) _Lie_, with its forms, is regularly _intransitive_ as to use. As to meaning, _lie_ means to rest, to recline, to place one's self in a recumbent position; as, "There _lies_ the ruin."

(2) _Lay_, with its forms, is always _transitive_ as to use. As to meaning, _lay_ means to put, to place a person or thing in position; as, "Slowly and sadly we _laid_ him down." Also _lay_ may be used without any object expressed, but there is still a transitive meaning; as in the expressions, "to _lay_ up for future use," "to _lay_ on with the rod," "to _lay_ about him lustily."

[Sidenote: Sit _and_ set.]

261. Sit and set have principal parts as follows:--

_Present Tense._ _Past Tense._ _Pres. Participle._ _Past Participle._

1. Sit sat sitting sat
2. Set set setting set

Notice these points of difference between the two verbs:--

(1) _Sit_, with its forms, is always _intransitive_ in use. In meaning, _sit_ signifies (_a_) to place one's self on a seat, to rest; (_b_) to be adjusted, to fit; (_c_) to cover and warm eggs for hatching, as, "The hen _sits_."

(2) _Set_, with its forms, is always _transitive_ in use when it has the following meanings: (_a_) to put or place a thing or person in position, as "He _set_ down the book;" (_b_) to fix or establish, as, "He _sets_ a good example."

_Set_ is _intransitive_ when it means (_a_) to go down, to decline, as, "The sun has _set_;" (_b_) to become fixed or rigid, as, "His eyes _set_ in his head because of the disease;" (_c_) in certain idiomatic expressions, as, for example, "to _set_ out," "to _set_ up in business," "to _set_ about a thing," "to _set_ to work," "to _set_ forward," "the tide _sets_ in," "a strong wind _set_ in," etc.

Exercise.

Examine the forms of _lie_, _lay_, _sit_ and _set_ in these sentences; give the meaning of each, and correct those used wrongly.

1. If the phenomena which lie before him will not suit his purpose, all history must be ransacked.

2. He sat with his eyes fixed partly on the ghost and partly on Hamlet, and with his mouth open.

3. The days when his favorite volume set him upon making wheelbarrows and chairs,... can never again be the realities they were.

4. To make the jacket sit yet more closely to the body, it was gathered at the middle by a broad leathern belt.

5. He had set up no unattainable standard of perfection.

6. For more than two hundred years his bones lay undistinguished.

7. The author laid the whole fault on the audience.

8. Dapple had to lay down on all fours before the lads could bestride him.

9. And send'st him...to his gods where happy lies
His petty hope in some near port or bay,
And dashest him again to earth:--there let him lay.

10. Achilles is the swift-footed when he is sitting still.

11. It may be laid down as a general rule, that history begins in novel, and ends in essay.

12. I never took off my clothes, but laid down in them.

VERBALS.

[Sidenote: _Definition._]

262. Verbals are words that express action in a general way, without limiting the action to any time, or asserting it of any subject.

[Sidenote: _Kinds._]

Verbals may be participles, infinitives, or gerunds.

PARTICIPLES.

[Sidenote: _Definition._]

263. Participles are _adjectival_ verbals; that is, they either belong to some substantive by expressing action in connection with it, or they express action, and directly modify a substantive, thus having a descriptive force. Notice these functions.

[Sidenote: _Pure participle in function._]

1. At length, _wearied_ by his cries and agitations, and not
_knowing_ how to put an end to them, he addressed the animal as
if he had been a rational being.--DWIGHT.

Here _wearied_ and _knowing_ belong to the subject _he_, and express action in connection with it, but do not describe.

[Sidenote: _Express action and also describe._]

2. Another name glided into her petition--it was that of the
_wounded_ Christian, whom fate had placed in the hands of
bloodthirsty men, his _avowed_ enemies.--SCOTT.

Here _wounded_ and _avowed_ are participles, but are used with the same adjectival force that _bloodthirsty_ is (see Sec. 143, 4).

Participial adjectives have been discussed in Sec. 143 (4), but we give further examples for the sake of comparison and distinction.

[Sidenote: _Fossil participles as adjectives._]

3. As _learned_ a man may live in a cottage or a college
commmon-room.--THACKERAY

4. Not merely to the soldier are these campaigns _interesting_
--BAYNE.

5. How _charming_ is divine philosophy!--MILTON.

[Sidenote: _Forms of the participle._]

264. Participles, in expressing action, may be active or passive, incomplete (or imperfect), complete (perfect or past), and perfect definite.

They cannot be divided into tenses (present, past, etc.), because they have no tense of their own, but derive their tense from the verb on which they depend; for example,--

1. He walked conscientiously through the services of the day,
_fulfilling_ every section the minutest, etc.--DE QUINCEY.

_Fulfilling_ has the form to denote continuance, but depends on the verb _walked_, which is past tense.

2. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger,
Comes _dancing_ from the East.--MILTON.

_Dancing_ here depends on a verb in the present tense.

265. PARTICIPLES OF THE VERB _CHOOSE_.

ACTIVE VOICE.

_Imperfect._ Choosing. _Perfect._ Having chosen. _Perfect definite._ Having been choosing.

PASSIVE VOICE.

_Imperfect._ None _Perfect._ Chosen, being chosen, having been chosen. _Perfect definite._ None.

Exercise.

Pick out the participles, and tell whether active or passive, imperfect, perfect, or perfect definite. If pure participles, tell to what word they belong; if adjectives, tell what words they modify.

1. The change is a large process, accomplished within a large and corresponding space, having, perhaps, some central or equatorial line, but lying, like that of our earth, between certain tropics, or limits widely separated.

2. I had fallen under medical advice the most misleading that it is possible to imagine.

3. These views, being adopted in a great measure from my mother, were naturally the same as my mother's.

4. Endowed with a great command over herself, she soon obtained an uncontrolled ascendency over her people.

5. No spectacle was more adapted to excite wonder.

6. Having fully supplied the demands of nature in this respect, I returned to reflection on my situation.

7. Three saplings, stripped of their branches and bound together at their ends, formed a kind of bedstead.

8. This all-pervading principle is at work in our system,--the creature warring against the creating power.

9. Perhaps I was too saucy and provoking.

10. Nothing of the kind having been done, and the principles of this unfortunate king having been distorted,... try clemency.

INFINITIVES.

266. Infinitives, like participles, have no tense. When active, they have an indefinite, an imperfect, a perfect, and a perfect definite form; and when passive, an indefinite and a perfect form, to express action unconnected with a subject.

267. INFINITIVES OF THE VERB _CHOOSE._

ACTIVE VOICE.

_Indefinite._ [To] choose. _Imperfect._ [To] be choosing.
_Perfect._ [To] have chosen.
_Perfect definite._ [To] have been choosing.

PASSIVE VOICE.

_Indefinite._ [To] be chosen. _Perfect._ [To] have been chosen.

[Sidenote: To _with the infinitive._]

268. In Sec. 267 the word _to_ is printed in brackets because it is not a necessary part of the infinitive.

It originally belonged only to an inflected form of the infinitive, expressing purpose; as in the Old English, "Ūt ēode se sǣdere his sæd tō sāwenne" (Out went the sower his seed _to sow_).

[Sidenote: _Cases when_ to _is omitted._]

But later, when inflections became fewer, _to_ was used before the infinitive generally, except in the following cases:--

(1) After the auxiliaries _shall_, _will_ (with _should_ and _would_).

(2) After the verbs _may (might), can (could), must_; also _let_, _make_, _do_ (as, "I _do go_" etc.), _see_, _bid_ (command), _feel_, _hear_, _watch_, _please_; sometimes _need_ (as, "He _need_ not _go_") and _dare_ (to venture).

(3) After _had_ in the idiomatic use; as, "You _had_ better _go_" "He _had_ rather _walk_ than _ride_."

(4) In exclamations; as in the following examples:--

"He _find_ pleasure in doing good!" cried Sir
William.--GOLDSMITH.

I _urge_ an address to his kinswoman! I _approach_ her when in a
base disguise! I _do_ this!--SCOTT.

"She _ask_ my pardon, poor woman!" cried Charles.--MACAULAY.

269. _Shall_ and _will_ are not to be taken as separate verbs, but with the infinitive as one tense of a verb; as, "He _will choose_," "I _shall have chosen_," etc.

Also _do_ may be considered an auxiliary in the interrogative, negative, and emphatic forms of the present and past, also in the imperative; as,--

What! _doth_ she, too, as the credulous imagine, _learn_ [_doth
learn_ is one verb, present tense] the love of the great stars?
--BULWER.

_Do_ not _entertain_ so weak an imagination--BURKE.

She _did_ not _weep_--she _did_ not _break forth_ into
reproaches.--IRVING.

270. The infinitive is sometimes active in form while it is passive in meaning, as in the expression, "a house _to let_." Examples are,--

She was a kind, liberal woman; rich rather more than needed where
there were no opera boxes _to rent_.--DE QUINCEY.

Tho' it seems my spurs are yet _to win_.--TENNYSON.

But there was nothing _to do_.--HOWELLS.

They shall have venison _to eat_, and corn _to hoe_.--COOPER.

Nolan himself saw that something was _to pay_.--E.E. HALE.

271. The various offices which the infinitive and the participle have in the sentence will be treated in Part II., under "Analysis," as we are now learning merely to recognize the forms.

GERUNDS.

272. The gerund is like the participle in form, and like a noun in use.

The participle has been called an adjectival verbal; the gerund may be called a _noun verbal_. While the gerund expresses action, it has several attributes of a noun,--it may be governed as a noun; it may be the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or a preposition; it is often preceded by the definite article; it is frequently modified by a possessive noun or pronoun.

[Sidenote: _Distinguished from participle and verbal noun._]

273. It differs from the participle in being always used as a noun: it never belongs to or limits a noun.

It differs from the verbal noun in having the property of governing a noun (which the verbal noun has not) and of expressing action (the verbal noun merely names an action, Sec. II).

The following are examples of the uses of the gerund:--

(1) _Subject_: "The _taking_ of means not to see another morning had all day absorbed every energy;" "Certainly _dueling_ is bad, and has been put down."

(2) _Object_: (_a_) "Our culture therefore must not omit the _arming_ of the man." (_b_) "Nobody cares for _planting_ the poor fungus;" "I announce the good of _being interpenetrated_ by the mind that made nature;" "The guilt of _having been cured_ of the palsy by a Jewish maiden."

(3) _Governing and Governed_: "We are far from _having exhausted_ the significance of the few symbols we use," also (2, _b_), above; "He could embellish the characters with new traits without _violating_ probability;" "He could not help _holding_ out his hand in return."

Exercise.--Find sentences containing five participles, five infinitives, and five gerunds.

SUMMARY OF WORDS IN _-ING_.

274. Words in -ing are of six kinds, according to use as well as meaning. They are as follows:--

(1) _Part of the verb_, making the definite tenses.

(2) _Pure participles_, which express action, but do not assert.

(3) _Participial adjectives_, which express action and also modify.

(4) _Pure adjectives_, which have lost all verbal force.

(5) _Gerunds_, which express action, may govern and be governed.

(6) _Verbal nouns,_ which name an action or state, but cannot govern.

Exercise.

Tell to which of the above six classes each _-ing_ word in the following sentences belongs:--

1. Here is need of apologies for shortcomings.

2. Then how pleasing is it, on your leaving the spot, to see the returning hope of the parents, when, after examining the nest, they find the nurslings untouched!

3. The crowning incident of my life was upon the bank of the Scioto Salt Creek, in which I had been unhorsed by the breaking of the saddle girths.

4. What a vast, brilliant, and wonderful store of learning!

5. He is one of the most charming masters of our language.

6. In explaining to a child the phenomena of nature, you must, by object lessons, give reality to your teaching.

7. I suppose I was dreaming about it. What is dreaming?

8. It is years since I heard the laughter ringing.

9. Intellect is not speaking and logicizing: it is seeing and ascertaining.

10. We now draw toward the end of that great martial drama which we have been briefly contemplating.

11. The second cause of failure was the burning of Moscow.

12. He spread his blessings all over the land.

13. The only means of ascending was by my hands.

14. A marble figure of Mary is stretched upon the tomb, round which is an iron railing, much corroded, bearing her national emblem.

15. The exertion left me in a state of languor and sinking.

16. Thackeray did not, like Sir Walter Scott, write twenty pages without stopping, but, dictating from his chair, he gave out sentence by sentence, slowly.

HOW TO PARSE VERBS AND VERBALS.

I. VERBS.

275. In parsing verbs, give the following points:--

(1) Class: (_a_) as to _form_,--strong or weak, giving principal parts; (_b_) as to _use_,--transitive or intransitive.

(2) Voice,--active or passive.

(3) Mood,--indicative, subjunctive, or imperative.

(4) Tense,--which of the tenses given in Sec. 234.

(5) Person and number, in determining which you must tell--

(6) What the subject is, for the form of the verb may not show the person and number.

[Sidenote: _Caution._]

276. It has been intimated in Sec. 235, we must beware of the rule, "A verb agrees with its subject in person and number." Sometimes it does; usually it does not, if _agrees_ means that the verb changes its form for the different persons and numbers. The verb _be_ has more forms than other verbs, and may be said to _agree_ with its subject in several of its forms. But unless the verb is present, and ends in _-s_, or is an old or poetic form ending in _-st_ or _-eth_, it is best for the student not to state it as a general rule that "the verb agrees with its subject in person and number," but merely to _tell what the subject of the verb is_.

II. VERB PHRASES.

277. Verb phrases are made up of a principal verb followed by an infinitive, and should always be analyzed as phrases, and not taken as single verbs. Especially frequent are those made up of _should_, _would_, _may_, _might_, _can_, _could_, _must_, followed by a pure infinitive without _to_. Take these examples:--

1. Lee _should_ of himself _have replenished_ his stock.

2. The government _might have been_ strong and prosperous.

In such sentences as 1, call _should_ a weak verb, intransitive, therefore active; indicative, past tense; has for its subject _Lee_. _Have replenished_ is a perfect active infinitive.

In 2, call _might_ a weak verb, intransitive, active, indicative (as it means could), past tense; has the subject _government_. _Have been_ is a perfect active infinitive.

For fuller parsing of the infinitive, see Sec. 278(2).

III. VERBALS.

278. (1) Participle. Tell (_a_) from what verb it is derived; (_b_) whether active or passive, imperfect, perfect, etc.; (_c_) to what word it belongs. If a participial adjective, give points (_a_) and (_b_), then parse it as an adjective.

(2) Infinitive. Tell (_a_) from what verb it is derived; (_b_) whether indefinite, perfect, definite, etc.

(3) Gerund. (_a_) From what verb derived; (_b_) its use (Sec. 273).

Exercise.

Parse the verbs, verbals, and verb phrases in the following sentences:--

1. Byron builds a structure that repeats certain elements in nature or humanity.

2. The birds were singing as if there were no aching hearts, no sin nor sorrow, in the world.

3. Let it rise! let it rise, till it meet the sun in his coming; let the earliest light of the morning gild it, and parting day linger and play on its summit.

4. You are gathered to your fathers, and live only to your country in her grateful remembrance.

5. Read this Declaration at the head of the army.

6. Right graciously he smiled on us, as rolled from wing to wing,
Down all the line, a deafening shout, "God save our Lord the King!"

7. When he arose in the morning, he thought only of her, and wondered if she were yet awake.

8. He had lost the quiet of his thoughts, and his agitated soul reflected only broken and distorted images of things.

9. So, lest I be inclined
To render ill for ill,
Henceforth in me instill,
O God, a sweet good will.

10. The sun appears to beat in vain at the casements.

11. Margaret had come into the workshop with her sewing, as usual.

12. Two things there are with memory will abide--
Whatever else befall--while life flows by.

13. To the child it was not permitted to look beyond into the hazy lines that bounded his oasis of flowers.

14. With them, morning is not a new issuing of light, a new bursting forth of the sun; a new waking up of all that has life, from a sort of temporary death.

15. Whatever ground you sow or plant, see that it is in good condition.

16. However that be, it is certain that he had grown to delight in nothing else than this conversation.

17. The soul having been often born, or, as the Hindoos say, "traveling the path of existence through thousands of births," there is nothing of which she has not gained knowledge.

18. The ancients called it ecstasy or absence,--a getting-out of their bodies to think.

19. Such a boy could not whistle or dance.

20. He had rather stand charged with the imbecility of skepticism than with untruth.

21. He can behold with serenity the yawning gulf between the ambition of man and his power of performance.

22. He passed across the room to the washstand, leaving me upon the bed, where I afterward found he had replaced me on being awakened by hearing me leap frantically up and down on the floor.

23. In going for water, he seemed to be traveling over a desert plain to some far-off spring.

24. Hasheesh always brings an awakening of perception which magnifies the smallest sensation.

25. I have always talked to him as I would to a friend.

26. Over them multitudes of rosy children came leaping to throw garlands on my victorious road.

27. Oh, had we some bright little isle of our own!

28. Better it were, thou sayest, to consent;
Feast while we may, and live ere life be spent.

29. And now wend we to yonder fountain, for the hour of rest is at hand.

ADVERBS.

[Sidenote: _Adverbs modify._]

279. The word _adverb_ means _joined to a verb_. The adverb is the only word that can join to a verb to modify it.

[Sidenote: _A verb._]

When action is expressed, an adverb is usually added to define the action in some way,--time, place, or manner: as, "He began _already_ to be proud of being a Rugby boy [time];" "One of the young heroes scrambled up _behind_ [place];" "He was absolute, but _wisely_ and _bravely_ ruling [manner]."

[Sidenote: _An adjective or an adverb._]

But this does not mean that adverbs modify verbs _only_: many of them express degree, and limit adjectives or adverbs; as, "William's private life was _severely_ pure;" "Principles of English law are put down _a little_ confusedly."

[Sidenote: _Sometimes a noun or pronoun._]

Sometimes an adverb may modify a noun or pronoun; for example,--

The young man reveres men of genius, because, to speak truly,
they are _more_ himself than he is.--EMERSON.

Is it _only_ poets, and men of leisure and cultivation, who live
with nature?--_Id._

To the _almost_ terror of the persons present, Macaulay began
with the senior wrangler of 1801-2-3-4, and so on.--THACKERAY.

Nor was it _altogether_ nothing.--CARLYLE.

Sounds overflow the listener's brain So sweet that joy is
_almost_ pain.--SHELLEY.

The condition of Kate is _exactly_ that of Coleridge's "Ancient
Mariner."--DE QUINCEY.

He was _incidentally_ news dealer.--T.B. ALDRICH.

NOTE.--These last differ from the words in Sec. 169, being adverbs naturally and fitly, while those in Sec. 169 are felt to be elliptical, and rather forced into the service of adjectives.

Also these adverbs modifying nouns are to be distinguished from those standing _after_ a noun by ellipsis, but really modifying, not the noun, but some verb understood; thus,--

The gentle winds and waters [that are] near, Make music to the
lonely ear.--BYRON.

With bowering leaves [that grow] _o'erhead_, to which the eye
Looked up half sweetly, and half awfully.--LEIGH HUNT.

[Sidenote: _A phrase._]

An adverb may modify a phrase which is equivalent to an adjective or an adverb, as shown in the sentences,--

They had begun to make their effort much _at the same
time_.--TROLLOPE.

I draw forth the fruit, all wet and glossy, maybe _nibbled by
rabbits and hollowed out by crickets_, and perhaps _with a leaf
or two cemented to it_, but still _with a rich bloom to
it_.--THOREAU.

[Sidenote: _A clause or sentence._]

It may also modify a sentence, emphasizing or qualifying the statement expressed; as, for example,--

And _certainly_ no one ever entered upon office with so few
resources of power in the past.--LOWELL.

_Surely_ happiness is reflective, like the light of heaven.
--IRVING.

We are offered six months' credit; and that, _perhaps_, has
induced some of us to attend it.--FRANKLIN.

[Sidenote: _Definition._]

280. An adverb, then, is a modifying word, which may qualify an action word or a statement, and may add to the meaning of an adjective or adverb, or a word group used as such.

NOTE.--The expression _action word_ is put instead of _verb_, because _any_ verbal word may be limited by an adverb, not simply the forms used in predication.

281. Adverbs may be classified in two ways: (1) according to the meaning of the words; (2) according to their use in the sentence.

ADVERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO MEANING.

282. Thus considered, there are six classes:--

(1) Time; as _now_, _to-day_, _ever_, _lately_, _before_, _hitherto_, etc.

(2) Place. These may be adverbs either of

(_a_) PLACE WHERE; as _here_, _there_, _where_, _near_, _yonder_, _above_, etc.

(_b_) PLACE TO WHICH; as _hither_, _thither_, _whither_, _whithersoever_, etc.

(_c_) PLACE FROM WHICH; as _hence_, _thence_, _whence_, _whencesoever_, etc.

(3) Manner, telling _how_ anything is done; as _well_, _slowly_, _better_, _bravely_, _beautifully_. Action is conceived or performed in so many ways, that these adverbs form a very large class.

(4) Number, telling _how many times_: _once_, _twice_, _singly_, _two by two_, etc.

(5) Degree, telling _how much_; as _little_, _slightly_, _too_, _partly_, _enough_, _greatly_, _much_, _very_, _just_, etc. (see also Sec. 283).

(6) Assertion, telling the speaker's belief or disbelief in a statement, or how far he believes it to be true; as _perhaps_, _maybe_, _surely_, _possibly_, _probably_, _not_, etc.

[Sidenote: _Special remarks on adverbs of degree._]

283. The is an adverb of degree when it limits an adjective or an adverb, especially the comparative of these words; thus,--

But not _the_ less the blare of the tumultuous organ wrought its
own separate creations.--DE QUINCEY.

_The_ more they multiply, _the_ more friends you will have; _the_
more evidently they love liberty, _the_ more perfect will be
their obedience.--BURKE.

This and that are very common as adverbs in spoken English, and not infrequently are found in literary English; for example,--

The master...was for _this_ once of her opinion.--R. LOUIS
STEVENSON.

Death! To die! I owe _that_ much To what, at least, I
was.--BROWNING.

_This_ long's the text.--SHAKESPEARE.

[Sidenote _The status of such_.]

Such is frequently used as an equivalent of _so_: _such_ precedes an adjective with its noun, while _so_ precedes only the adjective usually.

Meekness,...which gained him _such_ universal
popularity.--IRVING.

_Such_ a glittering appearance that no ordinary man would have
been able to close his eyes there.--HAWTHORNE.

An eye of _such_ piercing brightness and _such_ commanding power
that it gave an air of inspiration.--LECKY.

So also in Grote, Emerson, Thackeray, Motley, White, and others.

[Sidenote: _Pretty._]

Pretty has a wider adverbial use than it gets credit for.

I believe our astonishment is _pretty_ equal.--FIELDING.

Hard blows and hard money, the feel of both of which you know
_pretty_ well by now.--KINGSLEY.

The first of these generals is _pretty_ generally recognized as
the greatest military genius that ever lived.--BAYNE.

A _pretty_ large experience.--THACKERAY.

_Pretty_ is also used by Prescott, Franklin, De Quincey, Defoe, Dickens, Kingsley, Burke, Emerson, Aldrich, Holmes, and other writers.

[Sidenote: Mighty.]

The adverb mighty is very common in colloquial English; for example,--

"_Mighty_ well, Deacon Gookin!" replied the solemn tones of the
minister.--HAWTHORNE.

"Maybe you're wanting to get over?--anybody sick? Ye seem
_mighty_ anxious!"--H.B. STOWE.

It is only occasionally used in literary English; for example,--

You are _mighty_ courteous.--BULWER.

Beau Fielding, a _mighty_ fine gentleman.--THACKERAY.

"Peace, Neville," said the king, "thou think'st thyself _mighty_
wise, and art but a fool."--SCOTT.

I perceived his sisters _mighty_ busy.--GOLDSMITH.

[Sidenote: _Notice meanings._]

284. Again, the meaning of words must be noticed rather than their form; for many words given above may be moved from one class to another at will: as these examples,--"He walked too _far_ [place];" "That were _far_ better [degree];" "He spoke _positively_ [manner];" "That is _positively_ untrue [assertion];" "I have seen you _before_ [time];" "The house, and its lawn _before_ [place]."

ADVERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO USE.

[Sidenote: _Simple._]

285. All adverbs which have no function in the sentence except to modify are called simple adverbs. Such are most of those given already in Sec. 282.

[Sidenote: _Interrogative._]

286. Some adverbs, besides modifying, have the additional function of asking a question.

[Sidenote: _Direct questions._]

These may introduce direct questions of--

(1) Time.

_When_ did this humane custom begin?--H. CLAY.

(2) Place.

_Where_ will you have the scene?--LONGFELLOW

(3) Manner.

And _how_ looks it now?--HAWTHORNE.

(4) Degree.

"_How_ long have you had this whip?" asked he.--BULWER.

(5) Reason.

_Why_ that wild stare and wilder cry?--WHITTIER

Now _wherefore_ stopp'st thou me?--COLERIDGE

[Sidenote: _Indirect questions._]

Or they may introduce indirect questions of--

(1) Time.

I do not remember _when_ I was taught to read.--D. WEBSTER.

(2) Place.

I will not ask _where_ thou liest low.--BYRON

(3) Manner.

Who set you to cast about what you should say to the select
souls, or _how_ to say anything to such?--EMERSON.

(4) Degree.

Being too full of sleep to understand
_How_ far the unknown transcends the what we know.
--LONGFELLOW

(5) Reason.

I hearkened, I know not _why_.--POE.

287. There is a class of words usually classed as conjunctive adverbs, as they are said to have the office of conjunctions in joining clauses, while having the office of adverbs in modifying; for example,--

_When_ last I saw thy young blue eyes, they smiled.--BYRON.

But in reality, _when_ does not express time and modify, but the whole clause, _when_..._eyes_; and _when_ has simply the use of a conjunction, not an adverb. For further discussion, see Sec. 299 under "Subordinate Conjunctions."

Exercise.--Bring up sentences containing twenty adverbs, representing four classes.

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

288. Many adverbs are compared, and, when compared, have the same inflection as adjectives.

The following, irregularly compared, are often used as adjectives:--

_Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._

well better best
ill or badly worse worst
much more most
little less least
nigh or near nearer nearest or next
far farther, further farthest, furthest
late later latest, last
(rathe, _obs._) rather

289. Most monosyllabic adverbs add _-er_ and _-est_ to form the comparative and superlative, just as adjectives do; as, _high_, _higher_, _highest_; _soon_, _sooner_, _soonest_.

Adverbs in _-ly_ usually have _more_ and _most_ instead of the inflected form, only occasionally having _-er_ and _-est_.

Its strings _boldlier_ swept.--COLERIDGE.

None can deem _harshlier_ of me than I deem.--BYRON.

Only that we may _wiselier_ see.--EMERSON.

Then must she keep it _safelier_.--TENNYSON.

I should _freelier_ rejoice in that absence.--SHAKESPEARE.

[Sidenote: _Form_ vs. _use._]

290. The fact that a word ends in _-ly_ does not make it an adverb. Many adjectives have the same ending, and must be distinguished by their use in the sentence.

Exercise.

Tell what each word in _ly_ modifies, then whether it is an adjective or an adverb.

1. It seems certain that the Normans were more cleanly in their habits, more courtly in their manners.

2. It is true he was rarely heard to speak.

3. He would inhale the smoke slowly and tranquilly.

4. The perfectly heavenly law might be made law on earth.

5. The king winced when he saw his homely little bride.

6. With his proud, quick-flashing eye,
And his mien of kingly state.

7. And all about, a lovely sky of blue
Clearly was felt, or down the leaves laughed through.

8. He is inexpressibly mean, curiously jolly, kindly and good-natured in secret.

291. Again, many words without _-ly_ have the same form, whether adverbs or adjectives.

The reason is, that in Old and Middle English, adverbs derived from adjectives had the ending _-e_ as a distinguishing mark; as,--

If men smoot it with a yerde _smerte_ [If men smote it with a rod
smartly].--CHAUCER.

This _e_ dropping off left both words having the same form.

Weeds were sure to grow _quicker_ in his fields.--IRVING.

O _sweet_ and _far_ from cliff and scar The horns of Elfland
faintly blowing.--TENNYSON.

But he must do his errand _right._--DRAKE

_Long_ she looked in his tiny face.--_Id._

Not _near_ so black as he was painted.--THACKERAY.

In some cases adverbs with _-ly_ are used side by side with those without _-ly_, but with a different meaning. Such are _most_, _mostly_; _near_, _nearly_; _even_, _evenly_; _hard_, _hardly_; etc.

[Sidenote: _Special use of_ there.]

292. Frequently the word there, instead of being used adverbially, merely introduces a sentence, and inverts the usual order of subject and predicate.

This is such a fixed idiom that the sentence, if it has the verb _be_, seems awkward or affected without this "_there_ introductory." Compare these:--

1. _There_ are eyes, to be sure, that give no more admission into
the man than blueberries.--EMERSON.

2. Time was when field and watery cove With modulated echoes
rang.--WORDSWORTH.

HOW TO PARSE ADVERBS.

293. In parsing adverbs, give--

(1) The class, according to meaning and also use.

(2) Degree of comparison, if the word is compared.

(3) What word or word group it modifies.

Exercise.

Parse all the adverbs in the following sentences:--

1. Now the earth is so full that a drop overfills it.

2. The higher we rise in the scale of being, the more certainly we quit the region of the brilliant eccentricities and dazzling contrasts which belong to a vulgar greatness.

3. We sit in the warm shade and feel right well
How the sap creeps up and blossoms swell.

4. Meanwhile the Protestants believed somewhat doubtfully that he was theirs.

5. Whence else could arise the bruises which I had received, but from my fall?

6. We somehow greedily gobble down all stories in which the characters of our friends are chopped up.

7. How carefully that blessed day is marked in their little calendars!

8. But a few steps farther on, at the regular wine-shop, the Madonna is in great glory.

9. The foolish and the dead alone never change their opinion.

10. It is the Cross that is first seen, and always, burning in the center of the temple.

11. For the impracticable, however theoretically enticing, is always politically unwise.

12. Whence come you? and whither are you bound?

13. How comes it that the evil which men say spreads so widely and lasts so long, whilst our good kind words don't seem somehow to take root and blossom?

14. At these carousals Alexander drank deep.

15. Perhaps he has been getting up a little architecture on the road from Florence.

16. It is left you to find out why your ears are boxed.

17. Thither we went, and sate down on the steps of a house.

18. He could never fix which side of the garden walk would suit him best, but continually shifted.

19. But now the wind rose again, and the stern drifted in toward the bank.

20. He caught the scent of wild thyme in the air, and found room to wonder how it could have got there.

21. They were soon launched on the princely bosom of the Thames, upon which the sun now shone forth.

22. Why should we suppose that conscientious motives, feeble as they are constantly found to be in a good cause, should be omnipotent for evil?

24. It was pretty bad after that, and but for Polly's outdoor exercise, she would undoubtedly have succumbed.

CONJUNCTIONS.

294. Unlike adverbs, conjunctions do not modify: they are used solely for the purpose of connecting.

Examples of the use of conjunctions:--

[Sidenote: _They connect_ words.]

(1) _Connecting words_: "It is the very necessity _and_ condition of existence;" "What a simple _but_ exquisite illustration!"

[Sidenote: Word groups: _Phrases._]

[Sidenote: _Clauses._]

(2) _Connecting word groups_: "Hitherto the two systems have existed in different States, _but_ side by side within the American Union;" "This has happened _because_ the Union is a confederation of States."

[Sidenote: _Sentences._]

(3) _Connecting sentences_: "Unanimity in this case can mean only a very large majority. _But_ even unanimity itself is far from indicating the voice of God."

[Sidenote: _Paragraphs._]

(4) _Connecting sentence groups_: Paragraphs would be too long to quote here, but the student will readily find them, in which the writer connects the divisions of narration or argument by such words as _but_, _however_, _hence_, _nor_, _then_, _therefore_, etc.

[Sidenote: _Definition._]

295. A conjunction is a linking word, connecting words, word groups, sentences, or sentence groups.

[Sidenote: _Classes of conjunctions._]

296. Conjunctions have two principal divisions:--

(1) Coördinate, joining words, word groups, etc., of the _same rank_.

(2) Subordinate, joining a subordinate or dependent clause to a principal or independent clause.

COÖRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.

297. Coördinate conjunctions are of four kinds:

(1) COPULATIVE, coupling or uniting words and expressions in the same line of thought; as _and_, _also_, _as well as_, _moreover_, etc.

(2) ADVERSATIVE, connecting words and expressions that are opposite in thought; as _but_, _yet_, _still_, _however_, _while_, _only_, etc.

(3) CAUSAL, introducing a reason or cause. The chief ones are, _for_, _therefore_, _hence_, _then_.

(4) ALTERNATIVE, expressing a choice, usually between two things. They are _or_, _either_, _else_, _nor_, _neither_, _whether_.

[Sidenote: _Correlatives._]

298. Some of these go in pairs, answering to each other in the same sentence; as, _both_..._and_; _not only_..._but_ (or _but also_); _either_..._or_; _whether_..._or_; _neither_..._nor_; _whether_..._or whether_.

Some go in threes; as, _not only_..._but_... _and_; _either_..._or_..._or_; _neither_..._nor_... _nor_.

Further examples of the use of coördinate conjunctions:--

[Sidenote: _Copulative._]

Your letter, _likewise_, had its weight; the bread was spent, the butter _too_; the window being open, _as well as_ the room door.

[Sidenote: _Adversative._]

The assertion, _however_, serves but to show their ignorance. "Can this be so?" said Goodman Brown. "_Howbeit_, I have nothing to do with the governor and council."

_Nevertheless_, in this mansion of gloom I now proposed to myself a sojourn of some weeks.

[Sidenote: _Alternative._]

While the earth bears a plant, _or_ the sea rolls its waves.

_Nor_ mark'd they less, where in the air
A thousand streamers flaunted fair.

[Sidenote: _Causal._]

_Therefore_ the poet is not any permissive potentate, but is emperor in his own right. _For_ it is the rule of the universe that corn shall serve man, and not man corn.

Examples of the use of correlatives:--

He began to doubt whether _both_ he _and_ the world around him
were not bewitched.--IRVING.

He is _not only_ bold and vociferous, _but_ possesses a
considerable talent for mimicry, _and_ seems to enjoy great
satisfaction in mocking and teasing other birds.--WILSON.

It is...the same _whether_ I move my hand along the surface of a
body, _or whether_ such a body is moved along my hand.--BURKE.

_Neither_ the place in which he found himself, _nor_ the
exclusive attention that he attracted, disturbed the
self-possession of the young Mohican.--COOPER.

_Neither_ was there any phantom memorial of life, _nor_ wing of
bird, _nor_ echo, _nor_ green leaf, _nor_ creeping thing, that
moved or stirred upon the soundless waste.--DE QUINCEY.

SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.

299. Subordinate conjunctions are of the following kinds:--

(1) PLACE: _where_, _wherever_, _whither_, _whereto_, _whithersoever_, _whence_, etc.

(2) TIME: _when_, _before_, _after_, _since_, _as_, _until_, _whenever_, _while_, _ere_, etc.

(3) MANNER: _how_, _as_, _however_, _howsoever_.

(4) CAUSE or REASON: _because_, _since_, _as_, _now_, _whereas_, _that_, _seeing_, etc.

(5) COMPARISON: _than_ and _as_.

(6) PURPOSE: _that_, _so_, _so that_, _in order that_, _lest_, _so_..._as_.

(7) RESULT: _that_, _so that_, especially _that_ after _so_.

(8) CONDITION or CONCESSION: _if_, _unless_, _so_, _except_, _though_, _although_; _even if_, _provided_, _provided that_, _in case_, _on condition that_, etc.

(9) SUBSTANTIVE: _that_, _whether_, sometimes _if_, are used frequently to introduce noun clauses used as _subject, object, in apposition_, etc.

Examples of the use of subordinate conjunctions:--

[Sidenote: _Place._]

Where the treasure is, there will the heart be also.--_Bible._

To lead from eighteen to twenty millions of men _whithersoever_
they will.--J. QUINCY.

An artist will delight in excellence _wherever_ he meets it.
--ALLSTON.

[Sidenote: _Time._]

I promise to devote myself to your happiness _whenever_ you shall
ask it of me.--PAULDING.

It is sixteen years _since_ I saw the Queen of France.--BURKE.

[Sidenote: _Manner._]

Let the world go _how_ it will.--CARLYLE

Events proceed, not _as_ they were expected or intended, but _as_
they are impelled by the irresistible laws.--AMES.

[Sidenote: _Cause, reason._]

I see no reason _why_ I should not have the same
thought.--EMERSON.

Then Denmark blest our chief,
_That_ he gave her wounds repose.
--CAMPBELL.

_Now_ he is dead, his martyrdom will reap
Late harvests of the palms he should have had in life.
--H.H. JACKSON

Sparing neither whip nor spur, _seeing that_ he carried the
vindication of his patron's fame in his saddlebags.--IRVING.

[Sidenote: _Comparison._]

As a soldier, he was more solicitous to avoid mistakes _than_ to
perform exploits that are brilliant.--AMES.

All the subsequent experience of our race had gone over him with
as little permanent effect _as_ [_as_ follows the semi-adverbs
_as_ and _so_ in expressing comparison] the passing
breeze.--HAWTHORNE.

[Sidenote: _Purpose._]

We wish for a thousand heads, a thousand bodies, _that_ we might
celebrate its immense beauty.--EMERSON.

[Sidenote: _Result._]

So many thoughts moved to and fro,
_That_ vain it were her eyes to close.
--COLERIDGE.

I was again covered with water, but not so long _but_ I held it
out.--DEFOE.

[Sidenote: _Condition._]

A ridicule which is of no import _unless_ the scholar heed
it.--EMERSON.

There flowers or weeds at will may grow,
_So_ I behold them not.
--BYRON.

[Sidenote: _Concession_.]

What _though_ the radiance which was once so bright
Be now forever taken from my sight.--WORDSWORTH.

[Sidenote: _Substantive._]

It seems a pity _that_ we can only spend it once.--EMERSON.

We do not believe _that_ he left any worthy man his foe who had
ever been his friend.--AMES.

Let us see _whether_ the greatest, the wisest, the purest-hearted
of all ages are agreed in any wise on this point.--RUSKIN.

Who can tell _if_ Washington be a great man or no?--EMERSON.

300. As will have been noticed, some words--for example, _since_, _while_, _as_, _that_, etc.--may belong to several classes of conjunctions, according to their meaning and connection in the sentence.

Exercises.

(_a_) Bring up sentences containing five examples of coördinate conjunctions.

(_b_) Bring up sentences containing three examples of correlatives.

(_c_) Bring up sentences containing ten subordinate conjunctions.

(_d_) Tell whether the italicized words in the following sentences are conjunctions or adverbs; classify them if conjunctions:--

1. _Yet_ these were often exhibited throughout our city.

2. No one had _yet_ caught his character.

3. _After_ he was gone, the lady called her servant.

4. And they lived happily forever _after_.

5. They, _however_, hold a subordinate rank.

6. _However_ ambitious a woman may be to command admiration abroad, her real merit is known at home.

7. _Whence_ else could arise the bruises which I had received?

8. He was brought up for the church, _whence_ he was occasionally called the Dominie.

9. And _then_ recovering, she faintly pressed her hand.

10. In what point of view, _then_, is war not to be regarded with horror?

11. The moth fly, _as_ he shot in air, Crept under the leaf, and hid her there.

12. Besides, _as_ the rulers of a nation are _as_ liable _as_ other people to be governed by passion and prejudice, there is little prospect of justice in permitting war.

13. _While_ a faction is a minority, it will remain harmless.

14. _While_ patriotism glowed in his heart, wisdom blended in his speech her authority with her charms.

15. _Hence_ it is highly important that the custom of war should be abolished.

16. The raft and the money had been thrown near her, none of the lashings having given way; _only_ what is the use of a guinea amongst tangle and sea gulls?

17. _Only_ let his thoughts be of equal scope, and the frame will suit the picture.

SPECIAL REMARKS.

[Sidenote: As if.]

301. _As if_ is often used as one conjunction of manner, but really there is an ellipsis between the two words; thus,--

But thy soft murmuring
Sounds sweet _as if_ a sister's voice reproved.
--BYRON.

If analyzed, the expression would be, "sounds sweet _as_ [the sound would be] _if_ a sister's voice reproved;" _as_, in this case, expressing degree if taken separately.

But the ellipsis seems to be lost sight of frequently in writing, as is shown by the use of _as though_.

[Sidenote: As though.]

302. In Emerson's sentence, "We meet, and part _as though_ we parted not," it cannot be said that there is an ellipsis: it cannot mean "we part _as_ [we should part] _though_" etc.

Consequently, _as if_ and _as though_ may be taken as double conjunctions expressing manner. _As though_ seems to be in as wide use as the conjunction _as if_; for example,--

Do you know a farmer who acts and lives _as though_ he believed
one word of this?--H GREELEY.

His voice ... sounded _as though_ it came out of a
barrel.--IRVING.

Blinded alike from sunshine and from rain,
_As though_ a rose should shut, and be a bud again.
--KEATS

Examples might be quoted from almost all authors.

[Sidenote: As _for_ as if.]

303. In poetry, _as_ is often equivalent to _as if_.

And their orbs grew strangely dreary,
Clouded, even _as_ they would weep.
--EMILY BRONTE.

So silently we seemed to speak,
So slowly moved about,
_As_ we had lent her half our powers
To eke her living out.
--HOOD.

HOW TO PARSE CONJUNCTIONS.

304. In parsing conjunctions, tell--

(1) To what class and subclass they belong.

(2) What words, word groups, etc., they connect.

[Sidenote: _Caution_.]

In classifying them, particular attention must be paid to the _meaning_ of the word. Some conjunctions, such as _nor, and, because, when_, etc., are regularly of one particular class; others belong to several classes. For example, compare the sentences,--

1. It continued raining, _so_ that I could not stir
abroad.--DEFOE

2. There will be an agreement in whatever variety of actions,
_so_ they be each honest and natural in their hour.--EMERSON

3. It was too dark to put an arrow into the creature's eye; _so_
they paddled on.--KINGSLEY

In sentence 1, _so that_ expresses result, and its clause depends on the other, hence it is a subordinate conjunction of result; in 2, _so_ means provided,--is subordinate of condition; in 3, _so_ means therefore, and its clause is independent, hence it is a coördinate conjunction of reason.

Exercise.

Parse all the conjunctions in these sentences:--

1. When the gods come among men, they are not known.

2. If he could solve the riddle, the Sphinx was slain.

3. A lady with whom I was riding in the forest said to me that the woods always seemed to wait, as if the genii who inhabit them suspended their deeds until the wayfarer had passed.

4. The mountain of granite blooms into an eternal flower, with the lightness and delicate finish as well as the aërial proportions and perspective of vegetable scenery.

5. At sea, or in the forest, or in the snow, he sleeps as warm, dines with as good an appetite, and associates as happily, as beside his own chimneys.

6. Our admiration of the antique is not admiration of the old, but of the natural.

7. "Doctor," said his wife to Martin Luther, "how is it that whilst subject to papacy we prayed so often and with such fervor, whilst now we pray with the utmost coldness, and very seldom?"

8. All the postulates of elfin annals,--that the fairies do not like to be named; that their gifts are capricious and not to be trusted; and the like,--I find them true in Concord, however they might be in Cornwall or Bretagne.

9. He is the compend of time; he is also the correlative of nature.

10. He dismisses without notice his thought, because it is his.

11. The eye was placed where one ray should fall, that it might testify of that particular ray.

12. It may be safely trusted, so it be faithfully imparted.

13. He knows how to speak to his contemporaries.

14. Goodness must have some edge to it,--else it is none.

15. I hope it is somewhat better than whim at last.

16. Now you have the whip in your hand, won't you lay on?

17. I scowl as I dip my pen into the inkstand.

18. I speak, therefore, of good novels only.

19. Let her loose in the library as you do a fawn in a field.

20. And whether consciously or not, you must be, in many a heart, enthroned.

21. It is clear, however, the whole conditions are changed.

22. I never rested until I had a copy of the book.

23. For, though there may be little resemblance otherwise, in this they agree, that both were wayward.

24. Still, she might have the family countenance; and Kate thought he looked with a suspicious scrutiny into her face as he inquired for the young don.

25. He follows his genius whithersoever it may lead him.

26. The manuscript indeed speaks of many more, whose names I omit, seeing that it behooves me to hasten.

27. God had marked this woman's sin with a scarlet letter, which had such efficacy that no human sympathy could reach her, save it were sinful like herself.

28. I rejoice to stand here no longer, to be looked at as though I had seven heads and ten horns.

29. He should neither praise nor blame nor defend his equals.

30. There was no iron to be seen, nor did they appear acquainted with its properties; for they unguardedly took a drawn sword by the edge, when it was presented to them.

PREPOSITIONS..

305. The word _preposition_ implies _place before_: hence it would seem that a preposition is always _before_ its object. It may be so in the majority of cases, but in a considerable proportion of instances the preposition is _after_ its object.

This occurs in such cases as the following:--

[Sidenote: Preposition not before its object.]

(1) _After a relative pronoun_, a very common occurrence; thus,--

The most dismal Christmas fun _which_ these eyes ever looked
_on_.--THACKERAY.

An ancient nation _which_ they know nothing _of_.--EMERSON.

A foe, _whom_ a champion has fought _with_ to-day.--SCOTT.

Some little toys _that_ girls are fond _of_.--SWIFT.

"It's the man _that_ I spoke to you _about_" said Mr.
Pickwick.--DICKENS.

(2) _After an interrogative adverb, adjective, or pronoun_, also frequently found:--

_What_ God doth the wizard pray _to_?--HAWTHORNE.

_What_ is the little one thinking about?--J.G. HOLLAND.

_Where_ the Devil did it come _from_, I wonder?--DICKENS.

(3) _With an infinitive_, in such expressions as these:--

A proper _quarrel_ for a Crusader to do battle _in_.--SCOTT.

"You know, General, it was _nothing_ to joke _about_."--CABLE

Had no harsh _treatment_ to reproach herself _with_.--BOYESEN

A _loss of vitality_ scarcely to be accounted _for_.--HOLMES.

Places for _horses_ to be hitched _to_.--_Id._

(4) _After a noun_,--the case in which the preposition is expected to be, and regularly is, before its object; as,--

And unseen mermaids' pearly song
Comes bubbling up, the weeds _among_.
--BEDDOES.

Forever panting and forever young,
All breathing human passion far _above_.
--KEATS.

306. Since the object of a preposition is most often a noun, the statement is made that the preposition usually precedes its object; as in the following sentence, "Roused _by_ the shock, he started _from_ his trance."

Here the words _by_ and _from_ are connectives; but they do more than connect. _By_ shows the relation in thought between _roused_ and _shock_, expressing means or agency; _from_ shows the relation in thought between _started_ and _trance_, and expresses separation. Both introduce phrases.

[Sidenote: _Definition_.]