Chapter VI: Part I: The Parts of Speech (3)

1. Formerly the duty of a librarian was to keep people as much as
possible from the books, and to hand _these_ over to his
successor as little worn as he could.--LOWELL.

2. They had fewer books, but _these_ were of the best.--_Id._

3. A man inspires affection and honor, because he was not lying
in wait for _these_.--EMERSON

4. Souls such as _these_ treat you as gods would.--_Id._

5. _These_ are the first mountains that broke the uniform level
of the earth's surface.--AGASSIZ

DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS.

[Sidenote: _Definition and examples._]

134. The DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS are those which stand for the names of persons or things considered singly.

[Sidenote: _Simple._]

Some of these are _simple_ pronouns; for example,--

They stood, or sat, or reclined, as seemed good to _each_.

As two yoke devils sworn to _other's_ purpose.

Their minds accorded into one strain, and made delightful music
which _neither_ could have claimed as all his own.

[Sidenote: _Compound_.]

Two are compound pronouns,--_each other_, _one another_. They may be separated into two adjective pronouns; as,

We violated our reverence _each_ for _the other's_ soul.
--HAWTHORNE.

More frequently they are considered as one pronoun.

They led one another, as it were, into a high pavilion of their
thoughts.--HAWTHORNE.

Men take each other's measure when they react.--EMERSON.

Exercise.--Find sentences containing three distributive pronouns.

NUMERAL PRONOUNS.

[Sidenote: _Definition and examples_.]

135. The NUMERAL PRONOUNS are those which stand for an uncertain number or quantity of persons or things.

The following sentences contain numeral pronouns:--

Trusting too much to _others'_ care is the ruin of _many_.

'Tis of no importance how large his house, you quickly come to
the end of _all_.

_Another_ opposes him with sound argument.

It is as if _one_ should be so enthusiastic a lover of poetry as
to care nothing for Homer or Milton.

There were plenty _more_ for him to fall in company with, as
_some_ of the rangers had gone astray.

The Soldan, imbued, as _most_ were, with the superstitions of his
time, paused over a horoscope.

If those [taxes] were the only _ones_ we had to pay, we might the
more easily discharge them.

_Much_ might be said on both sides.

If hand of mine _another's_ task has lightened.
It felt the guidance that it does not claim.
So perish _all_ whose breast ne'er learned to glow
For _others_' good, or melt for _others_' woe.

_None_ shall rule but the humble.

[Sidenote: _Some inflected._]

It will be noticed that some of these are inflected for case and number; such as _one other_, _another_.

The word _one_ has a reflexive form; for example,--

[Sidenote: One _reflexive_.]

The best way to punish _oneself_ for doing ill seems to me to go
and do good.--KINGSLEY.

The lines sound so prettily to _one's self_. HOLMES.

Exercise.--Find sentences containing ten numeral pronouns.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

[Sidenote: _Definition and examples._]

136. Indefinite pronouns are words which stand for an indefinite number or quantity of persons or things; but, unlike adjective pronouns, they are never used as adjectives.

Most of them are compounds of two or more words:--

[Sidenote: _List._]

_Somebody_, _some one_, _something_; _anybody_, _any one_ (or _anyone_), _anything_; _everybody_, _every one_ (or _everyone_), _everything_; _nobody_, _no one_, _nothing_; _somebody else_, _anyone else_, _everybody else_, _every one else_, etc.; also _aught_, _naught_; and _somewhat_, _what_, and _they_.

The following sentences contain indefinite pronouns:--

As he had them of all hues, he hoped to fit _everybody's_ fancy.

_Every one_ knows how laborious the usual method is of attaining
to arts and sciences.

_Nothing_ sheds more honor on our early history than the
impression which these measures everywhere produced in America.

Let us also perform _something_ worthy to be remembered.

William of Orange was more than _anything else_ a religious man.

Frederick was discerned to be a purchaser of _everything_ that
_nobody else_ would buy.

These other souls draw me as _nothing else_ can.

The genius that created it now creates _somewhat else_.

_Every one else_ stood still at his post.

That is perfectly true: I did not want _anybody else's_ authority
to write as I did.

_They_ indefinite means people in general; as,--

At lovers' perjuries, _they_ say, Jove laughs.--SHAKESPEARE.

_What_ indefinite is used in the expression "I tell you _what_." It means _something_, and was indefinite in Old English.

Now, in building of chaises, I tell you _what_,
There is always somewhere a weakest spot.

Exercise.--Find sentences with six indefinite pronouns.

137. Some indefinite pronouns are inflected for case, as shown in the words _everybody's_, _anybody else's_, etc.

See also "Syntax" (Sec. 426) as to the possessive case of the forms with _else_.

HOW TO PARSE PRONOUNS.

[Sidenote: _A reminder._]

138. In parsing pronouns the student will need particularly to guard against the mistake of parsing words according to _form_ instead of according to function or use.

Exercise.

Parse in full the pronouns in the following sentences:--

1. She could not help laughing at the vile English into which
they were translated.

2. Our readers probably remember what Mrs. Hutchinson tells us of
herself.

3. Whoever deals with M. de Witt must go the plain way that he
pretends to, in his negotiations.

4. Some of them from whom nothing was to be got, were suffered to
depart; but those from whom it was thought that anything could be
extorted were treated with execrable cruelty.

5. All was now ready for action.

6. Scarcely had the mutiny broken up when he was himself again.

7. He came back determined to put everything to the hazard.

8. Nothing is more clear than that a general ought to be the
servant of his government, and of no other.

9. Others did the same thing, but not to quite so enormous an
extent.

10. On reaching the approach to this about sunset of a beautiful
evening in June, I first found myself among the mountains,--a
feature of natural scenery for which, from my earliest days, it
was not extravagant to say that I hungered and thirsted.

11. I speak of that part which chiefly it is that I know.

12. A smaller sum I had given to my friend the attorney (who was
connected with the money lenders as their lawyer), to which,
indeed, he was entitled for his unfurnished lodgings.

13. Whatever power the law gave them would be enforced against
me to the utmost.

14. O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers!

15. But there are more than you ever heard of who die of grief in
this island of ours.

16. But amongst themselves is no voice nor sound.

17. For this did God send her a great reward.

18. The table was good; but that was exactly what Kate cared
little about.

19. Who and what was Milton? That is to say, what is the place
which he fills in his own vernacular literature?

20. These hopes are mine as much as theirs.

21. What else am I who laughed or wept yesterday, who slept last
night like a corpse?

22. I who alone am, I who see nothing in nature whose existence I
can affirm with equal evidence to my own, behold now the
semblance of my being, in all its height, variety, and curiosity
reiterated in a foreign form.

23. What hand but would a garland cull
For thee who art so beautiful?

24. And I had done a hellish thing,
And it would work 'em woe.

25. Whatever he knows and thinks, whatever in his apprehension is
worth doing, that let him communicate.

26. Rip Van Winkle was one of those foolish, well-oiled
dispositions, who take the world easy, eat white bread or brown,
whichever can be got with least thought or trouble.

27. And will your mother pity me,
Who am a maiden most forlorn?

28. They know not I knew thee,
Who knew thee too well.

29. I did remind thee of our own dear Lake,
By the old Hall which may be mine no more.

30. He sate him down, and seized a pen, and traced
Words which I could not guess of.

31. Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow:
Such as creation's dawn beheld, thou rollest now.

32. Wild Spirit which art moving everywhere;
Destroyer and preserver; hear, oh, hear!

33. A smile of hers was like an act of grace.

34. No man can learn what he has not preparation for learning.

35. What can we see or acquire but what we are?

36. He teaches who gives, and he learns who receives.

37. We are by nature observers; that is our permanent state.

38. He knew not what to do, and so he read.

39. Who hears me, who understands me, becomes mine.

40. The men who carry their points do not need to inquire of
their constituents what they should say.

41. Higher natures overpower lower ones by affecting them with a
certain sleep.

42. Those who live to the future must always appear selfish to
those who live to the present.

43. I am sorry when my independence is invaded or when a gift
comes from such as do not know my spirit.

44. Here I began to howl and scream abominably, which was no bad
step towards my liberation.

45. The only aim of the war is to see which is the stronger of
the two--which is the master.

ADJECTIVES.

[Sidenote: _Office of Adjectives._]

139. Nouns are seldom used as names of objects without additional words joined to them to add to their meaning. For example, if we wish to speak of a friend's house, we cannot guide one to it by merely calling it _a house_. We need to add some words to tell its color, size, position, etc., if we are at a distance; and if we are near, we need some word to point out the house we speak of, so that no other will be mistaken for it. So with any object, or with persons.

As to the kind of words used, we may begin with the common adjectives telling the _characteristics_ of an object. If a chemist discovers a new substance, he cannot describe it to others without telling its qualities: he will say it is _solid_, or _liquid_, or _gaseous_; _heavy_ or _light_; _brittle_ or _tough_; _white_ or _red_; etc.

Again, in _pointing out_ an object, adjectives are used; such as in the expressions "_this_ man," "_that_ house," "_yonder_ hill," etc.

Instead of using nouns indefinitely, the _number_ is limited by adjectives; as, "_one_ hat," "_some_ cities," "_a hundred_ men."

The office of an adjective, then, is to narrow down or limit the application of a noun. It may have this office alone, or it may at the same time add to the meaning of the noun.

[Sidenote: _Substantives._]

140. Nouns are not, however, the only words limited by adjectives: pronouns and other words and expressions also have adjectives joined to them. Any word or word group that performs the same office as a noun may be modified by adjectives.

To make this clear, notice the following sentences:--

[Sidenote: _Pronoun._]

If _he_ be _thankful_ for small benefits, it shows that he weighs
men's minds, and their trash.--BACON.

[Sidenote: _Infinitives._]

_To err_ is _human_; _to forgive, divine_.--POPE.

With exception of the "and then," the "and there," and the still
less _significant_ "_and so_," they constitute all his
connections.--COLERIDGE.

[Sidenote: _Definition._]

141. An adjective is a word joined to a noun or other substantive word or expression, to describe it or to limit its application.

[Sidenote: _Classes of adjectives._]

142. Adjectives are divided into four classes:--

(1) Descriptive adjectives, which describe by expressing qualities or attributes of a substantive.

(2) Adjectives of quantity, used to tell how many things are spoken of, or how much of a thing.

(3) Demonstrative adjectives, pointing out particular things.

(4) Pronominal adjectives, words primarily pronouns, but used adjectively sometimes in modifying nouns instead of standing for them. They include relative and interrogative words.

DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES.

143. This large class includes several kinds of words:--

(1) SIMPLE ADJECTIVES expressing quality; such as _safe_, _happy_, _deep_, _fair_, _rash_, _beautiful_, _remotest_, _terrible_, etc.

(2) COMPOUND ADJECTIVES, made up of various words thrown together to make descriptive epithets. Examples are, "_Heaven-derived_ power," "this _life-giving_ book," "his spirit wrapt and _wonder-struck_," "_ice-cold_ water," "_half-dead_ traveler," "_unlooked-for_ burden," "_next-door_ neighbor," "_ivory-handled_ pistols," "the _cold-shudder-inspiring_ Woman in White."

(3) PROPER ADJECTIVES, derived from proper nouns; such as, "an old _English_ manuscript," "the _Christian_ pearl of charity," "the well-curb had a _Chinese_ roof," "the _Roman_ writer Palladius."

(4) PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES, which are either pure participles used to describe, or participles which have lost all verbal force and have no function except to express quality. Examples are,--

_Pure participial adjectives_: "The _healing_ power of the Messiah," "The _shattering_ sway of one strong arm," "_trailing_ clouds," "The _shattered_ squares have opened into line," "It came on like the _rolling_ simoom," "God tempers the wind to the _shorn_ lamb."

_Faded participial adjectives_: "Sleep is a _blessed_ thing;" "One is hungry, and another is _drunken_;" "under the _fitting_ drapery of the jagged and trailing clouds;" "The clearness and quickness are _amazing_;" "an _aged_ man;" "a _charming_ sight."

[Sidenote: _Caution._]

144. Care is needed, in studying these last-named words, to distinguish between a participle that forms part of a verb, and a participle or participial adjective that belongs to a noun.

For instance: in the sentence, "The work was well and rapidly accomplished," _was accomplished_ is a verb; in this, "No man of his day was more brilliant or more accomplished," _was_ is the verb, and _accomplished_ is an adjective.

Exercises.

1. Bring up sentences with twenty descriptive adjectives, having some of each subclass named in Sec. 143.

2. Is the italicized word an adjective in this?--

The old sources of intellectual excitement seem to be well-nigh _exhausted_.

ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY.

145. Adjectives of quantity tell _how much_ or _how many_. They have these three subdivisions:--

[Sidenote: _How much._]

(1) QUANTITY IN BULK: such words as _little_, _much_, _some_, _no_, _any_, _considerable_, sometimes _small_, joined usually to singular nouns to express an indefinite measure of the thing spoken of.

The following examples are from Kingsley:--

So he parted with _much_ weeping of the lady.
Which we began to do with _great_ labor and _little_ profit.
Because I had _some_ knowledge of surgery and blood-letting.
But ever she looked on Mr. Oxenham, and seemed to take _no_
care as long as he was by.

Examples of _small_ an adjective of quantity:--

"The deil's in it but I bude to anger him!" said the woman, and
walked away with a laugh of _small_ satisfaction.--MACDONALD.

'Tis midnight, but _small_ thoughts have I of sleep.--COLERIDGE.

It gives _small_ idea of Coleridge's way of talking.--CARLYLE.

When _some_, _any_, _no_, are used with plural nouns, they come under the next division of adjectives.

[Sidenote: _How many._]

(2) QUANTITY IN NUMBER, which may be expressed exactly by numbers or remotely designated by words expressing indefinite amounts. Hence the natural division into--

(_a_) _Definite numerals_; as, "_one_ blaze of musketry;" "He found in the pathway _fourteen_ Spaniards;" "I have lost _one_ brother, but I have gained _fourscore_;" "_a dozen_ volunteers."

(_b_) _Indefinite numerals_, as the following from Kingsley: "We gave _several_ thousand pounds for it;" "In came some five and twenty more, and with them _a few_ negroes;" "Then we wandered for _many_ days;" "Amyas had evidently _more_ schemes in his head;" "He had lived by hunting for _some_ months;" "That light is far too red to be the reflection of _any_ beams of hers."

[Sidenote: _Single ones of any number of changes._]

(3) DISTRIBUTIVE NUMERALS, which occupy a place midway between the last two subdivisions of numeral adjectives; for they are indefinite in telling how many objects are spoken of, but definite in referring to the objects one at a time. Thus,--

_Every_ town had its fair; _every_ village, its wake.--THACKERAY.

An arrow was quivering in _each_ body.--KINGSLEY.

Few on _either_ side but had their shrewd scratch to show.--_Id._

Before I taught my tongue to wound
My conscience with a sinful sound,
Or had the black art to dispense
A _several_ sin to _every_ sense.--VAUGHAN.

Exercise.--Bring up sentences with ten adjectives of quantity.

DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES.

[Sidenote: _Not primarily pronouns._]

146. The words of this list are placed here instead of among pronominal adjectives, for the reason that they are felt to be primarily adjectives; their pronominal use being evidently a shortening, by which the words point out but stand for words omitted, instead of modifying them. Their natural and original use is to be joined to a noun following or in close connection.

[Sidenote: _The list._]

The demonstrative adjectives are _this_, _that_, (plural _these_, _those_), _yonder_ (or _yon_), _former_, _latter_; also the pairs _one_ (or _the one_)--_the other_, _the former_--_the latter_, used to refer to two things which have been already named in a sentence.

[Sidenote: _Examples._]

The following sentences present some examples:--

The bashful virgin's sidelong looks of love, The matron's glance
that would _those_ looks reprove.--GOLDSMITH.

These were thy charms...but all _these_ charms are fled.--_Id._

About _this_ time I met with an odd volume of the
"Spectator."--B. FRANKLIN.

_Yonder_ proud ships are not means of annoyance to you.--D.
WEBSTER.

_Yon_ cloud with _that_ long purple cleft.--WORDSWORTH.

I chose for the students of Kensington two characteristic
examples of early art, of equal skill; but in _the one_ case,
skill which was progressive--in _the other_, skill which was at
pause.--RUSKIN.

Exercise.--Find sentences with five demonstrative adjectives.

[Sidenote: _Ordinal numerals classed under demonstratives._]

147. The class of numerals known as ordinals must be placed here, as having the same function as demonstrative adjectives. They point out which thing is meant among a series of things mentioned. The following are examples:--

The _first_ regular provincial newspapers appear to have been
created in the last decade of the _seventeenth_ century, and by
the middle of the _eighteenth_ century almost every important
provincial town had its local organ.--BANCROFT.

These do not, like the other numerals, tell _how many_ things are meant. When we speak of the seventeenth century, we imply nothing as to how many centuries there may be.

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.

[Sidenote: _Definition._]

148. As has been said, pronominal adjectives are primarily pronouns; but, when they _modify_ words instead of referring to them as antecedents, they are changed to adjectives. They are of two kinds,--RELATIVE and INTERROGATIVE,--and are used to join sentences or to ask questions, just as the corresponding pronouns do.

[Sidenote: _Modify names of persons or things._]

149. The RELATIVE ADJECTIVES are _which_ and _what_; for example,--

It matters not _what_ rank he has, _what_ revenues or garnitures.
--CARLYLE.

The silver and laughing Xenil, careless _what_ lord should
possess the banks that bloomed by its everlasting
course.--BULWER.

The taking of _which_ bark. I verily believe, was the ruin of
every mother's son of us.--KINGSLEY.

In _which_ evil strait Mr. Oxenham fought desperately.--_Id._

[Sidenote: _Indefinite relative adjectives._]

150. The INDEFINITE RELATIVE adjectives are _what_, _whatever_, _whatsoever_, _whichever_, _whichsoever_. Examples of their use are,--

He in his turn tasted some of its flavor, which, make _what_ sour
mouths he would for pretense, proved not altogether displeasing
to him.--LAMB.

_Whatever_ correction of our popular views from insight, nature
will be sure to bear us out in.--EMERSON.

_Whatsoever_ kind of man he is, you at least give him full
authority over your son.--RUSKIN.

Was there, as it rather seemed, a circle of ominous shadow moving
along with his deformity, _whichever_ way he turned
himself?--HAWTHORNE.

New torments I behold, and new tormented
Around me, _whichsoever_ way I move,
And _whichsoever_ way I turn, and gaze.
--LONGFELLOW (FROM DANTE).

151. The INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES are _which_ and _what_. They may be used in direct and indirect questions. As in the pronouns, _which_ is selective among what is known; _what_ inquires about things or persons not known.

[Sidenote: _In direct questions._]

Sentences with _which_ and _what_ in direct questions:--

_Which_ debt must I pay first, the debt to the rich, or the debt
to the poor?--EMERSON.

But when the Trojan war comes, _which_ side will you take?
--THACKERAY.

But _what_ books in the circulating library circulate?--LOWELL.

_What_ beckoning ghost along the moonlight shade
Invites my steps, and points to yonder glade?--POPE.

[Sidenote: _In indirect questions._]

Sentences with _which_ and _what_ in indirect questions:--

His head...looked like a weathercock perched upon his spindle
neck to tell _which_ way the wind blew.--IRVING.

A lady once remarked, he [Coleridge] could never fix _which_ side
of the garden walk would suit him best.--CARLYLE.

He was turned before long into all the universe, where it was
uncertain _what_ game you would catch, or whether any.--_Id._

At _what_ rate these materials would be distributed and
precipitated in regular strata, it is impossible to
determine.--AGASSIZ.

[Sidenote: _Adjective_ what _in exclamations_.]

152. In exclamatory expressions, _what_ (or _what a_) has a force somewhat like a descriptive adjective. It is neither relative nor interrogative, but might be called an EXCLAMATORY ADJECTIVE; as,--

Oh, _what a_ revolution! and _what a_ heart must I have, to
contemplate without emotion that elevation and that fall!--BURKE.

_What a_ piece of work is man!--SHAKESPEARE.

And yet, alas, the making of it right, _what a_ business for long
time to come!--CARLYLE

Through _what_ hardships it may attain to bear a sweet
fruit!--THOREAU.

Exercise.--Find ten sentences containing pronominal adjectives.

INFLECTIONS OF ADJECTIVES.

153 .Adjectives have two inflections,--number and comparison.

NUMBER.--_This_, _That_.

[Sidenote: _History of_ this--these _and_ that--those.]

154. The only adjectives having a plural form are _this_ and _that_ (plural _these_, _those_).

_This_ is the old demonstrative; _that_ being borrowed from the forms of the definite article, which was fully inflected in Old English. The article _that_ was used with neuter nouns.

In Middle English the plural of _this_ was _this_ or _thise_, which changed its spelling to the modern form _these_.

[Sidenote: Those _borrowed from_ this.]

But _this_ had also another plural, _thās_ (modern _those_). The old plural of _that_ was _tha_ (Middle English _tho_ or _thow_): consequently _tho_ (plural of _that_) and _those_ (plural of _this_) became confused, and it was forgotten that _those_ was really the plural of _this_; and in Modern English we speak of _these_ as the plural of _this_, and _those_ as the plural of _that_.

COMPARISON.

155. Comparison is an inflection not possessed by nouns and pronouns: it belongs to adjectives and adverbs.

[Sidenote: _Meaning of comparison._]

When we place two objects side by side, we notice some differences between them as to size, weight, color, etc. Thus, it is said that a cow is _larger_ than a sheep, gold is _heavier_ than iron, a sapphire is _bluer_ than the sky. All these have certain qualities; and when we compare the objects, we do so by means of their qualities,--cow and sheep by the quality of largeness, or size; gold and iron by the quality of heaviness, or weight, etc.,--but not the same degree, or amount, of the quality.

The degrees belong to any beings or ideas that may be known or conceived of as possessing quality; as, "untamed thought, great, giant-like, enormous;" "the commonest speech;" "It is a nobler valor;" "the largest soul."

Also words of quantity may be compared: for example, "more matter, with less wit;" "no fewer than a hundred."

[Sidenote: _Words that cannot be compared._]

156. There are some descriptive words whose meaning is such as not to admit of comparison; for example,--

His company became very agreeable to the brave old professor of
arms, whose _favorite_ pupil he was.--THACKERAY.

A _main_ difference betwixt men is, whether they attend their own
affair or not.--EMERSON

It was his business to administer the law in its _final_ and
closest application to the offender--HAWTHORNE.

Freedom is a _perpetual, organic, universal_ institution, in
harmony with the Constitution of the United States.--SEWARD.

So with the words _sole_, _sufficient_, _infinite_, _immemorial_, _indefatigable_, _indomitable_, _supreme_, and many others.

It is true that words of comparison are sometimes prefixed to them, but, strictly considered, they are not compared.

[Sidenote: _Definition._]

157. Comparison means the changes that words undergo to express degrees in quality, or amounts in quantity.

[Sidenote: _The two forms._]

158. There are two forms for this inflection: the comparative, expressing a greater degree of quality; and the superlative, expressing the greatest degree of quality.

These are called degrees of comparison.

These are properly the only degrees, though the simple, uninflected form is usually called the positive degree.

159. The comparative is formed by adding _-er_, and the superlative by adding _-est_, to the simple form; as, _red_, _redder_, _reddest_; _blue_, _bluer_, _bluest_; _easy_, _easier_, _easiest_.

[Sidenote: _Substitute for inflection in comparison._]

160. Side by side with these inflected forms are found comparative and superlative expressions making use of the adverbs more and most. These are often useful as alternative with the inflected forms, but in most cases are used before adjectives that are never inflected.

They came into use about the thirteenth century, but were not common until a century later.

[Sidenote: _Which rule_,-- -er _and_ -est _or_ more _and_ most?]

161. The English is somewhat capricious in choosing between the inflected forms and those with _more_ and _most_, so that no inflexible rule can be given as to the formation of the comparative and the superlative.

The general rule is, that monosyllables and easily pronounced words of two syllables add _-er_ and _-est_; and other words are preceded by _more_ and _most_.

But room must be left in such a rule for pleasantness of sound and for variety of expression.

To see how literary English overrides any rule that could be given, examine the following taken at random:--

From Thackeray: "The _handsomest_ wives;" "the _immensest_ quantity of thrashing;" "the _wonderfulest_ little shoes;" "_more odd, strange_, and yet familiar;" "_more austere_ and _holy_."

From Ruskin: "The sharpest, finest chiseling, and _patientest_ fusing;" "_distantest_ relationships;" "_sorrowfulest_ spectacles."

Carlyle uses _beautifulest_, _mournfulest_, _honestest_, _admirablest_, _indisputablest_, _peaceablest_, _most small_, etc.

These long, harsh forms are usually avoided, but _more_ and _most_ are frequently used with monosyllables.

162. Expressions are often met with in which a superlative form does not carry the superlative meaning. These are equivalent usually to _very_ with the positive degree; as,--

To this the Count offers a _most wordy_ declaration of the
benefits conferred by Spain.--_The Nation_, No 1507

In all formulas that Johnson could stand by, there needed to be a
_most genuine_ substance.--CARLYLE

A gentleman, who, though born in no very high degree, was _most
finished_, _polished_, _witty_, _easy_, _quiet_.--THACKERAY

He had actually nothing else save a rope around his neck, which
hung behind in the _queerest_ way.--_Id._

"So help me God, madam, I will," said Henry Esmond, falling on
his knees, and kissing the hand of his _dearest_ mistress.--_Id._

[Sidenote: _Adjectives irregularly compared._]

163. Among the variously derived adjectives now in our language there are some which may always be recognized as native English. These are adjectives irregularly compared.

Most of them have worn down or become confused with similar words, but they are essentially the same forms that have lived for so many centuries.

The following lists include the majority of them:--

LIST I.

1. Good or well Better Best
2. Evil, bad, ill Worse Worst
3. Little Less, lesser Least
4. Much or many More Most
5. Old Elder, older Eldest, oldest
6. Nigh Nigher Nighest, next
7. Near Nearer Nearest
8. Far Farther, further Farthest, furthest
9. Late Later, latter Latest, last
10. Hind Hinder Hindmost, hindermost

LIST II.

These have no adjective positive:--

1. [In] Inner Inmost, innermost
2. [Out] Outer, utter {Outmost, outermost
{Utmost, uttermost
3. [Up] Upper Upmost, uppermost

LIST III.

A few of comparative form but not comparative meaning:--

After Over Under Nether

Remarks on Irregular Adjectives.

[Sidenote: _List I._]

164. (1) The word good has no comparative or superlative, but takes the place of a positive to _better_ and _best_. There was an old comparative _bet_, which has gone out of use; as in the sentence (14th century), "Ich singe _bet_ than thu dest" (I sing better than thou dost). The superlative I form was _betst_, which has softened to the modern _best_.

(2) In Old English, evil was the positive to _worse_, _worst_; but later _bad_ and _ill_ were borrowed from the Norse, and used as positives to the same comparative and superlative. _Worser_ was once used, a double comparative; as in Shakespeare,--

O, throw away the _worser_ part of it.--HAMLET.

(3) Little is used as positive to _less_, _least_, though from a different root. A double comparative, _lesser_, is often used; as,--

We have it in a much _lesser_ degree.--MATTHEW ARNOLD.

Thrust the _lesser_ half by main force into the fists of Ho-ti.
--LAMB.

(4) The words much and many now express quantity; but in former times _much_ was used in the sense of _large_, _great_, and was the same word that is found in the proverb, "Many a little makes _a mickle_." Its spelling has been _micel_, _muchel_, _moche_, _much_, the parallel form _mickle_ being rarely used.

The meanings _greater_, _greatest_, are shown in such phrases as,--

The _more_ part being of one mind, to England we
sailed.--KINGSLEY.

The _most_ part kept a stolid indifference.--_Id._

The latter, meaning _the largest part_, is quite common.

(5) The forms elder, eldest, are earlier than _older_, _oldest_. A few other words with the vowel _o_ had similar change in the comparative and superlative, as _long_, _strong_, etc.; but these have followed _old_ by keeping the same vowel _o_ in all the forms, instead of _lenger_, _strenger_, etc., the old forms.

(6) and (7) Both nigh and near seem regular in Modern English, except the form _next_; but originally the comparison was _nigh_, _near_, _next_. In the same way the word high had in Middle English the superlative _hexte_.

By and by the comparative _near_ was regarded as a positive form, and on it were built a double comparative _nearer_, and the superlative _nearest_, which adds _-est_ to what is really a comparative instead of a simple adjective.

(8) These words also show confusion and consequent modification, coming about as follows: further really belongs to another series,--_forth_, _further_, _first_. First became entirely detached from the series, and _furthest_ began to be used to follow the comparative _further_; then these were used as comparative and superlative of _far_.

The word far had formerly the comparative and superlative _farrer_, _farrest_. In imitation of _further_, _furthest_, _th_ came into the others, making the modern _farther_, _farthest_. Between the two sets as they now stand, there is scarcely any distinction, except perhaps _further_ is more used than _farther_ in the sense of _additional_; as, for example,--

When that evil principle was left with no _further_ material to
support it.--HAWTHORNE.

(9) Latter and last are the older forms. Since _later_, _latest_, came into use, a distinction has grown up between the two series. _Later_ and _latest_ have the true comparative and superlative force, and refer to time; _latter_ and _last_ are used in speaking of succession, or series, and are hardly thought of as connected in meaning with the word _late_.

(10) Hinder is comparative in form, but not in meaning. The form _hindmost_ is really a double superlative, since the _m_ is for _-ma_, an old superlative ending, to which is added _-ost_, doubling the inflection. _Hind-er-m-ost_ presents the combination comparative + superlative + superlative.

[Sidenote: _List II._]

165. In List II. (Sec. 163) the comparatives and superlatives are adjectives, but they have no adjective positives.

The comparatives are so in form, but not in their meaning.

The superlatives show examples again of double inflection, and of comparative added to double-superlative inflection.

Examples (from Carlyle) of the use of these adjectives: "revealing the _inner_ splendor to him;" "a mind that has penetrated into the _inmost_ heart of a thing;" "This of painting is one of the _outermost_ developments of a man;" "The _outer_ is of the day;" "far-seeing as the sun, the _upper_ light of the world;" "the _innermost_ moral soul;" "their _utmost_ exertion."

[Sidenote: -Most _added to other words_.]

166. The ending _-most_ is added to some words that are not usually adjectives, or have no comparative forms.

There, on the very _topmost_ twig, sits that ridiculous but
sweet-singing bobolink.--H.W. BEECHER.

Decidedly handsome, having such a skin as became a young woman of
family in _northernmost_ Spain.--DE QUINCEY.

Highest and _midmost_, was descried The royal banner floating
wide.--SCOTT.

[Sidenote: _List III._]

167. The adjectives in List III. are like the comparative forms in List II. in having no adjective positives. They have no superlatives, and have no comparative force, being merely descriptive.

Her bows were deep in the water, but her _after_ deck was still
dry.--KINGSLEY.

Her, by the by, in _after_ years I vainly endeavored to
trace.--DE QUINCEY.

The upper and the _under_ side of the medal of Jove.--EMERSON.

Have you ever considered what a deep _under_ meaning there lies
in our custom of strewing flowers?--RUSKIN.

Perhaps he rose out of some _nether_ region.--HAWTHORNE.

_Over_ is rarely used separately as an adjective.

CAUTION FOR ANALYZING OR PARSING.

[Sidenote: _Think what each adjective belongs to._]

168. Some care must be taken to decide what word is modified by an adjective. In a series of adjectives in the same sentence, all may belong to the same noun, or each may modify a different word or group of words.

For example, in this sentence, "The young pastor's voice was tremulously sweet, rich, deep, and broken," it is clear that all four adjectives after _was_ modify the noun _voice_. But in this sentence, "She showed her usual prudence and her usual incomparable decision," _decision_ is modified by the adjective _incomparable_; _usual_ modifies _incomparable decision_, not _decision_ alone; and the pronoun _her_ limits _usual incomparable decision_.

Adjectives modifying the same noun are said to be of the _same rank_; those modifying different words or word groups are said to be adjectives of _different rank_. This distinction is valuable in a study of punctuation.

Exercise.

In the following quotations, tell what each adjective modifies:--

1. Whenever that look appeared in her wild, bright, deeply black
eyes, it invested them with a strange remoteness and
intangibility.--HAWTHORNE.

2. It may still be argued, that in the present divided state of
Christendom a college which is positively Christian must be
controlled by some religious denomination.--NOAH PORTER.

3. Every quaking leaf and fluttering shadow sent the blood
backward to her heart.--MRS. STOWE.

4. This, our new government, is the first in the history of the
world based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral
truth.--A.H. STEPHENS

5. May we not, therefore, look with confidence to the ultimate
universal acknowledgment of the truths upon which our system
rests?--_Id._

6. A few improper jests and a volley of good, round, solid,
satisfactory, and heaven-defying oaths.--HAWTHORNE.

7. It is well known that the announcement at any private rural
entertainment that there is to be ice cream produces an immediate
and profound impression.--HOLMES.

ADVERBS USED AS ADJECTIVES.

169. By a convenient brevity, adverbs are sometimes used as adjectives; as, instead of saying, "the one who was then king," in which _then_ is an adverb, we may say "the _then_ king," making _then_ an adjective. Other instances are,--

My _then_ favorite, in prose, Richard Hooker.--RUSKIN.

Our _sometime_ sister, now our queen.--SHAKESPEARE

Messrs. Bradbury and Evans, the _then_ and _still_ owners.
--TROLLOPE.

The _seldom_ use of it.--TRENCH.

For thy stomach's sake, and thine _often_ infirmities.--_Bible._

HOW TO PARSE ADJECTIVES.

[Sidenote: _What to tell in parsing._]

170. Since adjectives have no gender, person, or case, and very few have number, the method of parsing is simple.

In parsing an adjective, tell--

(1) The class and subclass to which it belongs.

(2) Its number, if it has number.

(3) Its degree of comparison, if it can be compared.

(4) What word or words it modifies.

MODEL FOR PARSING.

These truths are not unfamiliar to your thoughts.

_These_ points out _what_ truths, therefore demonstrative; plural number, having a singular, _this_; cannot be compared; modifies the word _truths_.

_Unfamiliar_ describes _truths_, therefore descriptive; not inflected for number; compared by prefixing _more_ and _most_; positive degree; modifies _truths_.

Exercise.

Parse in full each adjective in these sentences:--

1. A thousand lives seemed concentrated in that one moment to
Eliza.

2. The huge green fragment of ice on which she alighted pitched
and creaked.

3. I ask nothing of you, then, but that you proceed to your end
by a direct, frank, manly way.

4. She made no reply, and I waited for none.

5. A herd of thirty or forty tall ungainly figures took their
way, with awkward but rapid pace, across the plain.

6. Gallantly did the lion struggle in the folds of his terrible
enemy, whose grasp each moment grew more fierce and secure, and
most astounding were those frightful yells.

7. This gave the young people entire freedom, and they enjoyed it
to the fullest extent.

8. I will be as harsh as truth and as uncompromising as justice.

9. To every Roman citizen he gives, To every several man,
seventy-five drachmas.

10. Each member was permitted to entertain all the rest on his or
her birthday, on which occasion the elders of the family were
bound to be absent.

11. Instantly the mind inquires whether these fishes under the
bridge, yonder oxen in the pasture, those dogs in the yard, are
immutably fishes, oxen, and dogs.

12. I know not what course others may take.

13. With every third step, the tomahawk fell.

14. What a ruthless business this war of extermination is!

15. I was just emerging from that many-formed crystal country.

16. On what shore has not the prow of your ships dashed?

17. The laws and institutions of his country ought to have been
more to him than all the men in his country.

18. Like most gifted men, he won affections with ease.

19. His letters aim to elicit the inmost experience and outward
fortunes of those he loves, yet are remarkably self-forgetful.

20. Their name was the last word upon his lips.

21. The captain said it was the last stick he had seen.

22. Before sunrise the next morning they let us out again.

23. He was curious to know to what sect we belonged.

24. Two hours elapsed, during which time I waited.

25. In music especially, you will soon find what personal benefit
there is in being serviceable.

26. To say what good of fashion we can, it rests on reality, and
hates nothing so much as pretenders.

27. Here lay two great roads, not so much for travelers that were
few, as for armies that were too many by half.

28. On whichever side of the border chance had thrown Joanna, the
same love to France would have been nurtured.

29. What advantage was open to him above the English boy?

30. Nearer to our own times, and therefore more interesting to
us, is the settlement of our own country.

31. Even the topmost branches spread out and drooped in all
directions, and many poles supported the lower ones.

32. Most fruits depend entirely on our care.

33. Even the sourest and crabbedest apple, growing in the most
unfavorable position, suggests such thoughts as these, it is so
noble a fruit.

34. Let him live in what pomps and prosperities he like, he is no
literary man.

35. Through what hardships it may bear a sweet fruit!

36. Whatsoever power exists will have itself organized.

37. A hard-struggling, weary-hearted man was he.

ARTICLES.

171. There is a class of words having always an adjectival use in general, but with such subtle functions and various meanings that they deserve separate treatment. In the sentence, "He passes an ordinary brick house on the road, with an ordinary little garden," the words _the_ and _an_ belong to nouns, just as adjectives do; but they cannot be accurately placed under any class of adjectives. They are nearest to demonstrative and numeral adjectives.

[Sidenote: _Their origin._]

172. The article the comes from an old demonstrative adjective (_sē_, _sēo_, _ðat_, later _thē_, _thēo_, _that_) which was also an article in Old English. In Middle English _the_ became an article, and _that_ remained a demonstrative adjective.

An or a came from the old numeral _ān_, meaning _one_.

[Sidenote: _Two relics._]

Our expressions _the one_, _the other_, were formerly _that one_, _that other_; the latter is still preserved in the expression, in vulgar English, _the tother_. Not only this is kept in the Scotch dialect, but the former is used, these occurring as _the tane, the tother_, or _the tane, the tither_; for example,--

We ca' her sometimes _the tane_, sometimes _the tother_.--SCOTT.

[Sidenote: An _before vowel sounds_, a _before consonant sounds_.]

173. Ordinarily _an_ is used before vowel sounds, and _a_ before consonant sounds. Remember that a _vowel sound_ does not necessarily mean beginning with a vowel, nor does _consonant sound_ mean beginning with a consonant, because English spelling does not coincide closely with the sound of words. Examples: "_a_ house," "_an_ orange," "_a_ European," "_an_ honor," "_a_ yelling crowd."

[Sidenote: An _with consonant sounds_.]

174. Many writers use _an_ before _h_, even when not silent, when the word is not accented on the first syllable.

_An_ historian, such as we have been attempting to describe,
would indeed be an intellectual prodigy.--MACAULAY.

The Persians were _an_ heroic people like the Greeks.--BREWER.

He [Rip] evinced _an_ hereditary disposition to attend to
anything else but his business.--IRVING.

_An_ habitual submission of the understanding to mere events and
images.--COLERIDGE.

_An_ hereditary tenure of these offices.--THOMAS JEFFERSON.

[Sidenote: _Definition._]

175. An article is a limiting word, not descriptive, which cannot be used alone, but always joins to a substantive word to denote a particular thing, or a group or class of things, or any individual of a group or class.

[Sidenote: _Kinds._]

176. Articles are either definite or indefinite.

The is the definite article, since it points out a particular individual, or group, or class.

An or a is the indefinite article, because it refers to any one of a group or class of things.

An and a are different forms of the same word, the older _ān_.

USES OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE.

[Sidenote: _Reference to a known object._]

177. The most common use of the definite article is to refer to an object that the listener or reader is already acquainted with; as in the sentence,--

Don't you remember how, when _the_ dragon was infesting _the_
neighborhood of Babylon, _the_ citizens used to walk dismally out
of evenings, and look at _the_ valleys round about strewed with
_the_ bones?--THACKERAY.

NOTE.--This use is noticed when, on opening a story, a person is
introduced by _a_, and afterwards referred to by _the_:--

By and by _a_ giant came out of the dark north, and lay down on
the ice near Audhumla.... _The_ giant frowned when he saw the
glitter of the golden hair.--_Heroes of Asgard._

[Sidenote: _With names of rivers._]

178. _The_ is often prefixed to the names of rivers; and when the word _river_ is omitted, as "_the_ Mississippi," "_the_ Ohio," the article indicates clearly that a river, and not a state or other geographical division, is referred to.

No wonder I could face _the_ Mississippi with so much courage
supplied to me.--THACKERAY.

The Dakota tribes, doubtless, then occupied the country southwest
of _the_ Missouri.--G. BANCROFT.

[Sidenote: _To call attention to attributes._]

179. When _the_ is prefixed to a proper name, it alters the force of the noun by directing attention to _certain qualities_ possessed by the person or thing spoken of; thus,--

_The_ Bacon, _the_ Spinoza, _the_ Hume, Schelling, Kant, or
whosoever propounds to you a philosophy of the mind, is only a
more or less awkward translator of things in your
consciousness.--EMERSON.

[Sidenote: _With plural of abstract nouns._]

180. _The_, when placed before the pluralized abstract noun, marks it as half abstract or a common noun.

[Sidenote: _Common._]

His messages to _the_ provincial _authorities_.--MOTLEY.

[Sidenote: _Half abstract._]

He was probably skilled in _the subtleties_ of Italian
statesmanship.--_Id._

[Sidenote: _With adjectives used as nouns._]

181. When _the_ precedes adjectives of the positive degree used substantively, it marks their use as common and plural nouns when they refer to persons, and as singular and abstract when they refer to qualities.

1. _The simple_ rise as by specific levity, not into a particular
virtue, but into the region of all the virtues.--EMERSON.

2. If _the good_ is there, so is _the evil_.--_Id._

[Sidenote: _Caution._]

NOTE.--This is not to be confused with words that have shifted from adjectives and become pure nouns; as,--

As she hesitated to pass on, _the gallant_, throwing his cloak
from his shoulders, laid it on the miry spot.--SCOTT.

But De Soto was no longer able to abate the confidence or punish
the temerity of _the natives_.--G. BANCROFT.

[Sidenote: _One thing for its class._]

182. _The_ before class nouns may mark one thing as a representative of the class to which it belongs; for example,--

The faint, silvery warblings heard over the partially bare and
moist fields from _the bluebird_, _the song sparrow_, and _the
redwing_, as if the last flakes of winter tinkled as they
fell!--THOREAU.

In the sands of Africa and Arabia _the camel_ is a sacred and
precious gift.--GIBBON.

[Sidenote: _For possessive person pronouns._]

183. _The_ is frequently used instead of the possessive case of the personal pronouns _his_, _her_, etc.

More than one hinted that a cord twined around _the head_, or a
match put between _the fingers_, would speedily extract the
required information.--KINGSLEY.

_The_ mouth, and the region of the mouth, were about the
strongest features in Wordsworth's face.--DE QUINCEY.

[Sidenote: The _for_ a.]

184. In England and Scotland _the_ is often used where we use _a_, in speaking of measure and price; as,--

Wheat, the price of which necessarily varied, averaged in the
middle of the fourteenth century tenpence _the bushel_, barley
averaging at the same time three shillings _the
quarter_.--FROUDE.

[Sidenote: _A very strong restrictive._]

185. Sometimes _the_ has a strong force, almost equivalent to a descriptive adjective in emphasizing a word,--

No doubt but ye are _the_ people, and wisdom shall die with
you.--_Bible._

As for New Orleans, it seemed to me _the_ city of the world where
you can eat and drink the most and suffer the least.--THACKERAY.

He was _the_ man in all Europe that could (if any could) have
driven six-in-hand full gallop over Al Sirat.--DE QUINCEY.

[Sidenote: _Mark of a substantive._]

186. _The_, since it belongs distinctively to substantives, is a sure indication that a word of verbal form is not used participially, but substantively.

In the hills of Sacramento there is gold for _the
gathering_.--EMERSON.

I thought _the writing_ excellent, and wished, if possible, to
imitate it.--FRANKLIN.

[Sidenote: _Caution._]

187. There is one use of _the_ which is different from all the above. It is an adverbial use, and is spoken of more fully in Sec. 283. Compare this sentence with those above:--

There was something ugly and evil in his face, which they had not
previously noticed, and which grew still _the more obvious_ to
the sight _the oftener_ they looked upon him.--HAWTHORNE.

Exercise.--Find sentences with five uses of the definite article.

USES OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.

[Sidenote: _Denotes any one of a class._]

188. The most frequent use of the indefinite article is to denote any one of a class or group of objects: consequently it belongs to singular words; as in the sentence,--

Near the churchyard gate stands _a_ poor-box, fastened to _a_
post by iron bands and secured by _a_ padlock, with _a_ sloping
wooden roof to keep off the rain.--LONGFELLOW

[Sidenote: _Widens the scope of proper nouns._]

189. When the indefinite article precedes proper names, it alters them to class names. The qualities or attributes of the object are made prominent, and transferred to any one possessing them; as,--

The vulgar riot and debauchery, which scarcely disgraced _an
Alcibiades_ or _a Cæsar_, have been exchanged for the higher
ideals of _a Bayard_ or _a Sydney_.--PEARSON

[Sidenote: _With abstract nouns._]

190. _An_ or _a_ before abstract nouns often changes them to half abstract: the idea of quality remains, but the word now denotes only one instance or example of things possessing the quality.

[Sidenote: _Become half abstract._]

The simple perception of natural forms is _a delight_.--EMERSON

If thou hadst _a sorrow_ of thine own, the brook might tell thee
of it.--HAWTHORNE

In the first sentence, instead of the general abstract notion of delight, which cannot be singular or plural, _a delight_ means one thing delightful, and implies others having the same quality.

So _a sorrow_ means one cause of sorrow, implying that there are other things that bring sorrow.

[Sidenote: _Become pure class nouns._]

NOTE.--Some abstract nouns become common class nouns with the indefinite article, referring simply to persons; thus,--

If the poet of the "Rape of the Lock" be not _a wit_, who
deserves to be called so?--THACKERAY.

He had a little brother in London with him at this time,--as
great _a beauty_, as great a dandy, as great a villain.--_Id._

_A youth_ to fortune and to fame unknown.--GRAY.

[Sidenote: _Changes material to class nouns._]

191. _An_ or _a_ before a material noun indicates the change to a class noun, meaning one kind or a detached portion; as,--

They that dwell up in the steeple,...
Feel a glory in so rolling
On the human heart _a stone_.
--POE.

When God at first made man,
Having _a glass_ of blessings standing by.
--HERBERT.

The roofs were turned into arches of massy stone, joined by _a
cement_ that grew harder by time.--JOHNSON.

[Sidenote: _Like the numeral adjective_ one.]

192. In some cases _an_ or _a_ has the full force of the numeral adjective _one_. It is shown in the following:--

To every room there was _an_ open and _a_ secret
passage.--JOHNSON.

In a short time these become a small tree, _an_ inverted pyramid
resting on the apex of the other.--THOREAU.

All men are at last of _a_ size.--EMERSON.

At the approach of spring the red squirrels got under my house,
two at _a_ time.--THOREAU.

[Sidenote: _Equivalent to the word_ each _or_ every.]

193. Often, also, the indefinite article has the force of _each_ or _every_, particularly to express measure or frequency.

It would be so much more pleasant to live at his ease than to
work eight or ten hours _a day_.--BULWER

[Sidenote: _Compare to Sec. 184._]

Strong beer, such as we now buy for eighteenpence _a gallon_, was
then a penny _a gallon_.--FROUDE

[Sidenote: _With_ such, many, what.]

194. _An_ or _a_ is added to the adjectives _such_, _many_, and _what_, and may be considered a part of these in modifying substantives.

How was I to pay _such a_ debt?--THACKERAY.

_Many a_ one you and I have had here below.--THACKERAY.

_What a_ world of merriment then melody foretells!--POE.

[Sidenote: _With_ not _and_ many.]

195 LIST III.

A few of comparative form but not comparative meaning:--

After Over Under Nether.

_Not_ and _never_ with _a_ or _an_ are numeral adjectives, instead of adverbs, which they are in general.

_Not a_ drum was heard, _not a_ funeral note.--WOLFE

My Lord Duke was as hot as a flame at this salute, but said
_never a_ word.--THACKERAY.

NOTE.--All these have the function of adjectives; but in the last analysis of the expressions, _such_, _many_, _not_, etc., might be considered as adverbs modifying the article.

[Sidenote: _With_ few _or_ little.]

196. The adjectives _few_ and _little_ have the negative meaning of _not much_, _not many_, without the article; but when _a_ is put before them, they have the positive meaning of _some_. Notice the contrast in the following sentences:--

Of the country beyond the Mississippi _little_ more was known
than of the heart of Africa.--MCMASTER

To both must I of necessity cling, supported always by the hope
that when _a little_ time, _a few_ years, shall have tried me
more fully in their esteem, I may be able to bring them
together.--_Keats's Letters_.

_Few_ of the great characters of history have been so differently
judged as Alexander.--SMITH, _History of Greece_

[Sidenote: _With adjectives, changed to nouns_.]

197. When _the_ is used before adjectives with no substantive following (Sec. 181 and note), these words are adjectives used as nouns, or pure nouns; but when _an_ or _a_ precedes such words, they are always nouns, having the regular use and inflections of nouns; for example,--

Such are the words _a brave_ should use.--COOPER.

In the great society of wits, John Gay deserves to be _a
favorite_, and to have a good place.--THACKERAY

Only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed for
use in the verses of _a rival_.--PEARSON.

Exercise.--Bring up sentences with five uses of the indefinite article.

HOW TO PARSE ARTICLES.

198. In parsing the article, tell--

(1) What word it limits.

(2) Which of the above uses it has.

Exercise.

Parse the articles in the following:--

1. It is like gathering a few pebbles off the ground, or bottling
a little air in a phial, when the whole earth and the whole
atmosphere are ours.

2. Aristeides landed on the island with a body of Hoplites,
defeated the Persians and cut them to pieces to a man.

3. The wild fire that lit the eye of an Achilles can gleam no
more.

4. But it is not merely the neighborhood of the cathedral that is
mediæval; the whole city is of a piece.

5. To the herdsman among his cattle in remote woods, to the
craftsman in his rude workshop, to the great and to the little, a
new light has arisen.

6. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become
intelligent, and the wavering, determined.

7. The student is to read history actively, and not passively.

8. This resistance was the labor of his life.

9. There was always a hope, even in the darkest hour.