Chapter IX: Part I: The Parts of Speech (6)

307. A preposition is a word joined to a noun or its equivalent to make up a qualifying or an adverbial phrase, and to show the relation between its object and the word modified.

[Sidenote: _Objects, nouns and the following_.]

308. Besides nouns, prepositions may have as objects--

(1) _Pronouns_: "Upon _them_ with the lance;" "With _whom_ I traverse earth."

(2) _Adjectives_: "On _high_ the winds lift up their voices."

(3) _Adverbs_: "If I live wholly from _within_;" "Had it not been for the sea from _aft_."

(4) _Phrases_: "Everything came to her from _on high_;" "From _of old_ they had been zealous worshipers."

(5) _Infinitives_: "The queen now scarce spoke to him save _to convey_ some necessary command for her service."

(6) _Gerunds_: "They shrink from _inflicting_ what they threaten;" "He is not content with _shining_ on great occasions."

(7) _Clauses_:

"Each soldier eye shall brightly turn
To _where thy sky-born glories burn_."

[Sidenote: _Object usually objective case, if noun or pronoun_.]

309. The object of a preposition, if a noun or pronoun, is usually in the objective case. In pronouns, this is shown by the form of the word, as in Sec. 308 (1).

[Sidenote: _Often possessive_.]

In the double-possessive idiom, however, the object is in the possessive case after _of_; for example,--

There was also a book _of Defoe's_,... and another _of_
_Mather's_.--FRANKLIN.

See also numerous examples in Secs. 68 and 87.

[Sidenote: _Sometimes nominative_.]

And the prepositions _but_ and _save_ are found with the nominative form of the pronoun following; as,--

Nobody knows _but_ my mate and _I_
Where our nest and our nestlings lie.
--BRYANT.

USES OF PREPOSITIONS.

[Sidenote: _Inseparable._]

310. Prepositions are used in three ways:--

(1) _Compounded with verbs_, _adverbs_, or _conjunctions_; as, for example, with verbs, _with_draw, _under_stand, _over_look, _over_take, _over_flow, _under_go, _out_stay, _out_number, _over_run, _over_grow, etc.; with adverbs, there_at_, there_in_, there_from_, there_by_, there_with_, etc.; with conjunctions, where_at_, where_in_, where_on_, where_through_, where_upon_, etc.

[Sidenote: _Separable._]

(2) _Following a verb_, and being really a part of the verb. This use needs to be watched closely, to see whether the preposition belongs to the verb or has a separate prepositional function. For example, in the sentences, (_a_) "He broke a pane _from_ the window," (_b_) "He broke _into_ the bank," in (_a_), the verb _broke_ is a predicate, modified by the phrase introduced by _from_; in (_b_), the predicate is not _broke_, modified by _into the bank_, but _broke into_--the object, _bank_.

Study carefully the following prepositions with verbs:--

Considering the space they _took up_.--SWIFT.

I loved, _laughed at_, and pitied him.--GOLDSMITH.

The sun _breaks through_ the darkest clouds.--SHAKESPEARE.

They will _root up_ the whole ground.--SWIFT.

A friend _prevailed upon_ one of the interpreters.--ADDISON

My uncle _approved of_ it.--FRANKLIN.

The robber who _broke into_ them.--LANDOR.

This period is not obscurely _hinted at_.--LAMB.

The judge _winked at_ the iniquity of the decision.--_Id._

The pupils' voices, _conning over_ their lessons.--IRVING.

To _help out_ his maintenance.--_Id._

With such pomp is Merry Christmas _ushered in_.--LONGFELLOW.

[Sidenote: _Ordinary use as connective, relation words._]

(3) As _relation words_, introducing phrases,--the most common use, in which the words have their own proper function.

[Sidenote: _Usefulness of prepositions._]

311. Prepositions are the subtlest and most useful words in the language for compressing a clear meaning into few words. Each preposition has its proper and general meaning, which, by frequent and exacting use, has expanded and divided into a variety of meanings more or less close to the original one.

Take, for example, the word _over_. It expresses place, with motion, as, "The bird flew _over_ the house;" or rest, as, "Silence broods _over_ the earth." It may also convey the meaning of _about_, _concerning_; as, "They quarreled _over_ the booty." Or it may express time: "Stay _over_ night."

The language is made richer and more flexible by there being several meanings to each of many prepositions, as well as by some of them having the same meaning as others.

CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS.

312. It would be useless to attempt to classify all the prepositions, since they are so various in meaning.

The largest groups are those of place, time, and exclusion.

PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE.

313. The following are the most common to indicate place:--

(1) PLACE WHERE: _abaft_, _about_, _above_, _across_, _amid_ (_amidst_), _among_ (_amongst_), _at_, _athwart_, _below_, _beneath_, _beside_, _between_ (_betwixt_), _beyond_, _in_, _on_, _over_, _under_ (_underneath_), _upon_, _round_ or _around_, _without_.

(2) PLACE WHITHER: _into_, _unto_, _up_, _through_, _throughout_, _to_, _towards_.

(3) PLACE WHENCE: _down_, _from_ (_away from_, _down from_, _from out_, etc.), _off_, _out of_.

Abaft is exclusively a sea term, meaning _back of_.

Among (or amongst) and between (or betwixt) have a difference in meaning, and usually a difference in use. _Among_ originally meant in the crowd (_on gemong_), referring to several objects; _between_ and _betwixt_ were originally made up of the preposition _be_ (meaning _by_) and _twēon_ or _twēonum_ (modern _twain_), _by two_, and _be_ with _twīh_ (or _twuh_), having the same meaning, _by two_ objects.

As to modern use, see "Syntax" (Sec. 459).

PREPOSITIONS OF TIME.

314. They are _after_, _during_, _pending_, _till_ or _until_; also many of the prepositions of place express time when put before words indicating time, such as _at_, _between_, _by_, _about_, _on_, _within_, etc.

These are all familiar, and need no special remark.

EXCLUSION OR SEPARATION.

315. The chief ones are _besides_, _but_, _except_, _save_, _without_. The participle _excepting_ is also used as a preposition.

MISCELLANEOUS PREPOSITIONS.

316. Against implies opposition, sometimes place where. In colloquial English it is sometimes used to express time, now and then also in literary English; for example,--

She contrived to fit up the baby's cradle for me _against_
night.--SWIFT

About, and the participial prepositions concerning, respecting, regarding, mean _with reference to_.

[Sidenote: _Phrase prepositions._]

317. Many phrases are used as single prepositions: _by means of_, _by virtue of_, _by help of_, _by dint of_, _by force of_; _out of_, _on account of_, _by way of_, _for the sake of_; _in consideration of_, _in spite of_, _in defiance of_, _instead of_, _in view of_, _in place of_; _with respect to_, _with regard to_, _according to_, _agreeably to_; and some others.

318. Besides all these, there are some prepositions that have so many meanings that they require separate and careful treatment: _on_ (_upon_), _at_, _by_, _for_, _from_, _of_, _to_, _with_.

No attempt will be made to give _all_ the meanings that each one in this list has: the purpose is to stimulate observation, and to show how useful prepositions really are.

At.

319. The general meaning of at is _near_, _close to_, after a verb or expression implying position; and _towards_ after a verb or expression indicating motion. It defines position approximately, while _in_ is exact, meaning _within_.

Its principal uses are as follows:--

(1) _Place where._

They who heard it listened with a curling horror _at_ the
heart.--J.F. COOPER.

There had been a strike _at_ the neighboring manufacturing
village, and there was to be a public meeting, _at_ which he was
besought to be present.--T.W. HIGGINSON.

(2) _Time_, more exact, meaning the point of time at which.

He wished to attack _at_ daybreak.--PARKMAN.

They buried him darkly, _at_ dead of night.--WOLFE

(3) _Direction._

The mother stood looking wildly down _at_ the unseemly
object.--COOPER.

You are next invited...to grasp _at_ the opportunity, and take
for your subject, "Health."--HIGGINSON.

Here belong such expressions as _laugh at_, _look at_, _wink at_, _gaze at_, _stare at_, _peep at_, _scowl at_, _sneer at_, _frown at_, etc.

We _laugh at_ the elixir that promises to prolong life to a
thousand years.--JOHNSON.

"You never mean to say," pursued Dot, sitting on the floor and
_shaking_ her head _at_ him.--DICKENS.

(4) _Source_ or _cause_, meaning _because of_, _by reason of_.

I felt my heart chill _at_ the dismal sound.--T.W. KNOX.

Delighted _at_ this outburst against the Spaniards.--PARKMAN.

(5) Then the idiomatic phrases _at last_, _at length_, _at any rate_, _at the best_, _at the worst_, _at least_, _at most_, _at first_, _at once_, _at all_, _at one_, _at naught_, _at random_, etc.; and phrases signifying state or condition of being, as, _at work_, _at play_, _at peace_, _at war_, _at rest_, etc.

Exercise.--Find sentences with three different uses of _at_.

By.

320. Like _at_, by means _near_ or _close to_, but has several other meanings more or less connected with this,--

(1) The general meaning of _place_.

Richard was standing _by_ the window.--ALDRICH.

Provided always the coach had not shed a wheel _by_ the
roadside.--_Id._

(2) _Time._

But _by_ this time the bell of Old Alloway began tolling.--B.
TAYLOR

The angel came _by_ night.--R.H. STODDARD.

(3) _Agency_ or _means_.

Menippus knew which were the kings _by_ their howling
louder.--M.D. CONWAY.

At St. Helena, the first port made _by_ the ship, he stopped.
--PARTON.

(4) _Measure of excess_, expressing the degree of difference.

At that time [the earth] was richer, _by_ many a million of
acres.--DE QUINCEY.

He was taller _by_ almost the breadth of my nail.--SWIFT.

(5) It is also used in _oaths and adjurations_.

_By_ my faith, that is a very plump hand for a man of
eighty-four!--PARTON.

They implore us _by_ the long trials of struggling humanity; _by_
the blessed memory of the departed; _by_ the wrecks of time; _by_
the ruins of nations.--EVERETT.

Exercise.--Find sentences with three different meanings of _by_.

For.

321. The chief meanings of for are as follows:--

(1) _Motion towards_ a place, or a tendency or action toward the attainment of any object.

Pioneers who were opening the way _for_ the march of the
nation.--COOPER.

She saw the boat headed _for_ her.--WARNER.

(2) _In favor of_, _for the benefit of_, _in behalf of_, a person or thing.

He and they were _for_ immediate attack.--PARKMAN

The people were then against us; they are now _for_ us.--W.L.
GARRISON.

(3) _Duration of time_, or _extent of space_.

_For_ a long time the disreputable element outshone the
virtuous.--H.H. BANCROFT.

He could overlook all the country _for_ many a mile of rich
woodland.--IRVING.

(4) _Substitution_ or _exchange_.

There are gains _for_ all our losses.--STODDARD.

Thus did the Spaniards make bloody atonement _for_ the butchery
of Fort Caroline.--PARKMAN.

(5) _Reference_, meaning _with regard to_, _as to_, _respecting_, etc.

_For_ the rest, the Colonna motto would fit you best.--EMERSON.

_For_ him, poor fellow, he repented of his folly.--E.E. HALE

This is very common with _as_--_as for_ me, etc.

(6) Like _as_, meaning _in the character of_, _as being_, etc.

"Nay, if your worship can accomplish that," answered Master
Brackett, "I shall own you _for_ a man of skill indeed!"
--HAWTHORNE.

Wavering whether he should put his son to death _for_ an
unnatural monster.--LAMB.

(7) _Concession_, meaning _although_, _considering that_ etc.

"_For_ a fool," said the Lady of Lochleven, "thou hast counseled
wisely."--SCOTT

By my faith, that is a very plump hand _for_ a man of
eighty-four!--PARTON.

(8) Meaning _notwithstanding_, or _in spite of_.

But the Colonel, _for_ all his title, had a forest of poor
relations.--HOLMES.

Still, _for_ all slips of hers,
One of Eve's family.--HOOD.

(9) _Motive, cause, reason, incitement to action._

The twilight being...hardly more wholesome _for_ its glittering
mists of midge companies.--RUSKIN.

An Arab woman, but a few sunsets since, ate her child, _for_
famine.--_Id._

Here Satouriona forgot his dignity, and leaped _for_
joy.--PARKMAN.

(10) _For_ with its object preceding the infinitive, and having the same meaning as a noun clause, as shown by this sentence:--

It is by no means necessary _that he should devote his whole
school existence to physical science_; nay, more, it is not
necessary for _him to give up more than a moderate share of his
time to such studies_.--HUXLEY.

Exercise.--Find sentences with five meanings of _for_.

From.

322. The general idea in from is separation or source. It may be with regard to--

(1) _Place._

Like boys escaped _from_ school.--H.H. BANCROFT

Thus they drifted _from_ snow-clad ranges to burning
plain.--_Id._

(2) _Origin._

Coming _from_ a race of day-dreamers, Ayrault had inherited the
faculty of dreaming also by night.--HIGGINSON.

_From_ harmony, _from_ heavenly harmony
This universal frame began.--DRYDEN.

(3) _Time._

A distrustful, if not a desperate man, did he become _from_ the
night of that fearful dream--HAWTHORNE.

(4) _Motive_, _cause_, or _reason_.

It was _from_ no fault of Nolan's.--HALE.

The young cavaliers, _from_ a desire of seeming valiant, ceased
to be merciful.--BANCROFT.

Exercise.--Find sentences with three meanings of _from_.

Of.

323. The original meaning of of was separation or source, like _from_. The various uses are shown in the following examples:--

I. The _From_ Relation.

(1) _Origin or source._

The king holds his authority _of_ the people.--MILTON.

Thomas à Becket was born _of_ reputable parents in the city of
London.--HUME.

(2) _Separation_: (_a_) After certain verbs, such as _ease_, _demand_, _rob_, _divest_, _free_, _clear_, _purge_, _disarm_, _deprive_, _relieve_, _cure_, _rid_, _beg_, _ask_, etc.

Two old Indians cleared the spot _of_ brambles, weeds, and
grass.--PARKMAN.

Asked no odds _of_, acquitted them _of,_ etc.--ALDRICH.

(_b_) After some adjectives,--_clear of_, _free of_, _wide of_, _bare of_, etc.; especially adjectives and adverbs of direction, as _north of_, _south of_, etc.

The hills were bare _of_ trees.--BAYARD TAYLOR.

Back _of_ that tree, he had raised a little Gothic chapel.
--GAVARRE.

(_c_) After nouns expressing lack, deprivation, etc.

A singular want _of_ all human relation.--HIGGINSON.

_(d)_ With words expressing distance.

Until he had come within a staff's length _of_ the old dame.
--HAWTHORNE

Within a few yards _of_ the young man's hiding place.--_Id._

(3) _With expressions of material_, especially _out of_.

White shirt with diamond studs, or breastpin _of_ native
gold.--BANCROFT.

Sandals, bound with thongs _of_ boar's hide.--SCOTT

Who formed, _out of_ the most unpromising materials, the finest
army that Europe had yet seen.--MACAULAY

(4) _Expressing cause, reason, motive._

The author died _of_ a fit of apoplexy.--BOSWELL.

More than one altar was richer _of_ his vows.--LEW WALLACE.

"Good for him!" cried Nolan. "I am glad _of_ that."--E.E. HALE.

(5) _Expressing agency._

You cannot make a boy know, _of_ his own knowledge, that Cromwell
once ruled England.--HUXLEY.

He is away _of_ his own free will.--DICKENS

II. Other Relations expressed by _Of_.

(6) _Partitive_, expressing a part of a number or quantity.

_Of_ the Forty, there were only twenty-one members present.
--PARTON.

He washed out some _of_ the dirt, separating thereby as much of
the dust as a ten-cent piece would hold.--BANCROFT.

[Sidenote: _See also Sec. 309._]

(7) _Possessive_, standing, with its object, for the possessive, or being used with the possessive case to form the double possessive.

Not even woman's love, and the dignity _of_ a queen, could give
shelter from his contumely.--W.E. CHANNING.

And the mighty secret _of_ the Sierra stood revealed.--BANCROFT.

(8) _Appositional_, which may be in the case of--

(_a_) Nouns.

Such a book as that _of_ Job.--FROUDE.

The fair city _of_ Mexico.--PRESCOTT.

The nation _of_ Lilliput.--SWIFT.

(_b_) Noun and gerund, being equivalent to an infinitive.

In the vain hope _of_ appeasing the savages.--COOPER.

Few people take the trouble _of_ finding out what democracy
really is.--LOWELL.

(_c_) Two nouns, when the first is descriptive of the second.

This crampfish _of_ a Socrates has so bewitched him.--EMERSON

A sorry antediluvian makeshift _of_ a building you may think
it.--LAMB.

An inexhaustible bottle _of_ a shop.--ALDRICH.

(9) _Of time._ Besides the phrases _of old_, _of late_, _of a sudden_, etc., _of_ is used in the sense of _during_.

I used often to linger _of_ a morning by the high gate.--ALDRICH

I delighted to loll over the quarter railing _of_ a calm day.
--IRVING.

(10) _Of reference_, equal to _about_, _concerning_, _with regard to_.

The Turk lay dreaming _of_ the hour.--HALLECK.

Boasted _of_ his prowess as a scalp hunter and
duelist.--BANCROFT.

Sank into reverie _of_ home and boyhood scenes.--_Id._

[Sidenote: _Idiomatic use with verbs._]

_Of_ is also used as an appendage of certain verbs, such as _admit_, _accept_, _allow_, _approve_, _disapprove_, _permit_, without adding to their meaning. It also accompanies the verbs _tire_, _complain_, _repent_, _consist_, _avail_ (one's self), and others.

Exercise.--Find sentences with six uses of _of_.

On, Upon.

324. The general meaning of on is position or direction. _On_ and _upon_ are interchangeable in almost all of their applications, as shown by the sentences below:--

(1) _Place_: (_a_) Where.

Cannon were heard close _on_ the left.--PARKMAN.

The Earl of Huntley ranged his host
_Upon_ their native strand.--MRS. SIGOURNEY.

(_b_) With motion.

It was the battery at Samos firing _on_ the boats.--PARKMAN.

Thou didst look down _upon_ the naked earth.--BRYANT.

(2) _Time._

The demonstration of joy or sorrow _on_ reading their letters.
--BANCROFT.

_On_ Monday evening he sent forward the Indians.--PARKMAN.

Upon is seldom used to express time.

(3) _Reference_, equal to _about_, _concerning_, etc.

I think that one abstains from writing _on_ the immortality of
the soul.--EMERSON.

He pronounced a very flattering opinion _upon_ my brother's
promise of excellence.--DE QUINCEY.

(4) _In adjurations._

_On_ my life, you are eighteen, and not a day more.--ALDRICH.

_Upon_ my reputation and credit.--SHAKESPEARE

(5) _Idiomatic phrases_: _on fire_, _on board_, _on high_, _on the wing_, _on the alert_, _on a sudden_, _on view_, _on trial_, etc.

Exercise.--Find sentences with three uses of _on_ or _upon_.

To.

325. Some uses of to are the following:--

(1) _Expressing motion_: (_a_) To a place.

Come _to_ the bridal chamber, Death!--HALLECK.

Rip had scrambled _to_ one of the highest peaks.--IRVING.

(_b_) Referring to time.

Full of schemes and speculations _to_ the last.--PARTON.

Revolutions, whose influence is felt _to_ this hour.--PARKMAN.

(2) _Expressing result._

He usually gave his draft to an aid...to be written over,--often
_to_ the loss of vigor.--BENTON

_To_ our great delight, Ben Lomond was unshrouded.--B. TAYLOR

(3) _Expressing comparison._

But when, unmasked, gay Comedy appears,
'Tis ten _to_ one you find the girl in tears.
--ALDRICH

They are arrant rogues: Cacus was nothing _to_ them.--BULWER.

Bolingbroke and the wicked Lord Littleton were saints _to_
him.--WEBSTER

(4) _Expressing concern, interest._

_To_ the few, it may be genuine poetry.--BRYANT.

His brother had died, had ceased to be, _to_ him.--HALE.

Little mattered _to_ them occasional privations--BANCROFT.

(5) _Equivalent to_ according to.

Nor, _to_ my taste, does the mere music...of your style fall far
below the highest efforts of poetry.--LANG.

We cook the dish _to_ our own appetite.--GOLDSMITH.

(6) _With the infinitive_ (see Sec. 268).

Exercise.--Find sentences containing three uses of _to_.

With.

326. With expresses the idea of accompaniment, and hardly any of its applications vary from this general signification.

In Old English, _mid_ meant _in company with_, while _wið_ meant _against_: both meanings are included in the modern _with_.

The following meanings are expressed by _with_:--

(1) _Personal accompaniment._

The advance, _with_ Heyward at its head, had already reached the
defile.--COOPER.

For many weeks I had walked _with_ this poor friendless girl.--DE
QUINCEY.

(2) _Instrumentality._

_With_ my crossbow I shot the albatross.--COLERIDGE.

Either _with_ the swingle-bar, or _with_ the haunch of our near
leader, we had struck the off-wheel of the little gig.--DE
QUINCEY.

(3) _Cause, reason, motive._

He was wild _with_ delight about Texas.--HALE.

She seemed pleased _with_ the accident.--HOWELLS.

(4) _Estimation, opinion._

How can a writer's verses be numerous if _with_ him, as _with_
you, "poetry is not a pursuit, but a pleasure"?--LANG.

It seemed a supreme moment _with_ him.--HOWELLS.

(5) _Opposition_.

After battling _with_ terrific hurricanes and typhoons on every
known sea.--ALDRICH.

The quarrel of the sentimentalists is not _with_ life, but _with_
you.--LANG.

(6) _The equivalent of_ notwithstanding, in spite of.

_With_ all his sensibility, he gave millions to the
sword.--CHANNING.

Messala, _with_ all his boldness, felt it unsafe to trifle
further.--WALLACE

(7) _Time._

He expired _with_ these words.--SCOTT.

_With_ each new mind a new secret of nature transpires.--EMERSON.

Exercise.--Find sentences with four uses of _with_.

HOW TO PARSE PREPOSITIONS.

327. Since a preposition introduces a phrase and shows the relation between two things, it is necessary, first of all, to find the object of the preposition, and then to find what word the prepositional phrase limits. Take this sentence:--

The rule adopted on board the ships on which I have met "the man
without a country" was, I think, transmitted from the
beginning.--E.E. HALE.

The phrases are (1) _on board the ships_, (2) _on which_, (3) _without a country_, (4) _from the beginning_. The object of _on board_ is _ships_; of _on_, _which_; of _without_, _country_; of _from_, _beginning_.

In (1), the phrase answers the question _where_, and has the office of an adverb in telling _where_ the rule is adopted; hence we say, _on board_ shows the relation between _ships_ and the participle _adopted_.

In (2), _on which_ modifies the verb _have met_ by telling where: hence _on_ shows the relation between _which_ (standing for _ships_) and the verb _have met_.

In (3), _without a country_ modifies _man_, telling what man, or the verb _was_ understood: hence _without_ shows the relation between _country_ and _man_, or _was_. And so on.

The parsing of prepositions means merely telling between what words or word groups they show relation.

Exercises.

(_a_) Parse the prepositions in these paragraphs:--

1. I remember, before the dwarf left the queen, he followed us
one day into those gardens. I must needs show my wit by a silly
illusion between him and the trees, which happens to hold in
their language as it does in ours. Whereupon, the malicious
rogue, watching his opportunity when I was walking under one of
them, shook it directly over my head, by which a dozen apples,
each of them near as large as a Bristol barrel, came tumbling
about my ears; one of them hit me on the back as I chanced to
stoop, and knocked me down flat on my face; but I received no
other hurt, and the dwarf was pardoned at my desire, because I
had given the provocation.--SWIFT

2. Be that as it will, I found myself suddenly awakened with a
violent pull upon the ring, which was fastened at the top of my
box for the conveniency of carriage. I felt my box raised very
high in the air, and then borne forward with prodigious speed.
The first jolt had like to have shaken me out of my hammock. I
called out several times, but all to no purpose. I looked towards
my windows, and could see nothing but the clouds and the sky. I
heard a noise just over my head, like the clapping of wings, and
then began to perceive the woeful condition I was in; that some
eagle had got the ring of my box in his beak, with an intent to
let it fall on a rock: for the sagacity and smell of this bird
enabled him to discover his quarry at a great distance, though
better concealed than I could be within a two-inch board.--_Id._

(_b_) Give the exact meaning of each italicized preposition in the following sentences:--

1. The guns were cleared _of_ their lumber.

2. They then left _for_ a cruise up the Indian Ocean.

3. I speak these things _from_ a love of justice.

4. _To_ our general surprise, we met the defaulter here.

5. There was no one except a little sunbeam _of_ a sister.

6. The great gathering in the main street was _on_ Sundays, when, after a restful morning, though unbroken _by_ the peal of church bells, the miners gathered _from_ hills and ravines _for_ miles around _for_ marketing.

7. The troops waited in their boats _by_ the edge of a strand.

8. His breeches were _of_ black silk, and his hat was garnished _with_ white and sable plumes.

9. A suppressed but still distinct murmur of approbation ran through the crowd _at_ this generous proposition.

10. They were shriveled and colorless _with_ the cold.

11. On every solemn occasion he was the striking figure, even _to_ the eclipsing of the involuntary object of the ceremony.

12. _On_ all subjects known to man, he favored the world with his opinions.

13. Our horses ran _on_ a sandy margin of the road.

14. The hero of the poem is _of_ a strange land and a strange parentage.

15. He locked his door _from_ mere force of habit.

16. The lady was remarkable _for_ energy and talent.

17. Roland was acknowledged _for_ the successor and heir.

18. _For_ my part, I like to see the passing, in town.

19. A half-dollar was the smallest coin that could be tendered _for_ any service.

20. The mother sank and fell, grasping _at_ the child.

21. The savage army was in war-paint, plumed _for_ battle.

22. He had lived in Paris _for_ the last fifty years.

23. The hill stretched _for_ an immeasurable distance.

24. The baron of Smaylho'me rose _with_ day,
He spurred his courser on,
Without stop or stay, down the rocky way
That leads _to_ Brotherstone.

25. _With_ all his learning, Carteret was far from being a pedant.

26. An immense mountain covered with a shining green turf is nothing, in this respect, _to_ one dark and gloomy.

27. Wilt thou die _for_ very weakness?

28. The name of Free Joe strikes humorously _upon_ the ear of memory.

29. The shout I heard was _upon_ the arrival of this engine.

30. He will raise the price, not merely _by_ the amount of the tax.

WORDS THAT NEED WATCHING.

328. If the student has now learned fully that words must be studied in grammar according to their function or use, and not according to form, he will be able to handle some words that are used as several parts of speech. A few are discussed below,--a summary of their treatment in various places as studied heretofore.

THAT.

329. That may be used as follows:

(1) _As a demonstrative adjective._

_That_ night was a memorable one.--STOCKTON.

(2) _As an adjective pronoun._

_That_ was a dreadful mistake.--WEBSTER.

(3) _As a relative pronoun._

And now it is like an angel's song,
_That_ makes the heavens be mute.--COLERIDGE.

(4) _As an adverb of degree._

_That_ far I hold that the Scriptures teach.--BEECHER.

(5) _As a conjunction_: (_a_) Of purpose.

Has bounteously lengthened out your lives, _that_ you might
behold this joyous day.--WEBSTER.

(_b_) Of result.

Gates of iron so massy _that_ no man could without the help of
engines open or shut them.--JOHNSON.

(_c_) Substantive conjunction.

We wish _that_ labor may look up here, and be proud in the midst
of its toil.--WEBSTER.

WHAT.

330. (1) _Relative pronoun._

That is _what_ I understand by scientific education.--HUXLEY.

(_a_) Indefinite relative.

Those shadowy recollections,
Which be they _what_ they may,
Are yet the fountain light of all our day.--WORDSWORTH.

(2) _Interrogative pronoun_: (_a_) Direct question.

_What_ would be an English merchant's character after a few such
transactions?--THACKERAY.

(_b_) Indirect question.

I have not allowed myself to look beyond the Union, to see _what_
might be hidden.--WEBSTER.

(3) _Indefinite pronoun:_ The saying, "I'll tell you _what_."

(4) _Relative adjective._

But woe to _what_ thing or person stood in the way.--EMERSON.

(_a_) Indefinite relative adjective.

To say _what_ good of fashion we can, it rests on reality.--_Id._

(5) _Interrogative adjective_: (_a_) Direct question.

_What_ right have you to infer that this condition was caused by
the action of heat?--AGASSIZ.

(_b_) Indirect question.

At _what_ rate these materials would be distributed,...it is
impossible to determine.--_Id._

(6) _Exclamatory adjective._

Saint Mary! _what_ a scene is here!--SCOTT.

(7) _Adverb of degree._

If he has [been in America], he knows _what_ good people are to
be found there.--THACKERAY.

(8) _Conjunction_, nearly equivalent to _partly_... _partly_, or _not only...but_.

_What_ with the Maltese goats, who go tinkling by to their
pasturage; _what_ with the vocal seller of bread in the early
morning;...these sounds are only to be heard...in Pera.--S.S.
Cox.

(9) _As an exclamation._

_What_, silent still, and silent all!--BYRON.

_What_, Adam Woodcock at court!--SCOTT.

BUT.

331. (1) _Coördinate conjunction_: (_a_) Adversative.

His very attack was never the inspiration of courage, _but_ the
result of calculation.--EMERSON.

(_b_) Copulative, after _not only_.

Then arose not only tears, _but_ piercing cries, on all sides.
--CARLYLE.

(2) _Subordinate conjunction_: (_a_) Result, equivalent to _that_ ... _not_.

Nor is Nature so hard _but_ she gives me this joy several
times.--EMERSON.

(_b_) Substantive, meaning _otherwise_ ... _than_.

Who knows _but_, like the dog, it will at length be no longer
traceable to its wild original--THOREAU.

(3) _Preposition_, meaning _except_.

Now there was nothing to be seen _but_ fires in every
direction.--LAMB.

(4) _Relative pronoun_, after a negative, stands for _that_ ... _not_, or _who_ ... _not_.

There is not a man in them _but_ is impelled withal, at all
moments, towards order.--CARLYLE.

(5) _Adverb_, meaning _only_.

The whole twenty years had been to him _but_ as one
night.--IRVING.

To lead _but_ one measure.--SCOTT.

AS.

332. (1) _Subordinate conjunction_: (_a_) Of time.

Rip beheld a precise counterpart of himself _as_ he went up the
mountain.--IRVING.

(_b_) Of manner.

_As_ orphans yearn on to their mothers,
He yearned to our patriot bands.--MRS BROWNING.

(_c_) Of degree.

His wan eyes
Gaze on the empty scene _as_ vacantly
_As_ ocean's moon looks on the moon in heaven.
--SHELLEY.

(_d_) Of reason.

I shall see but little of it, _as_ I could neither bear walking
nor riding in a carriage.--FRANKLIN.

(_e_) Introducing an appositive word.

Reverenced _as_ one of the patriarchs of the village.--IRVING.

Doing duty _as_ a guard.--HAWTHORNE.

(2) _Relative pronoun_, after _such_, sometimes _same_.

And was there such a resemblance _as_ the crowd had
testified?--HAWTHORNE.

LIKE.

[Sidenote: _Modifier of a noun or pronoun._]

333. (1) _An adjective._

The aforesaid general had been exceedingly _like_ the majestic
image.--HAWTHORNE.

They look, indeed, _liker_ a lion's mane than a Christian man's
locks.-SCOTT.

No Emperor, this, _like_ him awhile ago.--ALDRICH.

There is no statue _like_ this living man.--EMERSON.

That face, _like_ summer ocean's.--HALLECK.

In each case, _like_ clearly modifies a noun or pronoun, and is followed by a dative-objective.

[Sidenote: _Introduces a clause, but its verb is omitted._]

(2) _A subordinate conjunction_ of manner. This follows a verb or a verbal, but the verb of the clause introduced by _like_ is _regularly omitted_. Note the difference between these two uses. In Old English _gelic_ (like) was followed by the dative, and was clearly an adjective. In this second use, _like_ introduces a shortened clause modifying a verb or a verbal, as shown in the following sentences:--

Goodman Brown came into the street of Salem village, staring
_like_ a bewildered man.--HAWTHORNE.

Give Ruskin space enough, and he grows frantic and beats the air
_like_ Carlyle.--HIGGINSON.

They conducted themselves much _like_ the crew of a man-of-war.
--PARKMAN.

[The sound] rang in his ears _like_ the iron hoofs of the steeds
of Time.--LONGFELLOW.

Stirring it vigorously, _like_ a cook beating eggs.--ALDRICH.

If the verb is expressed, _like_ drops out, and _as_ or _as if_ takes its place.

The sturdy English moralist may talk of a Scotch supper _as_ he
pleases.--CASS.

Mankind for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw,
just _as_ they do in Abyssinia to this day.--LAMB.

I do with my friends _as_ I do with my books.--EMERSON.

NOTE.--Very rarely _like_ is found with a verb following, but this is not considered good usage: for example,--

A timid, nervous child, _like_ Martin _was_.--MAYHEW.

Through which they put their heads, _like_ the Gauchos _do_
through their cloaks.--DARWIN.

_Like_ an arrow shot
From a well-experienced archer _hits_ the mark.--SHAKESPEARE.

INTERJECTIONS.

[Sidenote: _Definition._]

334. Interjections are exclamations used to express emotion, and are not parts of speech in the same sense as the words we have discussed; that is, entering into the structure of a sentence.

Some of these are imitative sounds; as, tut! buzz! etc.

_Humph_! attempts to express a contemptuous nasal utterance that no letters of our language can really spell.

[Sidenote: _Not all exclamatory words are interjections._]

Other interjections are _oh_! _ah_! _alas_! _pshaw_! _hurrah_! etc. But it is to be remembered that almost any word may be used as an exclamation, but it still retains its identity as noun, pronoun, verb, etc.: for example, "Books! lighthouses built on the sea of time [noun];" "Halt! the dust-brown ranks stood fast [verb]," "Up! for shame! [adverb]," "Impossible! it cannot be [adjective]."