Chapter I: Part 1

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA

By ALEŠ HRDLIČKA

CONTENTS

Page
Introduction 29
General remarks 31
Northwest coast--Juneau 32
The Coast Indians 32
Notes of archeological interest 33
The writer's trip on the Yukon 39
Tanana--Yukon 39
Ancient man 41
The Indians at Tanana 42
Ruby 48
Galena 51
Nulato 53
Kaltag 54
The Anvik people 57
Bonasila 60
Holy Cross 61
Ghost Creek 62
Paimute 66
Russian Mission 70
Marshall 72
St. Michael 84
About Nome 88
Aboriginal remains 89
Nome--Bering Strait--Barrow 90
Savonga 92
The Diomedes 94
The Yukon Territory--Sites, the Indians, the Eskimo 123
The Tanana 123
Brief historical data 123
Population 124
Indian sites and villages along the Tanana 125
Lower Tanana, Nenana to Yukon 126
The Yukon below Tanana 126
Brief history 126
The Yukon natives 129
Native villages 131
Present conditions 133
Archeology of the Yukon 134
The random specimens 134
Location of villages and sites on the Yukon 136
Pre-Russian sites 140
Archeology of Central Alaska 144
Ancient stone culture 144
The pottery 146
The Alaskan grooved stone ax 147
Anthropology of the Yukon 150
The living Indian 150
Pure bloods 150
General type 151
Color 151
Stature and strength 151
Head form 151
Body 151
Photographs 151
Skeletal remains of the Yukon 151
Detailed measurements of skulls 152
Lower middle Yukon Indian crania 153
Skeletal parts 156
Skeletal remains from the bank at Bonasila 156
The crania 157
Additional parts 159
The Yukon Eskimo 161
The living 161
Measurements on living Yukon Eskimo 162
Skeletal remains of Yukon Eskimo 162
Skeletal parts of the Yukon Eskimo 163
Notes on the archeology of the Western Eskimo region 165
Old sites in the region of the Western Eskimo 168
Present location of archeological sites 171
Sites and villages 176
Burial grounds 183
Prince William Sound, Kodiak Island, Alaska Peninsula 184
Kodiak Island and neighborhood 184
Alaska Peninsula 186
Bristol Bay to Cape Romanzof 190
Cape Romanzof to Northern (Apoon) Pass of the Yukon and
northward 195
St. Michael Island 195
Norton Sound 195
South shore of Seward Peninsula west of Bluff 196
Scammon Bay, Norton Sound, south coast of Seward Peninsula, to
Cape Rodney 198
The northern shore of the Seward Peninsula 202
Kotzebue Sound, its rivers and its coast northward to Kevalina 204
Seward Peninsula, Kotzebue Sound, and northward 204
Kevalina--Point Barrow 205
Point Hope (Tigara) 205
Point Hope to Point Barrow 206
Barrow and Point Barrow 206
The St. Lawrence and Diomede Islands 209
St. Lawrence Island 209
The Diomede Islands and the Asiatic coast 210
Physical anthropology 213
Earlier data 213
Older anthropometric data on the western Eskimo 228
Stature and other measurements on the living 228
The skull 231
Present data on the western Eskimo 238
The living 238
Measurements of living western Eskimo 238
Stature 238
Height sitting 239
Arm span 239
The head 239
The forehead 240
The face 241
Lower facial breadth 242
The nose 242
The mouth 243
The ears 243
The chest 244
The hand 245
The foot 246
Girth of the calf 246
Physiological observations 247
Summary of observations on the living western Eskimo 249
Remarks 250
Present data on the skull and other skeletal remains of the
western Eskimo 254
The skull 254
Skull size 255
Module and capacity 258
Additional remarks on cranial module 258
Skull shape 258
Height of the skull 261
The face 263
The nose 267
The orbits 270
The upper alveolar arch 275
The basion-nasion diameter 277
Prognathism 282
Skulls of Eskimo children 294
Crania of Eskimo children 295
Southwestern and midwestern Eskimo 295
Principal cranial indices in children compared with those in
adults 297
The lower jaw 299
Strength of the jaw 301
Breadth of the rami 303
Other dimensions 303
The angle 305
Résumé 306
Mandibular hyperostoses 306
Main references 310
Skeletal parts other than the skull 313
The long bones 314
Comparative data 315
Long bones in Eskimo and stature 316
Length of principal long bones, and stature in the living,
on the St. Lawrence Island 317
Long bones vs. stature in Eskimo of Smith Sound 317
A strange group of Eskimo near Point Barrow 318
Anthropological observations and measurements on the
collections 321
Physical characteristics 323
Origin and antiquity of the Eskimo 329
Origin of the name "Eskimo"329
Opinions by former and living students 330
Origin in Asia 330
Origin in America 330
Origin in Europe--Identity with Upper Palaeolithic man 331
Other hypotheses 332
Theories as to the origin of the Eskimo 333
Asiatics 333
American 340
European 347
Opposed to European 351
Miscellaneous and indefinite 351
Discussion and conclusions indicated by present data 355
Summary 361
Bibliography 367
Index 629

ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATES

Page 1. _a_, "Old Minto" on the Tanana. Indian village. (A. H.,
1926.) _b_, Present Nulato and its cemetery (on hill to the
right of the village) from some distance up the river. (A.
H., 1926.) _c_, The Greyling River site, right bank, 22 miles
above Anvik; site and graveyard (male skeleton) from top of
knoll. (A. H., 1926.) 54

2. _a_, View on the Yukon from above Kaltag. (A. H., 1926.) _b_,
Indian burial ground, middle Yukon. (A. H., 1926.) _c_,
Anvik, from the mission. (A. H., 1926.) 54

3. _a_, Midnight on the Yukon. _b_, Lower middle Yukon: painted
burial box of a Yukon Indian (before 1884) said to have been
a hunter of bielugas (white whales), which used to ascend far
up the Yukon 64

4. _a_, Eskimo camp below Paimute, Yukon River. _b_, Old
"protolithic" site 12 miles down from Paimute, right bank,
just beyond "12-mile hill" (skull, bones, stones). _c_, "Old"
site in bank seen in middle of picture, 12 miles down from
Paimute, opposite that shown in preceding figure. (A. H.,
1926.) 64

5. _a_, Cape Prince of Wales from the southeast. (A. H., 1926.)
_b_, Village and cemetery slope. Little Diomede. (A. H.,
1926.) 96

6. _a_, Asiatics departing for Siberia from the Little Diomede
Island. (Photo by D. Jenness, 1926.) _b_, _c_, "Chukchis"
loading their boat with goods on Little Diomede Island,
before departure for Siberia. (Photos by D. Jenness, 1926.) 96

7. _a_, Eskimos from East Cape arriving at Nome, Alaska. _b_,
East Cape of Asia (to the southward). (Photo from Joe
Bernard.) 96

8. A group of women at Shishmaref. (Taken at 2 a. m. by A. H.,
1926.) 96

9. _a_, My "spoils," loaded on sled, Point Hope. (A. H., 1926.)
_b_, The load is heavy and sledding over sand and gravel
difficult. (A. H., 1926.) 136

10. Characteristic stone axes, middle Yukon. (A. H. coll., 1926.)
136

11. Crude stone artifacts, found at Bonasila, lower middle Yukon.
(A. H. coll., 1926.) 136

12. Crude stone artifacts, found at Bonasila, lower middle Yukon.
(A. H. coll., 1926.) 136

13. Tanana Indian woman 150

14. Chief Sam Joseph, near Tanana village, on the Yukon. (A. H.,
1926.) 150

15. _a_, Yukon Indians, at Kokrines, Jacob and Andrew. Jacob
probably has a trace of white blood. (A. H., 1926.) _b_,
Yukon Indians at Kokrines. (A. H., 1926.) 150

16. Yukon Indians. _a_, Marguerite Johnny Yatlen, Koyukuk
village. (A. H., 1926.) _b_, Lucy John, Koyukuk, daughter of
a former chief. (A. H., 1926.) 150

17. Yukon Indians. _a_, George Halfway, Nulato on the Yukon. (A.
H., 1926.) _b_, Jack Curry of Nulato, 41 years. (Now at Ruby,
middle Yukon; Eskimoid physiognomy.) _c_, Arthur Malamvot, of
Nulato 150

18. _a_, Indian children, mission school at Anvik, lower middle
Yukon. _b_, Indian children, mission school at Anvik, lower
middle Yukon. _c_, Two women of Anvik, on the Yukon, somewhat
Eskimoid 150

19. Terminal piece of a lance or harpoon, northern Bering Sea.
Black, high natural polish. Most beautiful piece of the
fossil ivory art. (A. H., 1926, U.S.N.M.) 174

20. Fossil ivory specimens showing the old curvilinear designs.
Northern Bering Sea. (A. H. coll., 1926, U.S.N.M.) 174

21. Objects showing the old fossil ivory art, northern Bering
Sea. (U.S.N.M., Nos. 1 and 3 coll., A. H., 1926.) 174

22. Fossil ivory needle cases and spear heads, northern Bering
Sea, showing fine workmanship. (A. H. coll., 1926, U.S.N.M.)
174

23. _a_, Small, finely made objects in fossil ivory and stone
(the head), from the ruins at Point Hope. (A. H. coll.,
1926.) _b_, Old fossil ivory objects, northern Bering Sea.
The article to the right is almost classic in form; it is
decorated on both sides. (A. H. coll., 1926, U.S.N.M.) 174

24. Fossil ivory combs, upper Bering Sea. (A. H. coll., 1926) 174

25. Fossil ivory objects from the upper Bering Sea region.
Transitional art. (Museum of the Agricultural College,
Fairbanks, Alaska.) 174

26. Old black finely carved fossil ivory figure, from the
northeastern Asiatic coast. (Loan to U.S.N.M. by Mr. Carl
Lomen.) 174

27. Wooden figurines from a medicine lodge, Choco Indians,
Panama. (U.S.N.M. colls.) 174

28. Left: Two beautiful knives lately made of fossil mammoth
ivory by a Seward Peninsula Eskimo. (Gift to the U.S.N.M.
by A. H., 1926.) Right: Two old ceremonial Mexican obsidian
knives. Manche de poignard en ivoire, avec sculpture
représentant un renne. Montastruc (Peccadeau de l'Isle; in De
Quatrefages (A.)--Hommes fossiles, Paris, 1884, p. 50.) 174

29. Billings and Gall's map of Bering Strait and neighboring
lands, 1811 178

30. Eskimo villages and sites, Norton Sound and Bay and Seward
Peninsula, and the Kotzebue Sound, from Zagoskin's general
map, 1847 178

31. Graves at Nash Harbor, Nunivak Island. (Photos by Collins and
Stewart, 1927.) 214

32. The school children at Wales 214

33. _a_, Children, Nunivak Island. (Photo by Collins and Stewart,
1927.) _b_, Adults, Nunivak Island. (Photo by Collins and
Stewart, 1927.) 214

34. King Island Eskimo; a family group 214

35. King Island native 214

36. A fine full-blood Eskimo pair, northern Bering Sea region.
_a_, Young Eskimo woman, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo
by Lomen Bros.) _b_, Eskimo, northern Bering Sea region.
(Photo by F. H. Nowell.) 214

37. Typical full-blood Eskimo, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo
by Lomen Bros.) 214

38. Elderly man, St. Lawrence Island. (Photos by R. D. Moore,
1912. U.S.N.M.) 214

39. The Wales people. (Photo by Lomen Bros.) 242

40. The long broad-faced types, Wales. (Photo by Lomen Bros.) 242

41. _a_, The broad-faced and low-vaulted Eskimo, St. Lawrence
Island. (Photo by R. D. Moore, 1912. U.S.N.M.). _b_,
Broad-faced type, St. Lawrence Island. (Photo by R. D. Moore,
1912. U. S. N. M.) 242

42. The long-faced type. _a_, A young man from Seward Peninsula.
_b_, A boy from St. Lawrence Island 242

43. A "Hypereskimo," King Island. Excessively developed face 242

44. Eskimo "Madonna" and child, northern Bering Sea region.
(Photo by Lomen Bros.) 242

45. Young woman, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen
Bros.) 250

46. Young women, full-blood Eskimo, Seward Peninsula. (Photo by
Lomen Bros.) 250

47. A Point Hope group 250

48. _a_, Eskimo woman, Kevalina. (Photo on the "Bear" by A. H.,
1926. U.S.N.M.). _b_, The body build of an adult Eskimo
woman, upper Bering Sea 250

49. Elderly woman, St. Lawrence Island. (Photos by R. D. Moore,
1912. U.S.N.M.) 250

50. _a_, Yukon Eskimo, below Paimute. (A. H., 1926.) _b_, Norton
Sound Eskimo woman and child. (A. H., 1926.) 250

51. Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photos by
Lomen Bros.) 250

52. Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photos by
Lomen Bros.) 250

53. Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by
Lomen Bros.) 250

54. Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by
Lomen Bros.) 250

55. Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by
Lomen Bros.) 250

56. Eskimo, Indianlike, Arctic region. (Photo by Lomen Bros.) 250

57. Siberian Eskimo and child, Indian type 250

58. _a_, Mrs. Sage, Kevalina. Fine Indian type. Born on Notak.
Both parents Notak "Eskimo." (Photo by A. H., 1926.) _b_,
Eskimo family, Indianlike, near Barrow. (Photo by A. H.,
1926.) 250

59. Skulls from old burials, Point Hope; right skull shows low
vault. (U.S.N.M.) 262

60. Skulls from old burials, Point Hope; right skull shows low
vault. (U.S.N.M.) 262

61. Western Eskimo and Aleut (middle) lower jaws, showing lingual
hyperostoses. (U.S.N.M.) 308

TEXT FIGURES

1. The Tanana River between Nenana and Tanana, with Indian
villages 125

2. The Yukon from Tanana to below Kokrines 137

3. The Yukon from below Kokrines to below Koyukuk 137

4. The Yukon from below Koyukuk to Lofkas 138

5. Old map of the Nulato district 139

6. Map of Kaltag and vicinity. (By McLeod) 139

7. The Yukon from Bystraia to below Holy Cross 140

8. The Yukon from above Holy Cross to below Mountain Village 141

9. The Yukon from below Mountain Village to near Marshall 141

10. The Yukon from near Marshall to below Kavlingnak 142

11. From above Kobolunuk to mouth of river 143

12. Conventionalized design from fossil ivory specimen shown in
Plate 19 174

13. World map 177

14. Dall's map of the distribution of the tribes of Alaska and
adjoining territory, 1875 178

15. Nelson's map, Eighteenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., 1898 179

16. Linguistic map, United States census, 1920 180

17. Villages and sites on Kodiak Island 185

18. Villages and sites on the proximal half of Alaska Peninsula
187

19. Villages and sites on the distal half of Alaska Peninsula 188

20. Eskimo villages and sites on Nushagak Bay to Kuskokwim Bay 191

21. Eskimo villages and sites, Kuskokwim Bay to Scammon Bay 193

22. Eskimo villages and sites, Scammon Bay to Norton Sound and
Bay to Cape Rodney 198

23. Eskimo villages and sites, Wales. (By Clark M. Garber, 1927)
201

24. Eskimo villages and sites, Seward Peninsula, Kotzebue Sound,
and Arctic coast, to Kevalina 203

25. Eskimo villages and sites, Kevalina to Point Barrow 207

26. Russian map of St. Lawrence Island, 1849. (Tebenkof) 209

27. Eskimo villages and sites, St. Lawrence Island, the Diomedes,
and the eastern Asiatic coast 211

28. The Bering Strait Islands 212

29. Probable movements of people from northeastern Asia to Alaska
and in Alaska. (A. Hrdlička) 360

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA

By ALEŠ HRDLIČKA

INTRODUCTION

Alaska and the opposite parts of Asia hold, in all probability, the key to the problem of the peopling of America. It is here, and here alone, where a land of another continent approaches so near to America that a passage of man with primitive means of navigation and provisioning was possible. All the affinities of the American native point toward the more eastern parts of Asia. In Siberia, Mongolia, Tibet, Manchuria, Formosa, and in some of the islands off southeastern Asia, living remnants of the same type of man as the American aborigines are to this day encountered, and it is here in the farthest northwest where actual passings of parties of natives between the Asiatic coast and the Bering Sea islands and between the latter and the American coasts have always, since these parts were known, been observed and are still of common occurrence.

With these facts before them, the students of the peopling of this continent were always drawn strongly to Alaska and the opposite parts of Asia; but the distances, the difficulties of communication, and the high costs of exploration in these far-off regions have proven a serious hindrance to actual investigation. As a result, but little direct, systematic, archeological or anthropological (somatological) research has ever been carried out in these regions; though since Bering's, Cook's, and Vancouver's opening voyages to these parts a large amount of general, cultural, and linguistic observations on the natives has accumulated.

For these observations, which are much in need of a compilation and critical analysis, science is indebted to the above-named captains; to the subsequent Russian explorers, and especially to the Russian clerics who were sent to Alaska as missionaries or priests to the natives; to various captains, traders, agents, miners, soldiers, and men in collateral branches of science, who came in contact with the aborigines; to special United States Government exploratory expeditions, with an occasional participation of the Biological Survey and the Smithsonian Institution, such as resulted in the fine "Corwin" reports and the highly valuable accounts of Leffingwell, Dall, Nelson, and Murdoch; to the separate pieces of scientific work by men such as Gordon and Jennes; and to Jochelson and Bogoras of the Jesup exploring expedition of the American Museum.

As a result of all these contributions, it may be said that there has been established a fair cultural and linguistic knowledge of the Aleut, the Eskimo, and the Chukchee, not to speak of the Tlingit, consideration of which seems more naturally to fall with that of the Indians of the northwest coast.

There are also numerous though often very imperfect and occasionally rather contradictory notes on the physical status of these peoples, and some valuable cultural and even skeletal collections were made. Since 1912 we possess also a good series of measurements on the St. Lawrence Island natives, together with valuable cranial material from that locality, made, under the direction of the writer, by Riley D. Moore, at that time aide in the Division of Physical Anthropology in the United States National Museum.

The need of a further systematic archeological and somatological research in this important part of the world was long since felt, and several propositions were made in this line to the National Research Council (Hrdlička) and to the Smithsonian Institution (Hough, Hrdlička); but nothing came of these until the early part of 1926, when, a little money becoming available, the writer was intrusted by the Bureau of American Ethnology with the making of an extensive preliminary survey of Alaska. The objects of the trip were, in brief, to ascertain as much as possible about the surviving Indians and Eskimos; to trace all indications of old settlements and migrations; and to collect such skeletal and archeological material as might be of importance.

The trip occupied approximately four months, from the latter part of May to the latter part of September, affording a full season in Alaska. It began with the inside trip from Vancouver to Juneau, where at several of the stopping places groups of the northwest coast Indians were observed. At Juneau examination was made of the valuable archeological collections in the local museum. After this followed a trip with several stops along the gulf, a railroad trip with some stops to Fairbanks, a return trip to Nenana, a boat trip on the Tanana to the Yukon, and then, with little boats of various sorts, a trip with many stops for about 900 miles down the Yukon. This in turn was followed by a side trip in Norton Sound, after which transportation was secured to the island of St. Michael and to Nome. From Nome, after some work in the vicinity, the revenue cutter _Bear_ took the writer to the St. Lawrence and Diomede Islands, to Cape Wales, and thence from place to place of scientific interest up to Barrow. On the return a number of the more important places, besides some new ones, were touched upon, while the visit to others was prevented by the increasing storms, and the trip ended at Unalaska.

Throughout the journey, the writer received help from the Governor, officials, missionaries, traders, and people of Alaska; from the captain, officers, and crew of the _Bear_; and from many individuals; for all of which cordial thanks are hereby once more rendered. Grateful acknowledgments are especially due to the following gentlemen: Governor George A. Parks, of Alaska; Mr. Harry G. Watson, his secretary; Mr. Karl Thiele, Secretary for Alaska; Judge James Wickersham, formerly Delegate from Alaska; Father A. P. Kashevaroff, curator of the Territorial Museum and Library of Juneau; Dr. William Chase, of Cordova; Mr. Noel W. Smith, general manager Government railroad of Alaska; Mr. B. B. Mozee, Indian supervisor, and Dr. J. A. Romig, of Anchorage; Prof. C. E. Bunnell, president Alaska Agriculture College, at Fairbanks; Mr. and Mrs. Fullerton, missionaries, at Tanana; Rev. J. W. Chapman and Mr. Harry Lawrence, at Anvik; Father Jetté and Jim Walker, at Holy Cross; Mr. C. Betsch, at the Russian Mission; Messrs. Frank Tucker and E. C. Gurtler, near the mission; Mr. Frank P. Williams, of St. Michael; Judge G. J. Lomen and his sons and daughter, at Nome; Rev. Dr. Baldwin, Fathers La Fortune and Post, Captain Ross, United States Coast Guard, and Mr. Elmer Rydeem, merchant, at Nome; C. S. Cochran, captain of the _Bear_, and his officers, particularly Mr. H. Berg, the boatswain; Rev. F. W. Goodman and Mr. LaVoy, at Point Hope; the American teachers at Wales, Shishmareff, Kotzebue, Point Hope, and elsewhere; Messrs. Tom Berryman, Jim Allen; and Charles Brower, traders, respectively, at Kotzebue, Wainright, and Barrow; Mr. Sylvester Chance, superintendent of education, Kotzebue, Alaska; the United States marshals, deputy marshals, and postmasters along the route; and the numerous traders, miners, settlers, and others who were helpful with specimens, advice, guidance, and in other matters.

GENERAL REMARKS

The account of the survey will be limited in the main to anthropological and archeological observations; but it is thought best to give it largely in the form of the original notes made on the spot or within a few hours after an event. These notes often contain collateral observations or thoughts which could be excluded, but the presence of which adds freshness, reliability, and some local atmosphere to what otherwise would be a rather dry narrative. A preliminary account of the trip and its results was published in the Smithsonian exploration volume for 1926 (Washington, 1927, pp. 137-158).

Not much reference is possible to previous work of the nature here dealt with in the parts visited, except in the Aleutian Islands, where good archeological work was done in the late sixties by William H. Dall,[1] and in 1909-10 by Waldemar Jochelson.[2]

The archeology and anthropology of the Gulf of Alaska, the inland, the Yukon Basin, the Bering Sea coasts and islands, and those of the Arctic coasts up to Point Barrow are but little known. The archeology is in reality known only from the stone and old ivory implements that have been incidentally collected and have reached various institutions where they have been studied; from the excavations about Barrow, conducted by an expedition of the University Museum, Philadelphia, in charge of W. B. Van Valin, and by the trader, Mr. Charles Brower, the results of which have not yet been published; and from the recent diggings at Wales and on the smaller Diomede Island by Doctor Jenness.[3] Neither Dall, Nelson, Rau, nor Murdoch conducted any excavations outside the already mentioned work in the Aleutians.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Dall, Wm. H.: Alaska as it Was and Is; 1865-1895. Bull. Phil. Soc. Wash., 1900, vol. XIII, 141. On Prehistoric Remains in the Aleutian Islands. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., November, 1872, vol. IV, 283-287. Explorations on the Western Coast of North America. Smiths. Rept. for 1873, Wash., 1874, 417-418. On Further Examinations of the Amaknak Cave. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., 1873, vol. V, 196-200. Notes on Some Aleut Mummies. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., October, 1874, vol. V. 399-400. Deserted Hearths. The Overland Monthly, 1874, vol. XIII, 25-30. Alaskan Mummies. Am. Naturalist, 1875, vol. IX, 433-440. Tribes of the Extreme Northwest. Contrib. N. Am. Ethnol., vol. I, Wash., 1877. On the Remains of Later Prehistoric Man Obtained from Caves in the Catharina Archipelago, Alaska Territory, etc. Smiths. Contr. to Knowledge, No. 318, Wash., 1878.

[2] Jochelson, W., Archæological Investigations in the Aleutian Islands. Carnegie Inst. of Wash. Publ. No. 367, Wash., D. C., 1925.

[3] Rau, Chas., North American Stone Implements. Smiths. Rept. for 1872, Wash., 1873. Prehistoric Fishing in Europe and North America. Smiths. Contr. to Knowledge, Wash., 1884, vol. XXV. Thomas, Cyrus, Introduction to the Study of North American Archæology. Cincinnati, 1898. Jennes, D. Archæological Investigations in Bering Strait. Ann. Rep. Nat. Mus. Canada for 1926 (Ottawa 1928), pp. 71-80.

NORTHWEST COAST--JUNEAU

THE COAST INDIANS

Passage was taken on a small steamer from Vancouver. The boat stopped at a number of settlements on the scenic "inside" route--which impresses one as a much enlarged and varied trip through the Catskills--permitting some observations on the Indians of these parts.

The main opportunity was had at Aleut Bay. Here many British Columbia Indians were seen on the dock, belonging to several tribes. Names of these, as pronounced to me, were unfamiliar. They have a large agency here; engage in salmon industry. A minority, only, full bloods--of the younger a large majority mixed (white blood). The full bloods all show one marked type, of short to moderate stature, rather short legs, huge chest and head, i. e., face. Color near onion-brown, without luster. Indians, but modified locally. Remind one (chest, stature, stockiness, shortness of neck and legs) of Peruvian Indians.

Indians at Prince Rupert same type; color pale brown; eyes and nose rather small for the faces in some, in others good size. Look good deal like some Chinese or rather some hand-laboring Chinese and Japanese look like them.

Indians at Juneau (the Auk tribe) very similar, but most mixed with whites.

_Juneau._--A week was spent at Juneau, gathering information, obtaining letters of introduction, and making a few excursions. The city has an excellent museum devoted to Alaskan history and archeology, under the able curatorship of Father Andrew P. Kashevaroff, himself a part of the history of the Territory. The archeological collections of Alaska Indians and Eskimos are in some respects--e. g., pottery--more comprehensive than those of any other of our museums; but they, together with the valuable library, are housed in a frail frame building, under great risks from both fire and thieves. Fortunately the latter are still scarce in Alaska, but the fire risk is great and ever present. The museum is a decided cultural asset to Juneau.

NOTES OF ARCHEOLOGICAL INTEREST

_Auk Point._--Thanks to Father Kashevaroff and Mr. Charles H. Flory, the district forester, an excursion was arranged one day to Auk Point, approximately 15 miles distant, a picturesque wooded little promontory near which there used to be a settlement of the Auk Indians. On the point were several burials of shamans and a chief of the tribe (all other dead being cremated), and near the graves stood until a short time ago a moderate-sized totem pole. Of all this we found but bare remnants. The burials of three shamans and one chief had been in huge boxes above ground; but they had all been broken into and most of the contents belonging to the dead were taken away, including the skulls. The skeletal parts of two of the bodies and a few bones of the chief remained, however, with a few objects the vandals had overlooked. The latter were placed in the Juneau Museum while the bones, showing some features of interest, were collected and sent to Washington. A large painted board near the graves of the shamans remained, though damaged. The totem pole, however, had been cut down the year before by a young man from Juneau, who then severed the head, which he carried home, and left the rest on the beach, from where it was soon washed away. Thus a group of burials, the only ones known of the once good-sized Auk tribe, have been despoiled and their record lost to science. And such a fate is, according to all accounts, rapidly overtaking similar remains everywhere in southeastern Alaska.

_Rare stone lamp (?)._--At the museum one of the first and most interesting objects shown the writer by Father Kashevaroff was a large, heavy, finely sculptured oblong bowl, made of hard, dark crystalline stone, decorated in relief on the rim and with a squatting stone figure, cut from the same piece, near one of the ends. The bowl looks like a ceremonial lamp, though showing no trace of oil or carbon. Subsequently four other bowls of this same remarkable type and workmanship were learned of, two, the best of the lot, in the University Museum at Philadelphia; one in the Museum of the American Indian, New York; and one, somewhat inferior and of reddish stone, in the possession of Mr. Müller, the trader at Kaltag, on the Yukon (later in that of Mr. Lynn Smith, marshal at Fairbanks). The localities where the five remarkable and high-grade specimens have been found range from the Kenai Peninsula in southwestern Alaska to the lower Yukon. The Juneau specimen comes from Fish Creek, near Kuik, Cook Inlet (see Descriptive Booklet Alaska Hist. Mus., Juneau, 1922, pp. 26, 27); that in the Heye Museum is from the same locality; the one in Philadelphia was found in the Kenai Peninsula; while that at Kaltag came from an old Indian site on the Kaiuh slough of the Yukon. Locally, there is much inclination to regard these specimens as Asiatic, especially Japanese, and a bronze Japanese Temple medal has been found near that now at Juneau. On the other hand, a strong suggestion of similarity to these dishes is presented by some undecorated large stone lamps from Alaska, and by a class of pottery bowls with a human figure perched on the rim at one end from some of the Arkansas mounds, Mexico, and farther southward. (See Mason, J. A. A remarkable stone lamp from Alaska. The Museum Jour., Phila., 1928, 170-194.)

_Copper mask._--Shortly before leaving Juneau I became acquainted with Mr. Robert Simpson, manager of the "Nugget" curio shop, and found in his possession a number of interesting specimens made in the past by the Tlingit Indians. An outstanding piece was an old copper mask, which was purchased for the National Museum. Mr. Simpson obtained it years ago from a native of Yakutat and stored it with native furs and other articles of value. It originally belonged to a shaman of the Yakutat tribe and was said to have been worn by him in sacrificial slave killings, the shaman with the mask representing some mythical being. It is an exceedingly good and rare piece of native workmanship.

_Copper "shield."_--Another interesting article secured from Mr. Simpson is a large old shieldlike plate of beaten copper, decorated on one side with a characteristic Tlingit engraved design. Mr. Simpson, in a letter to Doctor Hough, dated June 26, 1926, says: "The shield, or to speak more correctly the copper plate--for it was not used as a shield--was the most valuable possession of the Tlingits. They were usually valued in slaves, this one, at the last known exchange, having been traded for three slaves. The possessor of four or five such plates was a man of the utmost wealth. Some claim that they got these copper plates from the early New England traders and others that they came from the Copper River. Either is possible. Lots of the Copper River nuggets were very large and flat and could have readily been hammered into plate form. I bought this in the village of Klawak on the west coast of Prince of Wales Island. I do not know of another one around here. All of the local elderly natives are familiar with its previous value, and when they have wandered into my shop to sell things they always made deep obeisance to this plate."

_Talks._--While in Juneau the writer spoke before the Rotarians, who honored him with a lunch; and later, in the auditorium of the fine new high school, gave a public lecture on "The Peopling of America," etc. The object of these and the many subsequent talks in Alaska was, on the one hand, to reciprocate as far as possible the kindness and help received on all sides, and on the other to leave wholesome information and stimulus in things anthropological. The audience was invariably all that a lecturer could desire, and many were left everywhere eager for help and cooperation. The aid of some of these men, including prospectors, miners, settlers, engineers, foresters, and various officials, may some day prove of much value in the search for Alaskan antiquities.

_Juneau--Seward._--June 8, leave Juneau. It has been raining every day, with one exception, and is misting now, depriving us of a view of most of the coast. Wherever there is a glimpse of it, however, it is seen to be mountainous, wooded below, snowy and icy higher up, inhospitable, forbidding.

June 10, arrive at Cordova, a former native and Russian settlement of some importance. Will stay here large part of the day and go to see about Indians, old sites, burials, and specimens, the main hotel keeper, the assistant superintendent of the local railway, the postmaster, the supervisor of the forests, and Dr. William Chase, who has been connected with the work of the Biological Survey in these regions. Mr. W. J. McDonald, the forester, takes me out some miles into the very rugged country, where there are still plenty of bear and mountain goat. After which Doctor Chase takes me to the old Russian and Indian cemetery. There are many graves, mostly Indian, but also a few whites, and even a Chinaman. Russian crosses are still common. The older Indian part could be easily excavated. Learn of skulls and bones on "mummy" island in Prince William Sound.

_Indians._--See quite a few. Nearly all appear more or less mixed; color in these more or less pronounced tan with red in cheeks and some tendency to paleness. Heads still all brachycephalic and of only moderate height; faces broad, noses not prominent, in males tend to large.

Two adult men, evidently full-bloods--pure Indian type of the brachycephalic form, head moderate in size, medium short, face not very large, nose slightly or moderately convex, not prominent, but all Indian. Color of skin submedium to near medium brown, no trace of whitish or pink. Stature and build medium; feet rather small; hair typical Indian, black, straight; beard sparse and short; mustache sparse, no hair on sides of the face.

The boat makes two or three more commercial and passenger stops before reaching Seward, the main one at Valdez, the terminal of the Richardson Trail to the interior. These stops permit us to see some fish canneries, which are of both general and anthropological interest. These establishments employ Japanese, Philippine, and Chinese labor, and it was found to be quite a task to distinguish these, and to tell them from the coast Indians. The Chinamen can be distinguished most often, though not always, the Japanese less so, while the Filipino usually can not be told from the Indian, even by an expert. Here was a striking practical lesson in relationships.

_Seward--Anchorage._--Seward found to be a fine little town, full of the same good brand of people that one finds everywhere in Alaska and who go so far to restore one's faith in humanity. It is the terminus of the Government railroad to Fairbanks and a port of some importance.

_Indian basketry._--No Indians were seen here, though some come occasionally. But several of the stores, including that of the Seward Drug Co. (Mr. Elwyn Swestmann), have an unexpectedly good supply of decorated Alaska Indian baskets. It was found later, in fact, that the Alaskan Indians, with the Aleutians, compare well in basketry with those of Arizona and California.

_Anchorage._--June 12-13. Anchorage, on Cook's Inlet, is a good-sized town for Alaska and the headquarters of the railroad. Here were met some very good friends, particularly Mr. Noel W. Smith, general manager of the railroad; Dr. J. H. Romig, formerly of the Kuskokwim; and Mr. B. B. Mozee, the Indian supervisor. Here, at Ellis Hall, I lectured on "The Origin and Racial Affiliations of the Indians," and the large audience included seven male (some full blood) and two female (mix blood) Indians--of the latter, one very pretty, approaching a Spanish type of beauty. Near town I also visited with a launch two small Indian fishing camps. From Doctor Romig information was obtained about the Indians and some old sites of the Kuskokwim; and through the kindness of Messrs. Smith and Mozee I was enabled to visit the Indian school at Eklutna. Here at Anchorage I also was given the first and rather rare old Indian stone implement.

The Indians at the camps included 6 full bloods--4 men, 2 women. One of the men tested on chest. Typical full-blood results.

Type of full bloods: Color slightly submedium to medium brown, never darker; heads, subbrachycephalic to full brachycephalic, rather small; forehead in men more or less sloping in two; face, not large, Indian; nose tends to convex but not high. Indian in features and behavior, but features not as pronounced as general in the States tribes.

The full bloods in town: Medium to short stature, not massive frames, moderate-sized faces, Indian type, but not the pronounced form; head brachycephalic; hair all black; mustache and beard scarce, as in Indians in general; color of skin submedium brown. Children in camp (up to about 5 years) were striking by a relatively considerable interorbital breadth, otherwise typical Indian.

_Birch-bark dishes._--At Anchorage, in several of the stores, but particularly at one small store, were seen many nicely decorated birch-bark dishes or receptacles. They are made by inland Indians, are prettily decorated with colored porcupine quills, and evidently take the place of the baskets of other tribes. It was difficult to learn just what Indians made the best or most, though the Tanana people were mentioned. No such fine assortment of these dishes was seen after leaving Anchorage.

_Eklutna._--Sixteen miles from Anchorage, along the railroad, is the Indian village and school Eklutna. Mr. Smith made it possible for me to reach this place on a freight and to be picked up later the same day by the passenger train.

At Eklutna was found an isolated but prettily located and well-kept Indian school, with about fifty children from many parts of southwestern Alaska. More than half of these children showed more or less admixture of white blood, but there was a minority of unquestionable full bloods. There were two children from Kodiak Island and two or three southern Eskimo. The main impression after a detailed look at the children was that, while they all showed clear Indian affinities and some were typically Indian, yet on the whole there was a prevalent trace of something Eskimoid in the physiognomies--an observation that was to be repeated more than once in other parts of Indian Alaska.

_Burials._--At a few minutes' walk from the school at Eklutna there is in a clearing of the forest a small Indian village, with a late graveyard showing Russian influence. A short distance farther, however, according to the Indians, there is an old burial place of some magnitude, with traces of graves, although quite obliterated.

_Eklutna--Fairbanks._--Since reaching Seward the almost incessant drizzles have ceased and the weather has been fine and pleasantly warm. Everything is green, grass is luxuriant, and there are many flowers.

The railroad journey is a regular scenic tour, with its crowning point a glorious view of Mount McKinley. The trains run only in the daytime. For the night a stop is made at a railroad hotel, in a quiet, picturesque location, at the edge of a good-sized river. They have foxes in cages here and a tame reindeer. There are no natives in this vicinity.

There are two interesting passengers on the train, with both of whom I became well acquainted. One is Joe Bernard, an explorer and collector (besides his other occupations) in Alaska and Siberia. He furnishes me with some valuable pictures and much information. The other man is Captain Wilkins, the flier of Point Barrow fame, who strikes me as an able and modest man.

The next day, as the train stops at Nenana, I am met, thanks to a word sent by Mr. Noel W. Smith, by Chief Thomas and a group of his people. These behave kindly and tell me of a potlatch to be held at Tanana "after some days," where they will visit. The chief impresses me with his rather refined though thoroughly Indian countenance.

_Fairbanks._--Before reaching Fairbanks, the inland capital of Alaska, I am met by Prof. C. E. Bunnell, head of the Alaska Agricultural College. This college, located on an elevation about 4 miles out of the city, I visit with Professor Bunnell soon after arrival, to find there some interesting paleontological and archeological collections. Here are fair beginnings which well deserve the good will of the Alaskans. Unfortunately the college has not yet the means for any substantial progress or research in these lines, and the collections are housed in a frame building where they are in serious danger from fire. But their presence will aid, doubtless, in the saving of other material of similar nature from the Tanana region, and specimens of special scientific importance will doubtless be referred to scientific institutions outside.

Fairbanks is a good-sized town, built on the wide flats of the Tanana River. Its population, now reduced, includes some civilized natives, most of whom, however, are mix breeds. A large petrified mammoth tusk on the porch of one of the semi-log houses shows that these are regions of more than ordinary biological interest. And there is soon an occurrence which demonstrates this further. Mr. John Buckley, the deputy marshal, takes me to an old Japanese resident, now a rooming-house keeper, who has had a hobby of collecting fossils, and who in the end is happy to donate to the National Museum a fine skull of a fossil Alaskan horse, together with some other specimens, refusing all payment. Such is the human Alaska, or at least the most of it.

Here, too, to a full hall in the library, a lecture is given on "The Peopling of Alaska and America," after which follows a return to Nenana to catch a steamer to the Yukon.

THE WRITER'S TRIP ON THE YUKON

TANANA--YUKON

June 17. Nenana: This is a small town on the Tanana, mostly railroad buildings, with a hospital; there is one street of stores (three short blocks), most of them now empty. About half a mile off a small Indian settlement about an Episcopalian mission.

Country flat on both sides of the rather large river, except for some hills back of the right shore beyond the railroad bridge, for a short distance. The river flats seem scarcely 3 or 4 feet above water, overgrown with brush and a few scrubby trees, later spruce thickets. Purple flowers (fireweed) strike the eye.

No relics found at Nenana; no information concerning old sites or abandoned villages along the stream.

Physically, the Indians seen at Nenana were submedium brown, good many still full blood, pure Indian type, brachycephalic, faces (nose, etc.), however, of but medium prominence. Moderate to good stature.

They are all fairly "civilized," wear white men's clothing, to which on gala occasions are added bands or collars of beadwork, and speak more or less English. The younger men are evidently good workers.

The distance from Nenana to Tanana is given as about 190 miles by the river.

The government boat _Jacobs_, on which we shall go down the Tanana, is a moderate-sized, shallow-bottomed stern-wheeler, and, like all such boats on these rivers, will push a heavily laden freight barge before it. There are about a dozen passengers, the boat labor, a trader or two. All kindly, open. A few women--most of both sexes of the Scandinavian type. On barge some horses, a cow, pigs, chickens.

Leave after lunch--very good, generous, and pleasant meal in a local restaurant that would do credit to a large city; only the people are better, more human. Meals $1, the almost universal price in Alaska.

Some quaint expressions: When anyone has been away, especially to the States, they say he was "outside." I am an "outsider;" show it "by my collar." Underdone bacon is "easy." To assent they say "you bet." In a restaurant, to a decent, cheerful girl: "May I have a little hot coffee?" "You bet!" Which bright answer is heard so often that one finishes by being shy to ask.

Dogs, of course, do not pull, but "mush." This is from the Canadian French "marche." Dogs do not understand "go" or "go on," only "mush."

Extensive flats. Below Nenana these flats, plainly recent alluvial, are said to extend up to 60 miles to the left (southwestward) and to 20 miles to the right. As one passes nearer they are seen to range from 3 up to about 8 feet above the level of the river at this stage of water.

Cabins and fishing camps along the river, mostly flimsy structures, with a few tents. Indians in some. The Indians are said by the whites to be pretty lazy, living from day to day; yet they seem industrious enough in their own camps and in their own way.

Storage or caches, little houses on stilts. Dog houses in rows. Curious wheel fish traps, revolving like hay or wheat lifting machines, run by the current. They scoop out the fish and let them fall into a box, from which the fisherman collects them twice a day. It is the laziest fishing that could be devised. The contraption is said to come from the northwest coast, but has become one of the characteristic parts of the scenery along the Tanana and the Yukon. An Indian camp--stacks of cordwood--canoes.

The day is sunny, moderately warm and rather dry--about as a warm, dry, fall day with us. The river shows bars, with caught driftwood; also considerable floating wood. There are seagulls, said to destroy young ducks and geese and water birds' eggs. Shores now wooded, mainly poplar, not large. Farther back and farther down, spruce.

The river averages about 200 to 300 yards but differs much in places and there are numerous side channels (sloughs). It is crooked; many bends. The current is quite marked, stated to run 4 to 6 miles an hour. The water is charged with grayish-brown silt, part from glaciers higher above, part from banks that are being "cut." The banks are entirely silt, no trace of gravel or stone. Indian camps getting very scarce. Boat making good time, but now and then requires careful manipulation, with its big, heavy barge in front. Once driven to shore, but no damage, and after some effort gets away again. No trouble yet from mosquitoes, but there are some horseflies.

Pass a large camp--a Finn married to a squaw, and three or four Indian families--all snug in a clearing of the fresh-looking woods on the bank of the river.

Bend after bend in the stream, and boat has to follow them all, and more, for the current and deeper water are now near this bank and again at the opposite bank.

The water in many places is undermining the bank, exposing frozen strata of silt. The top often falls in without breaking, with trees and all, and it then looks like heavy, ragged mats hanging over the bank, with green trees or bushes dipping into the water, and perhaps a clump of wild roses projecting from the sward. There are many low bushes of wild roses in this country, pink and red kinds, now blooming. Also many small bushes of wild berries--cranberries (low and high), raspberries, dewberries or blueberries.

Meat is imported even to here from Seattle, and carried far down the Yukon. When received they place it in a "cellar" or hole dug down to the frozen ground and place the meat there--a natural and thoroughly efficient refrigerator.

Past Old Minto, a little Indian village, a few little log houses in a row facing the river, with a wheel fish trap in front (pl. 1, _a_). Later a few Indian houses and a "road house" with a store at Tolovana. Most Indians there (and elsewhere here) died of the "flu" in 1918, the bodies being left and later buried by the Government. A few isolated little Indian camps.

The boat ties to trees along the banks. No docks or anything of that nature. Not many mosquitoes yet, more horseflies, which, however, do not bother man very much.

After reaching Hot Springs (right bank), there is seen a long range of more or less forested, fairly steep-sloped hills along the right bank, coming right down to the water's edge for miles, with bush and forested flats opposite. At the end of one of the ravines with a little stream, right on the bank, remnants of a little glacier melting very slowly in the sun. Strange contrast, ice and green touching. Boat making good time along the hills.

June 18. Hardly any sleep. Sun set after 10 and rose about 2.30, with no more than dusk between. Then heat in the cabin, and above all the noises. The boat stuck five hours on a bar and there were all sorts of jerks and shudders and calls.

Flats again on both sides, but hills beyond, with just one little spot of snow. Will be warm day again.

ANCIENT MAN

Prospects of old remains of man all along the river are slight if any. Old silt flats have doubtless been mostly washed away (as now) and rebuilt. Only on the older parts, now often far from water, could anything remain and there it is all a jungle of forest with undergrowth, with all surface traces absent (no stone, no shell), and no one here to find things accidentally. As to the hills that approach the river, the slopes (shales, overlain by what looks like stratified mud and silt rock) are mostly of recent exposure, and have doubtless been receding slowly through erosion, so that the bank line along them is not old; and their valleys are few, narrow, and were higher formerly as well as more extended toward where the river flowed then. The only hopeful spot is about Hot Springs, where fossil animal remains are said to exist, but here nothing as yet has been noted suggesting ancient man.

June 18, 4 p. m. River getting broader. Some low dunes. In distance a range of bluish hills before us--the hills along the Yukon. Boat meandering from side to side. Every now and then a necessary steam blow-out of mud, or a short whistle, hurry of a man over the top of the barge and of two half-breeds along its side to the prow to test, with long pointed and graduated poles, the depth of the water, calling it out to the captain. The calls range from "no bottom" to "4 feet," at the latter of which the boat begins to touch and back water.

5 p. m. Arrived at Tanana, a cheerful looking town, extending over about half a mile along the right bank of the Yukon, here about 20 feet high; but now, with the gold rush over, rather "slack" on both business and population, as are all other Yukon towns. Somewhat disappointed with the Yukon--not as majestic here as expected. See storekeeper--introduced by captain. Hear good news. The Indians have a big potlatch at the mission, 2 miles above. Tanana Indians expected. And there will be many in attendance. Rumors of this potlatch were heard before, but this was the first definite information. Get on a little motor boat with Indians who were making some purchases, and go to the St. Thomas Episcopal Mission, Mr. Fullerton in charge.

THE INDIANS AT TANANA

The mission above Tanana is beautifully located on the elevated right Yukon bank, facing Nuklukhayet island and point, the latter, according to old reports, an old trading and meeting spot of the Kuchin tribes, and the confluence of the Tanana with the Yukon. The mission house, located on rising ground, the wooden church lower down, the cemetery a bit farther up, and the Indian village a bit farther downstream, with their colors and that of the luxuriant vegetation, form a picturesque cluster.

I am kindly received by Mr. Fullerton and his wife and given accommodation in their house. On the part of the good-sized Indian village everything is life and bustle and we soon are over. Motor launches owned and operated by the Indians in the river; dogs, scores of the big, half-wild, noisy sled dogs tied to stakes along the slope of the bank, fighting stray ones, barking in whole outbursts, feeding on smelly fish, or digging cooling holes into the bank in which they hide most of the body from the warm rays of the sun; and many Indians, about 400 in all, in whole families, in houses, large canvas tents, cooking, eating, visiting--a busy multitude, but with white man's clothes, utensils, etc., not nearly so interesting as a group of more primitive Indians would be.

Walk, visit, talk, and observe. Note many mix-bloods, especially among the younger ones and the children. Among the full bloods, many, about one-half, with features reminding more or less of Eskimoid; but a few typically Indian, i. e., like most of the States Indians.

Medium stature, substantial but not massive build, quite a few of the older women stout. Color of full bloods generally near medium brown, features regular Indian but not exaggerated, noses rather low especially in upper half, eyes and hair Indian. Epicanthus not excessive in children, absent in adults (traces in younger women), eyes not markedly oblique. Behavior, Indian.

The more pronounced Eskimoids have flatter and longer faces, more oblique eyes, and more marked epicanthus. They should come, it would seem, from Eskimo admixture. The Tanana Indians (Nenana) did not, so far as seen, show such physiognomies.

Toward evening, and especially after supper, natives sing and dance. Songs of Indian characteristics, and yet different from those in south; some more expressive. A song "for dead mother," very sad, affects some to crying aloud (a woman, a man). A wash song--a row of women and even some men imitating, standing in a row, the movements in washing, while others sing; humorous. A dance in a line, curving to a circle, of a more typical Indian character. Late at night, a war dance, with much supple contortion. Also other songs and dances up to 2.30 a. m.--heard in bed.