Chapter XVIII: Part 18

Dawkins, 1874[256]: In 1866, Boyd Dawkins, on the basis of the resemblances between the implements of the Eskimo and those of the later prehistoric man of Europe, advances the idea that the Eskimo were close kin to the palaeolithic man of Europe, before the scientific forum. In his Cave Hunting he says: "Palaeolithic man appeared in Europe with the arctic mammalia, lived in Europe along with them, and disappeared with them. And since his implements are of the same kind as those of the Eskimos, it may reasonably be concluded that he is represented at the present time by the Eskimos, for it is most improbable that the convergence of the ethnological and zoological evidence should be an accident."

1880:[257] "The probable identity of the cave men with the Eskimos is considerably strengthened by a consideration of some of the animals found in the caves. * * *

"All these points of connection between the cave men and the Eskimos can, in my opinion, be explained only on the hypothesis that they belong to the same race * * *."

The cave man: "From the evidence brought forward in this chapter, there is reason to believe that he is represented at the present time by the Eskimos."

* * * * *

Mortillet, 1889:[258] "Les Groënlandais, au point de vue paléoethnologique, présentent un très grand intérêt. Ils paraissent se relier très intimement aux hommes qui habitaient l'Europe moyenne pendant l'époque de la Madeleine. Ils seraient les descendants directs des Magdalèniens. Ils auraient successivement émigré vers le pôle, avec l'animal caractéristique de cette époque, le renne. Habitués aux froids les plus rigoureux de l'époque magdalénienne, ils se sont retirés dans les régions froides du Nord. * * *

"Comme on le voit, il y a la plus grande ressemblance, tant sous le rapport physique et moral que sous le rapport artistique et industriel entre les hommes de la Madeleine et les Groënlandais. Cette ressemblance est telle que nous pouvons en conclure que les seconds sont les descendants des premiers."

* * * * *

Testut, 1889:[259] "Parmi les races actuelles, celle qui me parait présenter la plus grande analogie avec l'homme de Chancelade est celle des Esquimaux qui vivent encore à l'état sauvage dans leg glaces de l'Amérique septentrionale. Ils ont, en effet, le même crâne que notre troglodyte quaternaire; leur face est constituée suivant le même type; ils ont, à peu de chose près, la même taille, le même indice palatin, le même indice nasal, le même indice orbitaire, le même degré de torsion de l'humérus, etc. * * *

"La découverte de Chancelade, en mettant en lumière une analogie frappante entre le squelette de notre troglodyte périgourdin et celui des Esquimaux actuels, apporte à cette opinion aussi séduisante que naturelle, l'appui de l'anthropologie anatomique qui, dans l'espèce, a une importance capitale. Elle lui est de tous points favorable et élève à la hauteur d'une vérité probable, je n'ose dire d'une vérité démontrée, ce qui n'était encore qu'une simple hypothèse."

* * * * *

Hervé, 1893:[260] "* * * * par leurs usages et par leurs moeurs, aussi bien que par leur matériel industriel et artistique, les Hyperboréens actuels (Tchouktches et Eskimaux) sont extrêmement voisins des Troglodytes magdaléniens de l'Europe occidentale; à ce point que Hamy a pu dire 'qu'ils continuent de nos jours, dan les régions circumpolaires, l'âge du renne de France, de Belgique, de Suisse, avec ses caractéristiques zoologiques, ethnographiques, etc.' (op. cit., 366). 'Nous avons vu, d'autre part, que les plus purs d'entre eux ne diffèrent pas anatomiquement des Magdaléniens. C'est donc au rameau hyperboréen que nous sommes amenés à rattacher, au point de vue ethnique, les dernières populations de l'Europe quaternaire.'"

* * * * *

Boule, 1913:[261] "On sait d'ailleurs, depuis les travaux de Testut sur l'Homme de Chancelade, que les relations des Esquimaux sont avec d'autres Hommes fossiles de nos pays, mais d'un âge géologique plus récent."

* * * * *

Sollas, 1924:[262] The Magdalenians are represented "in part, by the Eskimo on the frozen margin of the North American Continent and as well, perhaps, by the Red Indians. * * *" Due to pressure of stronger peoples, the ancestors of the Eskimo were present to the north; "but as there was no room for expansion in that direction, it was diverted toward the only egress possible, and an outflow took place into America over Bering Strait or the Aleutian Islands. The primitive Eskimo, already accustomed to a boreal life, extended along the coast."

1927:[263] "The assemblage of characters presented on the one hand by the Chancelade skull, and on the other by the Eskimo, are in very remarkable agreement, and that the onus of discovering a similar assemblage, but possessed by some other race, rests with those who refuse to accept what seems to me a very obvious conclusion. * * *

"Our only reason for any feeling of surprise is, not that Chancelade man should prove a close relation of the Eskimo, but that so far he is the only fossil example of his kind of which we have any certain knowledge."

FOOTNOTES:

[254] Dawkins, Boyd, In a Review of Lartet and Christy's "Cavernes du Périgord" (1864), in the Saturday Review, XXII, p. 713, 1866. [This review is not signed but is attributed to B. D.]

[255] Hamy, E. T., Précis de paléontologie humaine, p. 355. Paris, 1870.

[256] Dawkins, Boyd, Cave Hunting, p. 359. London, 1874.

[257] Dawkins, Boyd, Early Man in Britain, pp. 240, 241, 245. London, 1880.

[258] Mortillet, G. de, Les Groënlandais descendants des Magdaléniens. Bulletins de la Société d'Anthropologie, VI, pp. 868-870. Paris, 1883.

[259] Testut, L., Recherches anthropologiques sur le squelette quaternaire de Chancelade (Dordogne). Bull. Soc. d'anthrop., VIII, pp. 243-244. Lyon, Paris, 1889.

[260] Hervé, Georges, La Race des Troglodytes Magdaléniens. Rev. mens, de l'École d'anthrop., III, p. 188. Paris, 1893.

[261] Boule, Marcellin, L'Homme fossile de la Chapelle-aux-Saints, pp. 228. Paris, 1913.

[262] Sollas, W. J., Ancient hunters and their modern representatives, pp. 590, 592. New York, 1924.

[263] Sollas, W. J., The Chancelade skull. J. Roy, Anthrop. Inst., LVII, pp. 119, 121. London, 1927.

OPPOSED TO EUROPEAN

Rae, 1887:[264] "The typical Eskimo is one of the most specialized of the human race, as far as cranial and facial characters are concerned, and such scanty remains as have yet been discovered of the prehistoric inhabitants of Europe present no structural affinities with him."

* * * * *

Laloy, 1898:[265] "Cette théorie est absolument contredite par les faits." (That is, the theory of the identity of the Eskimo with the European upper palaeolithic man.)

* * * * *

Déchelette, 1908:[266] "C'est en vain qu'on a noté certains traits d'analogie de l'art et de l'industrie * * * telles analogies s'expliquent aisément par la parité des conditions de la vie matérielle."

* * * * *

Burkitt, 1921:[267] "Again the Magdalenians have been correlated with the Eskimos, who inhabit to-day the icebound coastal lands to the north of the New World, and also the similar lands, on the other side of the straits, in the northeast corner of Asia. But the vast difference in place and in time would make any exact correlation very doubtful."

* * * * *

MacCurdy, 1924:[268] "If a Magdalenian type exists, it is probably best represented by the skeleton from Raymonden at Chancelade (Dordogne). One must not lose sight of the fact that the osteologic record of fossil man is even yet so fragmentary that there is grave danger of mistaking individual characters for those on which varieties or species should be based."

* * * * *

Keith, 1925:[269] "In the Chancelade man we are dealing with a member of a racial stock of a true European kind."

FOOTNOTES:

[264] Rae, Dr. John, Remarks on the natives of British North America. J. Roy. Anthrop. Inst. Great Britain and Ireland, XVI, pp. 200-201. London, 1887.

[265] Laloy, L'Anthr., IX, p. 586. 1898.

[266] Déchelette, J., Manuel d'Archéologie préhistorique, etc., pp. 312. Paris, 1908.

[267] Burkitt, M. C., Prehistory, p. 307. London, 1921.

[268] MacCurdy, G. G., Human Origins, V. I, pp. 406-407. New York and London, 1924.

[269] Keith, Arthur, The Antiquity of Man, p. 86. London, 1925.

MISCELLANEOUS AND INDEFINITE

Gallatin, 1836:[270] "Whatever may have been the origin of the Eskimo, it would seem probable that the small tribe of the present sedentary Tchuktchi on the eastern extremity of Asia is a colony of western American Eskimo. The language does not extend in Asia beyond that tribe. That of their immediate neighbors, the "Reindeer," or "Wandering Tchuktchi," is totally different and belongs to the Kouriak family.

"There does not seem to be any solid foundation for the opinion of those who would ascribe to the Eskimaux an origin different from that of the other Indians of North America. The color and features are essentially the same; and the differences which may exist, particularly that in stature, may be easily accounted for by the rigor of the climate and partly, perhaps, by the nature of their food. The entire similarity of the structure and grammatical forms of their language with those of various Indian tribes, however different in their vocabularies, which will hereafter be adverted to, affords an almost conclusive proof of their belonging to the same family of mankind."

* * * * *

Richardson, 1852:[271] "The origin of the Eskimos has been much discussed as being the pivot on which the inquiry into the original peopling of America has been made to turn. The question has been fairly and ably stated by Doctor Latham in his recent work On the Varieties of Man, to which I must refer the reader; and I shall merely remark that the Eskimos differ more in physical aspect from their nearest neighbors than the red races do from one another. The lineaments have a decided resemblance to the Tartar or Chinese countenance. On the other hand, their language is admitted by philologists to be similar to the other North American tongues in its grammatical structure; so that, as Doctor Latham has forcibly stated, the dissociation of the Eskimos from their neighboring nations on account of their physical dissimilarity is met by an argument for their mutual affinity, deduced from philological coincidences."

Meigs, 1857:[272] "A connected series of facts and arguments which seem to indicate that the Eskimo are an exceedingly ancient people, whose dawn was probably ushered in by a temperate climate, but whose dissolution now approaches, amidst eternal ice and snow; that the early migrations of these people have been from the north southwards, from the islands of the Polar Sea to the continent and not from the mainland to the islands; and that the present geographical area of the Eskimo may be regarded as a primary center of human distribution for the entire polar zone."

* * * * *

Abbott, 1876:[273] "It is fair to presume that the first human beings that dwelt along the shores of the Delaware were really the same people as the present inhabitants of Arctic America."

* * * * *

Grote, 1875:[274] Basing himself on certain biological reasonings, the author concludes "that the Eskimos are the existing representatives of the man of the American glacial epoch, just as the White Mountain butterfly (_Oeneis semidea_) is the living representative of a colony of the genus planted on the retiring of the ice from the valley of the White Mountains."

In a later communication[275] the author expresses the opinion that the peopling of America "was effected during the Tertiary; that the ice modified races of Pliocene man, existing in the north of Asia and America, forced them southward, and then drew them back to the locality where they had undergone their original modification. * * *

"During the process, then, which resulted in the race modification of the Eskimos, their original numbers must have been decreased by the slowly but ever increasing cold of the northern regions, until experience and physical adaptation combined brought them to a state of comparative stability as a race."

* * * * *

Baron Nordenskiöld[276] thought that the Eskimo might probably be the true "autochthones" of the polar regions, i. e., that they had inhabited the same previous to the glacial age, at a period when a climate prevailed here equal to that of northern Italy at present, as proved by the fossils found at Spitzbergen and Greenland. As it might be assumed that man had existed even during the Tertiary period, there was a great deal in favor of the assumption that he had lived in those parts which were most favorable to his existence. The question was one of the highest importance, as, if it could be proved that the Eskimo descended from a race which inhabited the polar regions in the very earliest times, we should be obliged to assume that there was a northern (polar) as well as an Asiatic cradle of the human race, which would open up new fields of research, both to the philologist and the ethnologist, and probably remnants of the culture and language of the original race might be traced in the present polar inhabitants of both Europe and Asia.

* * * * *

Keane, 1886:[277] "The Aleutian Islanders, who are treated by Doctor Rink as a branch of the Eskimo family, but whose language diverges profoundly from, or rather shows no perceptible affinity at all to, the Eskimo. The old question respecting the ethnical affinities of the Aleutians is thus again raised, but not further discussed by our author. To say that they must be regarded as 'ein abnormer Seitenzweig,' merely avoids the difficulty, while perhaps obscuring or misstating the true relations altogether. For these islanders should possibly be regarded, not as 'an abnormal offshoot,' but as the original stock from which the Eskimo themselves have diverged."

* * * * *

Quatrefages, 1887:[278] From migrations of Tertiary man: Men originated in Tertiary in northern Asia; spread from here to Europe and over Asia; "D'autres aussi gagnèrent peut-être l'Amérique et ont pu être les ancêtres directs des Esquimaux,... Sans même supposer l'existence passée de la continuité des deux continents, les hommes tertiaires ont bien pu faire ce que font les riverains actuels du détroit de Behring, qui vont chaque jour d'Asie en Amérique et reciproquement."...

"Evidemment la race esquimale est américaine. Au Groënland, au Labrador, dont personne ne lui a disputé les solitudes glacées, elle a conservé sa pureté. Elle est encore restée pure quand elle a rencontré les Peaux-Rouges proprement dits, parce que ceux-ci lui ont fait une guerre d'extermination qui ne respectait ni les femmes ni les enfants. Mais, dans le nord-ouest américain, elle s'est trouvée en rapport avec des populations d'un caractère plus doux et des croisements ont eu lieu. Or, parmi ces populations, il s'en trouve de brachycéphales. Tels sont en particulier certaines tribus, confondues à tort sous un même nom avec les vrais Koluches.... Ces tribus sont de race jaune et leur crâne ressemble si bien à celui des Toungouses que M. Hamy les a rattachées directement à cette famille mongole. Les Esquimaux se sont croisés avec elles; et ainsi ont pris naissance ces tribus, dont l'origine métisse est attestée par le mélange ou la fusion des caractères linguistiques aussi bien qu'anatomiques."

* * * * *

Nansen, 1893:[279] "So much alone can we declare with any assurance, that the Eskimos dwelt in comparatively recent times on the coasts around Bering Strait and Bering Sea--probably on the American side--and have thence, stage by stage, spread eastward over Arctic America to Greenland. * * *

"The likeness between all the different tribes of Eskimos, as well as their secluded position with respect to other peoples, and the perfection of their implements, might be taken to indicate that they are of a very old race, in which everything has stiffened into definite forms, which can now be but slowly altered. Other indications, however, seem to conflict with such a hypothesis, and render it more probable that the race was originally a small one, which did not until a comparatively late period develop to the point at which we now find it, and spread over the countries which it at present inhabits."

* * * * *

Tarenetzky, 1900:[280] "Die Frage ist bis jetzt noch nicht entschieden und wird wahrscheinlich auch niemals definitiv entschieden werden ob die gegenwärtig die Nordostgrenze Asiens und die Nordwestgrenze Amerikas bewohnenden Polarvölker ursprünglich aus Asien nach Amerika oder in umgekehrter Richtung zu ihren Wohnsitzen wanderten."

* * * * *

De Nadaillac[281] believed that the Eskimo (with some other aboriginal Americans), now savage and demoralized, have issued from races more civilized and that they could raise themselves to the old social level were it not for their struggle with inexorable climate, famines, and lately also alcoholism.

* * * * *

Jenness, 1928:[282] "We still believe that the Eskimos are fundamentally a single people; that they had their origin in a homeland not yet determined; but we have learned that they reached their present condition through a series of complex changes and migrations, the outlines of which we have hardly begun to decipher."

FOOTNOTES:

[270] Gallatin, Albert, A Synopsis of the Indian Tribes of North America. Archaeologia Americana, II, pp. 13, 14. Cambridge, 1836.

[271] Richardson, Sir John, Origin of the Eskimos. The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, LII, p. 323. Edinburgh, 1852.

[272] Meigs, J. Aitken, The cranial characteristics of the races of men. In Indigenous Races of the Earth, by Nott, J. C., and Gliddon, George R., Philadelphia, p. 266. London, 1857.

[273] Abbott, C. C., Traces of American Autochthon. Am. Nat., p. 329. June, 1876.

[274] Grote, A. R., Effect of the Glacial Epoch Upon the Distribution of Insects in North America. Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Sci., Detroit meeting, 1875, B, Natural History, p. 225.

[275] Grote, A. R., On the Peopling of America. Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sc., III, p. 181-185, 1877.

[276] Eskimo. Lecture before the Geogr. Soc. of Stockholm, Dec. 19, 1884; abstract in Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc., VII, No. 6, p. 370-371. London, 1885.

[277] Keane, A. H., The Eskimo; a commentary. Nature, XXXV, p. 309. London, New York, 1886-1887.

[278] Quatrefages, A. de, Histoire Générale des Races Humaines, introduction l'Etude des Races Humaines, pp. 136, 435. Paris, 1887.

[279] Nansen, Fridtjof, Eskimo Life, pp. 6, 8. London, 1893. (Translated by William Archer.)

[280] Tarenetzky, A., Beiträge zur Skelet-und Schädelkunde der Aleuten, Konaegen, Kenai und Koljuschen. Mem. Acad. imp d. sc., ix, No. 4, p. 7. St. Petersburg, 1900.

[281] Nadaillac, M. de, Les Eskimo. L'Anthropologie, XIII, p. 104. 1902.

[282] Jenness, D., Ethnological Problems of Arctic America. Amer. Geogr. Soc. Special Publ. No. 7. New York, 1928.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS INDICATED BY PRESENT DATA

The maze of thoughts on the origin of the Eskimo shows one fact conclusively, which is that the necessary evidence on the subject has hitherto been insufficient. From whatever side the problem has been approached, whether linguistically, culturally, from the study of myths, or even somatologically, the materials were, it is plain, more or less inadequate and there was not enough for satisfactory comparisons. The best contributions to Eskimo studies, from the oldest to the most recent, all accentuate the need for further research, and more ample collections.

Another point is that heterogeneous and wide apart as many of the opinions may seem, yet when the subject is looked upon with a larger perspective they may often perhaps be harmonized. Thus a belief in an American origin of the Eskimo need not exclude that in the Asiatic derivation of his parental stock. Even in the case of the supposed European derivation the Eskimo are understood to have reached America through Asia; there is not one suggestion of any importance advocating the coming of the Eskimo over northwestern Europe and Iceland. Only the Meigs-Grote-Nordenskiöld theory of an ancient polar race and its descent southward appears now as beyond the bounds of what would be at least partly justifiable.

What is the contribution to the subject of the studies reported in this treatise, with its relatively great amount of somatological material? The answer is not easy.

Even the truly great and precious material at hand is not sufficient. There are important parts of the Arctic, such as the Hudson Bay region, Baffin Land, and the central region; several parts of the west coast, such as the inland waters of the Seward Peninsula and the Eskimo portions of the Selawik, Kobuk, Noatak, and Yukon Rivers; and above all the Eskimo part of northeastern Siberia, from which there are insufficient or no collections. There is, moreover, especially in this country, a great want of skeletal material from the non-Eskimo Siberian tribes, and also from the old European peoples that are of most importance for comparisons. It must be plain, therefore, that even at present no final deductions are possible. All that can be claimed for the evidence here brought forth is that it clears, or tends to settle, certain secondary problems, and that it presents indications of value for the rest of the question.

The secondary problems that may herewith be regarded as settled are as follows:

1. _Unity or plurality of the race._--The materials at hand give no substantiation to the possibility of the Eskimo belonging to more than one basic strain of people. They range in color from tan or light reddish-yellow to medium brown; in stature from decidedly short to above the general human medium; in head from brachycephalic and low to extremely dolichocephalic, high and keel shaped; in eyes from horizontal to decidedly mongoloid; in orbits from microseme to hypermegaseme; in nose from fully mesorrhinic to extremely leptorrhinic; in physiognomy from pure "Indian" to extreme "Eskimo." Yet all through there runs, both in the living and in the skeletal remains, so much of a basic identity that no separation into any distinct original "races" is possible. At most it is permissible to speak of a few prevalent types.

2. _Relation._--The general basic prototype of the Eskimo, according to all evidence, is so closely akin to that of the Indian that the two can not be fully separated. They appear only as the thumb and the digits of the same hand, some large old mother stock from which both gradually differentiated. This appears to be an unavoidable conclusion from the present anthropological knowledge of the two peoples.

The next unavoidable deduction is that the mother stock of both the Eskimo and the Indian can only be identified with the great yellow-brown stem of man, the home of which was in Asia, but the roots of which, as has been discussed elsewhere, were probably in ancient (later paleolithic) Europe.[283] The latter fact may explain the cultural as well as somatological resemblances between the Eskimo, as well as the Indian (for the Indian, physically at least, has much in common with the upper Aurignacians), and the upper glacial European populations. But such an explanation can not in the light of present knowledge legitimately be extended to the assumption that either the Indian complex or the Eskimo originated as such in Europe; they could be at most but parts of the eventual more or less further differentiated Asiatic progeny of the upper paleolithic Europeans.

3. _Mixture._--It has been assumed by Boas and others that the eastern Eskimo have become admixed with the eastern Indian and the western with the Alaskan Indian, that the physical and especially craniological differences between the eastern and western Eskimo were due to such a mixture, and that both extremes deviated from the type of the pure Eskimo, who was to be found somewhere in the central Arctic. The evidence of the present studies does not sustain such an assumption.

As shown before[284] and is seen more clearly from the present data, the western Eskimo type is also present or approached in various localities in the far north (part of Smith Sound, Southampton Island, part of the Hudson Bay coast, with probable spots in the central Arctic proper). There is no indication of any central region where the western Eskimo type would be much "purer" than elsewhere.

Individual skulls and skeletons in the west, particularly in certain spots (especially on Seward Peninsula), show the same characteristics as the most diverging skulls or skeletons in the farthest northeast.

And both in the west and in the east the most pronounced Eskimo characteristics exceed similar features in the Indian, indicating independent development. Such characteristics involve the stature (taller in the west, shorter in the east than that of the Indian); the size of the head (everywhere averaging higher in the Eskimo); dolichocephaly, height of the head, its keel shape (all more pronounced in the eastern and now and then a western Eskimo than in any Indian group); the face, nose, orbits, and lower jaw; with the relative proportions and other characteristics of the skeleton. All these point to functional and other developments within the Eskimo groups and none suggest a large Indian admixture.

It is well known that more or less blood mixture takes place among all neighboring peoples where contact is possible, even if otherwise there be much enmity. Such enmity, often in an extreme form, existed everywhere it seems between the Eskimo and the Indian, as a result of the encroaching of the former on the latter; there are many statements to that effect. Within historic times also there are no records of any adoptions or intermarriages between the two peoples. Nevertheless where contact took place, as on the rivers and in the southwest as well as the southeast of the Eskimo territory, some blood mixture, it would seem, must have developed. The Indian neighbors show it, and it would be strange if it remained one-sided. But of a mixture extensive enough to have materially modified the type of the Eskimo in whole large regions, such as the entire Bering Sea and most of the far northeast, there is no evidence and little not only probability but even possibility. Nothing approaching such an extensive mixture is shown by the near-by Indians; and it would be most exceptional in people of this nature if a much greater proportion of the mixture was into the Eskimo.

Finally, a mixture of diverse human types, unless very old, may be expected to leave numerous physical signs of heterogeneity and disturbance, none of which is shown by either the western or eastern Eskimo. Such groups as that of the St. Lawrence Island, or that of Greenland, are among the most homogeneous human groups known. The range of variation of their characters is as a rule a strictly normal range, giving a uniform curve of distribution, which is not consistent with the notion of any relatively recent material mixture.

4. _The indications._--The indications of the data and observations presented in this volume may be outlined as follows:

The Eskimo throughout their territory are but one and the same broad strain of people. This strain is fundamentally related to that (or those) of the American Indian. It is also uncontestably related to the yellow-brown strains of Asia.

In many respects, such as pigmentation, build of the body, physiognomy, large brain, fullness of forehead, fullness of the fronto-sphenotemporal region, largeness of face and lower jaw, height of the nose, size and characteristics of the teeth,[285] smallness of hands and feet, etc., the Eskimos are remarkably alike over their whole territory. They differ in details, such as stature, form of the head, and breadth of the nose. But the distribution of these differences is of much interest and probably significance. Higher statures, broader heads, and broader noses are found especially in the west, the latter two particularly in the Bering Sea region; low group statures, narrow heads and narrow noses reach, with few exceptions, their extremes in the northeast. Between the two extremes, however, there is no interruption, but a gradation, with here and there an irregularity. These conditions speak not of mixture but rather of adaptation and differentiation.

They strongly suggest a moderate stream of people, rooted in Asia, of fairly broad and but moderately high head, of a good medium stature, with a mesorrhinic nose (and hence probably originally not far northern), and with many other characteristics in common, reaching America from northeasternmost Asia after the related Indians, spreading along the seacoasts as far as it could, not of choice, or choice alone, but mainly because of the blocking by the Indian of the roads toward the south and through the interior; and gradually modifying physically in adaptation to the new conditions and necessities; to climate, newer modes of life, the demands of the kayak, and above all to the results of the increased demands on the masticatory organs.

The narrowness, increased length and increased height of the Eskimo skull, without change in its size or other characteristics, may readily be understood as compensatory adaptations, the development of which was initiated and furthered by the development and mechanical effects of the muscles of mastication.

A similar conclusion has been reached in my former study on the central and Smith Sound Eskimo (1910). It has been approached or reached independently by other students of the Eskimo, notably Fürst and Hansen (1915) in their great work on the East Greenlanders. It is a conclusion of much biological importance for it involves not merely the development but also the eventual inheritance of new characters.

Former authors, it was seen, have advanced the theories of an American origin of the Eskimo. This could only mean that he developed from the American Indian. And such a development would imply physical and hereditary changes at least as great as those indicated in the preceding paragraphs, and in less time. A differentiation commenced well back in Asia, geographically and chronologically, and advancing, to its present limits, in America would seem the more probable.

An origin of the Eskimo in Europe, during the last glacial invasion, would not only push into the hazy far past the same changes as here dealt with, but it would at the same time fail to explain the physical differences within the Eskimo group, and deny any substantial changes in him during the long time of his migration toward the American northern coasts.

Absolute proofs of the origin of the Eskimo, as of that of the various strains of the Indians, are hardly to be expected. Such origins are so gradual and insidious that they would escape detection even if watched for while occurring; they are noticed only after sufficient differences have developed and become established, which takes generations. The solving of racial origins must depend on sound scientific induction.

Such induction may not yet be fully possible in the case of the Eskimo. The evidence is not yet complete. But with the present and other most recent data there is enough on hand for substantial indications. The evidence shows that barring some irregularities, due possibly to later intrusions or refluxes, the farther east in the Eskimo territory the observer proceeds the more highly differentiated and divergent the Eskimo becomes, and there is a greater gap between him and his Indian neighbors, as well as other races. Proceeding from the east westward, conditions are reversed. In general the farther west we proceed the less exceptional on the whole the Eskimo becomes and the more he approximates the Indian, particularly the Indian of Alaska and the northwest coast. As this can not, in the light of present evidence, be attributed alone to mixture, it is plain that if it were possible to proceed a few steps farther in this direction the differences between the Eskimo and the Indian would fade out so that a distinction between the two would become difficult if not impossible.

The facts point, therefore, to an original identity of the source from which were derived the Indian, more particularly his latest branches, and the Eskimo, and to the identification of this source with the palaeo-Asiatic yellow-brown people of lower northern Asia. The differentiation of the Eskimo from this source must have proceeded over a fairly long time, and probably started already it would seem on the northern coasts of Asia, where conditions were present capable of beginning to shape him into an Eskimo; to be carried on since in the Bering Sea area and especially in the Seward Peninsula and farther northward and eastward. In a larger sense the cradle of the Eskimo, therefore, while starting probably in northeast Asia, covered in reality a much vaster region, extending from northern Asia and the Bering Sea to the far American Arctic.

FOOTNOTES:

[283] Hrdlička, A., The Peopling of Asia. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., LX, 535 et seq. 1921; and The Peopling of the Earth. Ibid., LXV, 150, et seq. 1926.

[284] Contrib. Anthrop. Central and Smith Sound Eskimo. Anthrop. Papers Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1910.

[285] See Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop., VI, Nos. 2 and 4. 1923.

SUMMARY

What is the substance of the results of all these new observations and studies on the western Eskimo, who is the main subject of this report? In large lines this may be outlined as follows:

1. The western Eskimo occupied, uninterrupted by other people (save in a few spots by the Aleuts), the great stretch of the Alaskan coast from Prince William Sound and parts of the Unalaska Peninsula to Point Barrow, all the islands in the Bering Sea except the Aleutians and Pribilovs, and the northern and western coasts of the Chukchi Peninsula in Asia.

They extended some distance inland along the Kuskokwim and Yukon Rivers; along the interior lakes and rivers of the Seward Peninsula; along a part of the Selawik River, most (perhaps) of the Kobuk River, and apparently along the whole Noatak River, communicating over the land with the lower Colville Basin. But no traces of original Eskimo settlements have ever been found in the true Alaska inland or along those parts of the Alaska rivers that constitute the Indian territory.

2. The present population is sparse, with many unpeopled intervals, and not highly fecund, but, except when epidemics strike, it no more diminishes; children and young people are now much in evidence, hygienic and economic conditions have improved, and the people in general are well advanced in civilization. Their condition and morale are rather superior, in places very perceptibly so, to those of the majority of the Alaska Indians.

3. Except where there has been more contact with whites, a large percentage of these Eskimo are still full bloods. They are a sturdy, cheerful, and liberal yet shrewd lot. They intermarry and mix not inconsiderably among themselves (between villages). Some of the white traders have married Eskimo women and raised promising families. Where larger numbers of whites were or are in proximity clandestine mixture is apparent. The better educated show often decidedly good mental, mechanical, business, and artistic abilities. In the isolated localities, such as St. Lawrence Island, the people have apparently escaped the period of demoralization that so often attends the passing from the old to new conditions.

Tuberculosis and venereal diseases are present but not prevalent; rachitis seems absent. The people show much endurance, but longevity as yet is not much in evidence. Alcoholism is almost nonexistent except on occasions when drink is provided by whites.

4. The region of the western Eskimo shows a former larger population of the same people. This is attested by many "dead" villages and old sites. And this population evidently goes back some centuries at least, for some of the remains are extensive and both their depth and their contents give the impression of prolonged duration; though seemingly all thus far seen could be comprised within the Christian era.

5. No habitations or remains belonging to a distinct people (Indians) have thus far come to light anywhere within the territory of the western Eskimo; and no trace has as yet been found of anything human that could be attributed to greater antiquity than that of the Eskimo. But the older beaches and banks where such remains might have existed have either been covered with storm-driven sands and are now perpetually frozen, or they have been "cut" away and lost; and there seems no hope for finding such remains in the interior away from the sea or streams, for such parts were never under recent geological conditions favorable for human habitation.

6. The now known remains consist of the ruins of dwellings and of accumulated refuse, the two together forming occasionally marked elevated heaps or ridges. Some of these ridges are over 18 feet deep. They contain many archeological specimens of stone, ivory, wood, and bone. The ivory in the older layers is more or less "fossilized." The upper layers of such remains usually contain some articles of white man's manufacture (copper, iron, beads); lower layers are wholly aboriginal. Indian artifacts occur in Eskimo sites only in the proximity of the Indian on the rivers.

7. The prevalent or later culture shown by the remains is fairly rich, of good to relatively rather high grade, and of considerable uniformity. There are numerous indications of extensive trade in various articles, particularly those of the Kobuk "jade."

8. On the Asiatic coast, in the northern parts of the Bering Sea, on the Seward Peninsula, in the Kotzebue region and at Point Hope, the deeper portions of the remains give examples of the higher and richer "fossil ivory culture." This is distinguished by many objects of high-class workmanship, and by curvilinear to scroll designs. The art appears to have distinct affinities with, on one hand, deeper Asia, and on the other with the northwest coast of America and even farther south. It is not clearly separated from either the contemporaneous or the later Eskimo art, yet it is of a higher grade and delicacy and much distinctiveness. It is not yet known where this art begins geographically, what preceded it, whence it was derived, just how far it reached along the coasts, or even what was its main center. It seems best for the present to reserve to it the name of the "fossil ivory art" (rather than Jenness's too limiting "Bering Sea culture"), and to defer all conclusions concerning it to the future.

9. It seems justifiable, however, to point to the significance of what is already known. This "fossil ivory art" especially, but also the general culture of the western Eskimo, are highly developed and differentiated cultures, denoting considerable cultural background, extended duration, and conditions generally favorable to industrial and artistic developments. It has, it is already ascertained, certain affinities in Asia. If this art and the attending culture were advancing toward America, as seems most probable, then the question of cultural influences and introductions from Asia to America will have to be reopened.

10. Due to the perpetually frozen ground and the consequent necessity of surface burials, the area of the western Eskimo was, until recently, relatively rich in skeletal remains lying on the surface. It is no more so now, due to storms, beasts, missionaries, teachers, and scientific collectors. But while only a scattering remains of the surface material, there is much and that of special importance lying in the ground, mostly self-buried or assimilated by the tundra. This material, which now and then is accompanied by interesting archeological specimens, calls for prompt attention; it will help greatly in clearing local and other problems.

Occasionally burials were made or dead bodies were left in old houses. These remains, too, may prove of special value.

11. Observations on both the living and the skeletal remains in the western Eskimo area, supplemented by those on the northern and northeastern Eskimo, are now ample enough to justify certain generalizations. These are:

_a._ Barring the Aleuts, who are Indian, the Eskimo throughout belong somatologically to but one family, and this family appears as a remarkably pure racial unit, somewhat admixed in the south with the Aleut, on the western rivers with the Indian, and in the east and a few spots elsewhere with recent white people.

_b._ Within this family there is observable a considerable cranial change, with moderate differences in nasal breadth, stature, and color, but the general characteristics of the physiognomy, and of the body and the skeleton, remain remarkably similar.

_c._ The changes in the skull affect mainly the vault, which, in dimensions, ranges through all the intermediary grades from moderately broad, short, and moderately high to pronouncedly narrow, long, and high, and in form from moderately convex over the top to markedly keel shaped.

The distribution of skull form is somewhat irregular, but in general the broader and shorter heads predominate in the Asiatic and the southwestern and midwestern American portions of the Eskimo region, while the longest and narrowest heads are those of parts of the Seward Peninsula, and especially those from an isolated old settlement near Barrow with those of Greenland (exclusive of the Smith Sound), Baffin Land, and, judging from other data, also eastern Labrador. More or less transitional forms are found between the two extremes, without there being anywhere a clear line of demarcation.

The breadth of the nose, too, averages highest in the Asiatic, Bering Sea, and the more southern Eskimo of the Alaska coast, the least along the northern Arctic coast and in the northeast. The stature is highest along the western Alaska rivers and parts of the coast, least in Greenland and Labrador.

The skin, while differing within but moderate limits, is apparently lightest along parts (at least) of the northern Arctic.

12. The whole distribution of the physical characteristics among the Eskimo strongly suggests gradual changes--within the family itself; and as the long, narrow, high skull with keeled dome, occurring in a few limited localities in the west but principally in southern Greenland and neighboring territories, appears to be the farthest limit of the differentiation which finds no parallel in the neighboring or other peoples, while the form found in northeastern Asia, the Bering Sea, and southwestern Alaska is near to those of various surrounding peoples, the inevitable resulting deduction is that, in the light of our present knowledge, the origin of the Eskimo is to be looked for in the western rather than the northern Arctic or the northeastern area, and that particularly in the northern Bering Sea and the adjacent, particularly perhaps the northern, Asiatic region. The author is, therefore, led to regard the area between 160° west and 160° east longitude and 60° to 75° north latitude as containing the primal Eskimo-genic center, and as the source of the oldest Eskimo or proto-Eskimo extensions, while the larger part of the Eskimo differentiations is in all probability American.

13. The earlier notions relating to the western Eskimo, namely, those that would attribute his physical characteristics to a large admixture with the Indian, are now untenable for the following reasons:

_a._ The distribution of the western Eskimo traits and measurements does not indicate any important heterogeneous mixture.

_b._ The groups most distant from the Indians, such as the St. Lawrence or Diomede islanders and the Asiatic Eskimo, show very nearly the same somatological characteristics as the rest of the southwestern and midwestern groups.

_c._ Among the western Eskimo there are no data, no traditions, and no linguistic or cultural evidence of any considerable Indian admixture.

_d._ The western contingents of the family do not represent a physical resultant or means of the more narrow and long-headed type with the neighboring Indians of Alaska (or elsewhere in the north), but they equal or even exceed the Indians in the principal features of the skull, face, and in other particulars.

14. The nearest physical relatives of the Eskimo are evidently some of the Chukchi, with probably some other north Asiatic groups; their nearest basic relatives in general are, according to many indications, the American Indians. The two families, Indian and Eskimo, appear much, it may be repeated, like the thumb and fingers of one and the same hand, the hand being the large, original palaeo-Asiatic source of both. But the Eskimo are evidently a younger, smaller and still a more uniform member; which speaks strongly for their later origin, migration and internal differentiation.

15. With his numbers, purity of blood, approachability, present facilities of language, many of the young speaking good English, and other favorable conditions, the Eskimo offers to anthropology one of its best opportunities for a thorough study of an important human group, adapted to highly exceptional natural conditions. His food, mode of life, the climate, and isolation, give promise of interesting conditions of the internal organs, perhaps even blood, and of physiological as well as chemical and pathological peculiarities. This opportunity, together with the excellent and important opportunities for archeology in the Bering Sea and neighboring regions, should be utilized to the possible limit within the present generation, for the western Eskimo, on one hand, is rapidly becoming civilized, changing his food, clothing, housing, and habits; is also becoming more mixed with whites; and is most assiduously exploiting the archeological sites in his region for the sake of the income that comes to him from the ever-rising demand for beads, etc., and from "fossil" ivory.

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