Chapter XII: Part 12

-----------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------
| Western | Miscellaneous | Old American
| Eskimo | North American| whites
| | Indian | (Labor Ser.)
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
| Males |Females| Males |Females| Males |Females
-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
Height of left ear | 7.05 | 6.61 | 7.25 | 6.95 | 6.69 | 6.10
Breadth of left ear | 3.82 | 3.49 | 3.90 | 3.70 | 3.79 | 3.47
Ear index |_54.2_ |_52.8_ |_53.2_ |_53.6_ |_56.7_ |_56.9_
Percentage relation of | | | | | |
ear length to stature| _4.34_| _4.33_| _4.25_| _4.35_| _3.84_| _3.68_
=======================+=======+=======+=======+===+===+=======+=======
| Western Eskimo groups | Whites in general
-----------------------+---------------------------+-------------------
Height of left ear | 6.71- 7.40 6.49-6.73 | 6.20- 6.69
Breadth of left ear | 3.72- 4.04 3.45-3.57 | 3.58- 3.79
Ear index | _53.3 -58.9_ _52.3 -53.1_ | _56 -58.6_
-----------------------+---------------------------+-------------------

_The chest._--The best measurements of the chest, experience has shown, are the antero-posterior and lateral diameters at the nipple height in the males and at the corresponding level of the upper border of the fourth costal cartilages in the females. They give not merely the individual dimensions but also their relation, which is of much ontogenic as well as other interest, and their mean gives the chest module which in relation to the stature is anthropologically as well as individually (medically) important.

The table following gives the chest measurements in the western Eskimo, in a large group of Indians (my older data), and in the old American whites as well as others.

The Eskimo chest is large. In the males, in addition, it is very deep. Compared to that of the white old Americans it is markedly deeper in the males and broader in the females, notwithstanding the fact that the Americans are much taller. It is even larger, besides being relatively deeper in the males and somewhat broader in the females, than it is in many tribes of the Indian. Only tall and bulky Indians such as the Sioux show a chest that is absolutely somewhat larger, but in relation to stature, with which the dimensions of the chest stand in close correlation,[131] the Eskimo prevails even in this instance. This excess in chest development in the Eskimo must be ascribed in the main to his occupations and exertions, particularly again, it would seem, in connection with the canoe.

CHEST MEASUREMENTS

------------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------
| | 16 tribes of |
| Western Eskimo, | southwestern | Old Americans
| Nunivak Island | and New Mexico |
| | Indians |
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------
| Males | Females| Males | Females| Males | Females
------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------
Stature | 161.8 | 153.1 | 167.3 |-155. | 174.3 | 161.8
Breadth | 29.97 | 28.63 | 29.89 | 28.21 | 29.76 | 26.62
Depth | 24.63 | -22. | 22.77 | 21.91 | 21.70 | 20.03
Index | _82.2_ | _76.8_ | _76.15_| _77.66_| _72.9_ | _75.3_
Module | 27.30 | 25.32 | 26.33 | 25.06 | 25.73 | 23.32
Module vs. stature| _16.87_| _16.53_| _15.74_| _16.17_| _14.75_| _14.41_
==================+=+======+========++=======+======+=+========+========
| 4 other groups | 72 Sioux |
| of western | Indians, | 12 other groups
| Eskimo, males | males | of white males
--------------------+----------------+--------------+-------------------
Stature | -160.6-166. | -174. | 163.4-171.6
Breadth | -29.6-30. | 31.92 | -25.9-28.
Depth | -23.-24.75 | -26. | 20.9-22.6
Index | _76.7-83.3_ | _81.4_ | _72.9-81.5_
Module | 26.97 | 28.96 | 23.4-25.7
Module vs. stature | _16.56_ | _16.64_ | _14.22-14.84_
--------------------+----------------+--------------+-------------------

_The hand._--The hand of the Eskimo is small, both absolutely and relatively to stature. But it is rather broad relative to its length, giving a high index. The index is higher than that of any of the groups available for comparison, white or Indian, excepting a few groups of immigrant whites, laborers.

HAND

----------+-----------+-----------+-------+-------
|Western Eskimo, (group | 16 tribes of
| means) | southwestern
| | and Mexican
| | Indians
----------+-----------+-----------+-------+-------
Left hand:| Males | Females | Males |Females
----------+-----------+-----------+-------+-------
Length |17.35-18.42|16.60-16.85| 18.53 | 17.20
| | | |
Breadth | 8.60-8.90 | 7.78-8.20 | 8.51 | 7.71
| | | |
Percentage| _10.96_ | _10.94_ |_11.07_|_11.13_
relation | | | |
of hand | | | |
length to | | | |
stature | | | |
----------+-----------+-----------+-------+-------

----------+-------+-------+-----------
| Old Americans | 12 groups
| | of
| | immigrant
| | whites
----------+-------+-------+-----------
Left hand:| Males |Females| Males
----------+-------+-------+-----------
Length | 19.28 | 17.34 |
| | |
Breadth | 9.18 | 7.87 |
| | |
Percentage|_11.05_|_10.70_|_-11.-11.3_
relation | | |
of hand | | |
length to | | |
stature | | |
----------+-------+-------+-----------

-----+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
|Western Eskimo | Southwestern | Sioux
| | and Mexican |
| | Indians |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
| Males |Females| Males |Females| Males |Females
-----+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
Hand | 49.5 | 47.5 | 45.9 | 44.8 | 47.6 |
index| | | | | |
-----+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------

-----+-------+-------+---------+-------
| Old American | 12 other groups
| whites | of whites
| |
+-------+-------+---------+-------
| Males |Females| Males |Females
-----+-------+-------+---------+-------
Hand | 47.6 | 45.4 |47.6-50.3|
index| | | |
-----+-------+-------+---------+-------

72 Sioux males: _11.40._

_The foot._--The foot of the western Eskimo, like his hand, is both absolutely and relatively to stature rather short, but it is broad, giving a high breadth-length index. Its actual breadth perceptibly exceeds that of the much taller old American whites, though not reaching that of any of the immigrant laborers.

Contrary to what was seen in the case of the hand, the relative proportions of the Eskimo foot, as expressed by the index, are almost identical with those of the southwestern and Mexican Indians. The Sioux foot is relatively longer, and so is that of whites except southern Italians, who, though their foot as a whole is larger, give the same index as the Eskimo.

FOOT

---------------+---------------+---------------
| | 16 tribes of
| Western | southwestern
| Eskimo | and Mexican
| | Indians
+-------+-------+-------+-------
| Males |Females| Males |Females
---------------+-------+-------+-------+-------
Left foot: | | | |
Length | 24.23 | 22.13 | 25.42 | 23.30
Breadth | 9.72 | 8.70 | 10.15 | 9.07
Percentage | | | |
relation foot | | | |
length-stature|_14.94_|_14.51_|_15.19_|_15.08_
---------------+-------+-------+-------+-------

---------------+---------------+-------------
| | 12 groups
| Old Americans |of immigrant
| | whites
| |
+-------+-------+-------------
| Males |Females| Males
---------------+-------+-------+-------------
Left foot: | | |
Length | 26.12 | 23.33 |
Breadth | 9.49 | 8.36 |
Percentage | | |
relation foot | | |
length-stature|_14.97_|_14.42_|_15.36-15.73_
---------------+-------+-------+-------------

-----------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
| | Southwestern |
| Western | and Mexican | Sioux
| Eskimo | Indians |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
| Males |Females| Males |Females| Males |Females
-----------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
Foot index | 40.1 | 39.3 | 39.9 | 38.9 | 37.1 |
-----------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------

-----------+-------+-------+---------+-------
| |
| Old American | 12 other groups
| whites | of whites
+-------+-------+---------+-------
| Males |Females| Males |Females
-----------+-------+-------+---------+-------
Foot index | 36.3 | 35.8 |37.9-40.1|
-----------+-------+-------+---------+-------

72 Sioux males: _15.40._

_Girth of the calf._--The western Eskimo, like the American Indians, are characterized by a rather slender calf. The size of the calf correlates in a large measure with stature. Reducing our measurements to calf girth-stature ratios, these are seen to be much alike in the three racial groups used for comparison, namely the Eskimo, the Indian, and the old American white. But this is deceptive. The correlation of size of calf with stature is not uniform (see "Old Americans," p. 348) for all stature groups; as the scale in stature descends the calf is relatively stouter. If we take white Americans of approximately the same stature with the Eskimo here considered, there appears a higher ratio, showing that stature for stature the girth of the calf of the Eskimo is smaller, notwithstanding his generally more ample supply of adipose tissue. Once more his relation is closer with the Indian. The Eskimo and the Indian women are especially much alike, while the white women make a marked exception--their calfs (as well as thighs) have more fat than is found in those of their Eskimo and Indian sisters.

MEASUREMENTS OF THE LEG

---------------------+------------------+------------------
| | Southwestern
| Western | and Mexican
| Eskimo | Indians
| | (16 tribes)
---------------------+------------------+------------------
| _Male_ _Female_ | _Male_ _Female_
| |
Maximum girth of | 33.6 31.4 | 34.1 32
left calf | |
| |
Percentage relation | _20.7_ _20.6_ | _20.52_ _20.54_
to stature | |
| |
Percentage relation | |
to stature | |
| |
in those approaching | |
| |
the Eskimo stature | |
| |
Females v. males | _93.5_ | _93.9_
(M=100) | |
---------------------+------------------+------------------

---------------------+-----------------
|
| Old white
| Americans
|
---------------------+-----------------
| _Male_ _Female_
|
Maximum girth of | 36.1 35.5
left calf |
|
Percentage relation | _20.3_ _21.95_
to stature |
|
Percentage relation |
to stature |
|
in those approaching |
|
the Eskimo stature | _21.6_ _22.3_
|
Females v. males | _98.3_
(M=100) |
---------------------+-----------------

FOOTNOTES:

[128] For comparative data on these and other proportions see writer's Old Americans, Baltimore, 1925; also Topinard's and Martin's textbooks.

[129] See Old Americans; also the writer's The natives of Kharga Oasis, Egypt, Smiths. Misc. Coll., Washington, 1912; Anthropology of the Chippewa, Holmes Anniv. Vol., Washington, 1916; and Measurements of the Negro, Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., 1928, XII, No. 1.

[130] A word of slight caution is due here. In all these cases the proper way would be to compare the Eskimo with whites of same mean stature. But we have no such whites available. As it is the comparisons must be taken merely as approximations, but they are so close approximations that the substance of the conclusions is probably correct.

[131] The chest dimensions correlate with stature, respectively the trunk height, and the breadth correlates with the depth; but both are influenced by function.

PHYSIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

Due to various difficulties which do not exist to that extent elsewhere, the physiological observations on the Eskimo are neither as numerous or extended as would be desirable; yet there are some data of value. They extend to the pulse, respiration, temperature, and dynamometric tests of hand pressure. They were made mainly on St. Lawrence and Nunivak Islands, by Moore, Collins, and Stewart. They quite agree, especially after elimination of some records that are clearly erroneous or abnormal. The tests should be extended with even more rigid precautions in future work among the Eskimo.

The results are given below. They were all made in the summer season and on healthy subjects, yet there were numerous indications of temporary disorders, pathological or functional. Even after a careful elimination of the obvious cases of such disorders not a few minor irregularities have doubtless remained, so that the data can not be taken for more than fairly close approximations to the normal.

The data show remarkably low pulse, respiration rate and temperature close to those of whites, with a submedium hand pressure. (For comparative data see "Old Americans.") The low pulse is also characteristic in the Indian, as I have repeatedly pointed out before (see especially my "Physiological and Medical Observations among the Indians," etc., Bull. 34, Bur. Amer. Ethn., Washington, 1908).

The dynamometric tests agree also better with those on the Indians than with those on whites; they are valid only as to the hands, and they embody not only the strength of the muscles but also that of the conscious impulse behind them. The age factor, of importance, does not here enter materially into the case.

PULSE, RESPIRATION, TEMPERATURE, AND STRENGTH

ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND ESKIMO

MALES--ALL

+----------+----------------+----------------+----------------------+
|Pulse[132]|Respiration[133]|Temperature[134]| Strength |
| | | |(Collins dynamometer) |
+ + + +-----------+----------+
| | | | Pressure | Pressure |
| | | |right hand |left hand |
+----------+----------------+----------------+-----------+----------+
| (63) | (54) | (61) | (60) | (60) |
| | | | | |
| 62.1 | 20.1 | 98.64 | 34.36 | 28.75 |
| | | | | |
| (40-78) | (15-25) | (97.6-99.4) |(19.5-45.5)|(19.5-44) |
| | | | | |
| (47) | (47) | (47) | (57) | (57) |
| | | | | |
|[135]61.3 | [135]20.4 | [135]98.84 |[135]34.34 |[135]29.78|
| | | | | |
+----------+----------------+----------------+-----------+----------+

FEMALES--SUSPICIOUS CASES ELIMINATED

+----------+----------------+----------------+-----------+----------+
| (25) | (25) | (25) | (47) | (47) |
| | | | | |
| 72.4 | 20 | 99.13 | 20.13 | 16.81 |
| | | | | |
| (54-84) | (15-23) | (98.4-99.9) | (14.5-29) |(12-22.5) |
+----------+----------------+----------------+-----------+----------+

NUNIVAK ISLAND ESKIMO

+----------+----------------+----------------+
|Pulse[132]|Respiration[133]| emperature[134]|
+----------+----------------+----------------+
| _Males_ | | |
| (6) | (6) | (6) |
| 63.2 | 18.2 | 98.05 |
| (52-68) | (16-21) | (97.8-98.4) |
+----------+----------------+----------------+

The details of these six records were:

+------------+-------------+-------+-------------+-------------+
| Age (year) | Time of day | Pulse | Respiration | Temperature |
| | (p. m.) | | | |
+------------+-------------+-------+-------------+-------------+
| 40 | 4.40 | 60 | 21 | 98.1 |
| 33 | 2 | 66 | 18 | 97.8 |
| 19 | 2.30 | 68 | 18 | 98.2 |
| 45 | 1.25 | 68 | 18 | 98.4 |
| 40 | 1.30 | 64 | (14) | 97.8 |
+------------+-------------+-------+-------------+-------------+

In connection with the pressure tests in the two hands, some interesting comparisons are possible between the Eskimo here dealt with and the old white Americans. As all the tests were made with the same instrument and method the results inspire confidence. It is in details of this nature that the anthropologist finds again and again the most striking proofs of the basal unity of the living races and their necessarily common origin somewhere in the past.

PRESSURE FORCE IN THE HANDS IN THE WESTERN ESKIMO AND OLD WHITE
AMERICANS

-------------------------------------+----------------+---------------
| Western Eskimo | Old Americans
+-------+--------+-------+-------
| Male | Female | Male | Female
-------------------------------------+-------+--------+-------+-------
Pressure: | _Kg._ _Kg._ | _Kg._ _Kg._
Right hand | 34.36 20.13 | 41.8 23.3
Left hand | 28.75 16.81 | 36.1 19.4
Percentage relation of left to right |_83.7_ _83.5_ |_86.4_ _83.6_
Percentage relation of female to male| |
(M = 100) | |
Right hand | _55.8_ | _55.5_
Left hand | _53.7_ | _53.7_
-------------------------------------+----------------+---------------

FOOTNOTES:

[132] Sitting, at rest, no signs of any health disorder.

[133] Sitting, at rest.

[134] Sitting, at rest, sub lingua.

[135] Subjects where all three determinations were not possible and the most suspicious ones (abnormally above or below the mean) eliminated.

SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIVING WESTERN ESKIMO[136]

These Eskimo are generally of submedium stature, occasionally reaching medium. The distal parts of their extremities are relatively short. Walk in adult males somewhat awkward.

In head form they are highly mesocephalic to moderately brachycephalic; the height of the head averages about medium. The head is of good size, especially when taken in relation to stature. The forehead is above medium in both height and breadth.

The face is large in all dimensions, generally full and rather flat. In men it not seldom approaches a square form. The lower jaw region is largely developed, the angles of the lower jaw are broad to protruding.

The nose is of fair breadth, with bridge somewhat narrow above and on the whole only moderately high. The mouth is large, lips medium to somewhat above. The ears are long. Beard spare on sides of face, mostly sparse on chin; mustache sparse and often limited to tufts above the corners of the mouth. Expression generally good-natured, smiling.

The chest is large, in females broad, in males especially deep. There is but a mild lumbar curve and no steatopygy. The lower limbs in females are less stout and shapely than they are in whites. The hands and feet are small, but, particularly the foot, relatively broad.

Temperature and respiration approach those in normal whites, though they appear frequently to be slightly higher; pulse normally is slow.

Dynamometric tests of strength (pressure, both hands) give somewhat lower records than in whites.

FOOTNOTES:

[136] Incorporated in this are writer's own observations.

REMARKS

The most noteworthy and important result of these studies on the living western Eskimo is the evidence, coming to light again and again, of their fundamental somatic relations to the Indian. These relations are too numerous and weighty to be accidental. Nor can they be ascribed to mixture with the Indian in such far-away groups as the St. Lawrence Islanders, who so long as known have never had any direct or even indirect contact with Indians. These relations in dimensions and relative proportions of the body, and in physiological characteristics such as the slow normal pulse, are supplemented by many phases of behavior, and often by a more or less Indianlike physiognomy. They inevitably lead to the conclusion that the Eskimo and the Indian are in the root members of the same family. They are two digits of the same hand, separate and diverging, yet at base joined to and derived from the same source. And this source, according to many indications, is the paleo-asiatic, "mongoloid," stem of northern Asia. The western Eskimo shows to be nearer this source than his more northern and northeastern relatives, indicating either that he is a later comer, or, which is more probable, that he has changed less in the south than in the north. It may be possible to say something more on this subject after the skeletal remains have been considered.

YOUNG WOMAN, NORTHERN BERING SEA REGION

(Photo by Lomen Bros.)]

YOUNG WOMEN, FULL-BLOOD ESKIMOS, SEWARD PENINSULA

(Photo by Lomen Bros.)]

A POINT HOPE GROUP]

_a_, Eskimo woman, Kevalina. (Photo on the _Bear_ by A. H., 1926. U.S.N.M.)

_b_, The body build of an adult Eskimo woman. Upper Bering Sea]

ELDERLY WOMAN, ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND

(Photos by R. D. Moore, 1912. U.S.N.M.)]

_a_, Yukon Eskimo, below Paimute. (A. H., 1926)

_b_, Norton Sound Eskimo woman and child. (A. H., 1926)]

ESKIMO, INDIANLIKE; NORTHERN BERING SEA REGION

(Photos by Lomen Bros.)]

ESKIMO, INDIANLIKE; NORTHERN BERING SEA REGION

(Photos by Lomen Bros.)]

ESKIMO, INDIANLIKE; NORTHERN BERING SEA REGION

(Photos by Lomen Bros.)]

ESKIMO, INDIANLIKE; NORTHERN BERING SEA REGION

(Photo by Lomen Bros.)]

ESKIMO, INDIANLIKE; NORTHERN BERING SEA REGION

(Photo by Lomen Bros.)]

ESKIMO, INDIANLIKE; ARCTIC REGION

(Photo by Lomen Bros.)]

SIBERIAN ESKIMO AND CHILD, INDIAN TYPE]

_a_, Mrs. Sage, Kevalina. Fine Indian type. Born on Notak. Both parents Notak "Eskimo." (A. H., 1926.)

_b_, Eskimo family, Indianlike; near Barrow. (A. H., 1926.)]

WESTERN ESKIMO: MEASUREMENTS ON THE LIVING

[Measurements by Collins and Stewart, except as noted]

-----------------------+-------------------------------------------------
| Males--Locality
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+---------
| | |Tanunuk|Nunivak| Hooper|Marshall,
|Kulukak| Togiak|(Nelson| Island| Bay | Lower
| | |Island)| | | Yukon
-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+---------
Date of record | (1927)| (1927)| (1927)| (1927)|(1927) | (1927)
Subjects measured | (8)| (4)| (4)| (19)| (20) |[137](6) )
Age | Adult.| Adult.| Adult.| Adult.|Adult. | Adult.
| | | | | |
Stature |160.6 |166 |162.7 |161.8 |162.5 | 163.8
Height sitting | 86 | 89.75 | 90.62 | 88.86 | 89.48 | 90.22
Height-sitting-stature | | | | | |
index |_53.55_|_53.95_|_55.69_|_55.70_|_55.06_| _55.08_
Arm span vs. stature | +2.8 | +6.7 | +5.5 | +2.7 | +.7 | +5.1
Head: | | | | | |
Length | 19.06 | 18.95 | 19.37 | 19.70 | 19.13 | 19.05
Breadth | 15.56 | 15.70 | 15.37 | 15.48 | 15.57 | 15.85
Height[140] | 12.98 | 13.02 | 12.90 | 13.07 | 13.11 | 13.43
Cephalic module | 15.87 | 15.89 | 15.88 | 16.08 | 15.94 | 16.11
Cephalic index |_81.7_ |_82.9_ |_79.4_ |_78.6_ |_81.3_ | _83.3_
Mean height index |_75_ |_75.2_ |_74.3_ |_74.3_ |_75.6_ | _77_
Face: | | | | | |
Menton-crinion | 19.70 | 20.05 | 19.70 | 19.23 | 19.41 | 19.85
Menton-nasion | 12.89 | 12.87 | 12.58 | 12.74 | 12.47 | 12.78
Diameter | | | | | |
bizygomatic | | | | | |
maximum | 14.74 | 15.27 | 14.95 | 14.99 | 14.97 | 14.85
Physiognomic | | | | | |
facial index |_72.3_ |_76.2_ |_75.9_ |_78.2_ |_77.1_ | _74.8_
Anatomical | | | | | |
facial index |_87.4_ |_84.2_ |_85.7_ |_85_ |_83.3_ | _86.1_
Height of forehead | | | | | |
(nasion-hair line) | 6.81 | 7.18 | 7.12 | 6.49 | 6.94 | 7.07
Breadth of forehead | | | | | |
(diameter | | | | | |
front--minimum) | 10.26 | 10.75 | 10.65 | 10.54 | 10.35 | 10.38
Diameter bigonial | | | | | |
Nose: | | | | | |
Height | 5.65 | 6.03 | 5.57 | 5.58 | 5.48 | 5.42
Breadth | 3.88 | 3.82 | 3.85 | 3.89 | 3.89 | 3.60
Nasal index |_68.7_ |_63.7_ |_69.1_ |_69.8_ |_71_ | _66.4_
Mouth: Breadth | 5.64 | 5.82 | 5.70 | 5.87 | 5.74 | 5.70
Ear (left): | | | | | |
Height | 6.71 | 7.17 | 7.18 | 7.05 | 6.79 | 6.52
Breadth | 3.76 | 3.82 | 3.72 | 3.91 | 3.69 | 3.38
Ear index |_56.4_ |_53.3_ |_58.9_ |_55.5_ |_54.3_ | _51.9_
Chest: | | | | | |
Breadth | 29.58 | 29.65 | 29.70 | 29.97 | |
Depth | 24.10 | 24.35 | 24.75 | 24.63 | |
Chest index |_81.5_ |_82.1_ |_83.3_ |_82.2_ | |
Hand (left): | | | | | |
Length | 17.35 | 17.87 | 17.55 | 18.42 | 17.61 | 18.12
Breadth | 8.68 | 8.60 | 8.90 | 8.81 | 8.76 | 8.70
Hand index |_52.9_ |_48.1_ |_50.7_ |_47.8_ |_49.7_ | _48_
Foot (left): | | | | | |
Length | | 24.82 | 24.05 | 24.31 | 23.88 |
Breadth | | 9.88 | 9.90 | 9.81 | 9.40 |
Foot index | |_37.8_ |_41.2_ |_40.4_ |_39.4_ |
Leg: Circumference, | | | | | |
maximum | | 32.62 | 34.42 | 33.56 | 33.64 |
-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+---------

---------------------------------+---------------------------------------
Males | Females--Locality
+---------+-------------+--------+-------+--------
| St. | Kanakanak,| Nunivak| Hooper| St.
| Lawrence| Bristol | Island| Bay |Lawrence
| Island | Bay | | | Island
-----------------------+---------+-------------+--------+-------+--------
Date of record | (1912) | (1927) | (1927) |(1927) | (1912)
Subjects measured |[138](63)| [139](10) | (24) | (2) |[138](48)
Age | Adult. | Near | Adult. | Adult.| Adult.
| | adult. | | |
Stature | 163.3 | 147.8 | 153.1 |153 |151.35
Height sitting | 88.4 | (83.08) | 84.36 | 83.80 | 84.07
Height-sitting-stature | | | | |
index | _54.13_| (_56.21_)| _55.10_|_54.77_|_55.55_
Arm span vs. stature | +.6 | +1.5 | -.7 | (?) | -.7
Head: | | | | |
Length | 19.33 | 18.10 | 18.85 | 18.85 | 18.56
Breadth | 15.40 | 15.26 | 15 | 15.30 | 14.77
Height[140] | 13.23 | 13.01 | 12.81 | 12.90 | 12.76
Cephalic module | 15.99 | 15.46 | 15.55 | 15.68 | 15.36
Cephalic index | _79.7_ | _84.3_ | _79.6_ |_81.2_ |_79.6_
Mean height index | _76.2_ | _79_ | _79_ |_75.5_ |_76.6_
Face: | | | | |
Menton-crinion | 20.01 | 18.73 | 18.45 | 18 | 18.03
Menton-nasion | 12.68 | (11.79) | 12.11 | 11.50 | 11.31
Diameter | | | | |
bizygomatic | | | | |
maximum | 14.73 | (13.95) | 14.31 | 14.55 | 14.03
Physiognomic | | | | |
facial index | _73.6_ | (_62.9_) | _77.6_ |_80.8_ |_77.8_
Anatomical | | | | |
facial index | _86.7_ | _84.6_ | _84.6_ |_79_ |_80.6_
Height of forehead | | | | |
(nasion-hair line) | 7.33 | 6.94 | 6.34 | 6.50 | 6.72
Breadth of forehead | | | | |
(diameter | | | | |
front--minimum) | 10.94 | 10.62 | 10.38 | 10.65 | 10.58
Diameter bigonial | 11.78 | | | | 11.18
Nose: | | | | |
Height | 5.47 | (5.02) | 5.17 | | 4.89
Breadth | 3.93 | (3.35) | 3.59 | | 3.63
Nasal index | _71.9_ | _66.7_ | _69.4_ | |_74.4_
Mouth: Breadth | 5.60 | (4.81) | 5.56 | | 5.32
Ear (left): | | | | |
Height | 7.40 | (5.99) | 6.49 | 6.60 | 6.73
Breadth | 4.04 | (3.49) | 3.45 | 3.45 | 3.57
Ear index | _54.6_ | (_58.3_) | _53.1_ |_52.3_ |_53_
Chest: | | | | |
Breadth | 29.96 | (27.43) | 28.63 | |
Depth | 23 | (19.39) | 22 | |
Chest index | _76.7_ |[141](_70.7_)|_76.8_ | |
Hand (left): | | | | |
Length | 17.94 | (15.90) | 16.62 | 16.85 | 16.60
Breadth | 8.63 | (7.53) | 7.82 | 8.20 | 7.78
Hand index | _48_ | _47.4_ | _47.1_ |_48.7_ |_46.7_
Foot (left): | | | | |
Length | 24.07 | (22.08) | 22.27 | 22.15 | 21.98
Breadth | 9.61 | (8.55) | 8.85 | 8.65 | 8.59
Foot index | _39.9_ | (_38.7_) | _40.6_ |_39.1_ |_39.1_
Leg: Circumference, | | | | |
maximum | ----- | (32.39) | 32.12 | 29.70 | 32.33
-----------------------+---------+-------------+--------+-------+--------

FOOTNOTES:

[137] Measurements by Collins.

[138] Measurements by R. D. Moore.

[139] Oldest girls of an orphanage.

[140] From the base line of the 2 meatus; this and all other measurements, including those of 1912, were taken by Hrdlička's methods and with his instruments. (See his "Anthropometry," Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, 1920.)

[141] Subadult in chest.

PRESENT DATA ON THE SKULL AND OTHER SKELETAL REMAINS OF THE WESTERN ESKIMO

THE SKULL

Until recently collections of skeletal remains of the western Eskimo were confined largely to skulls. The material in our own institutions comprised a small collection of Mahlemut (St. Michael Island) and "Chukchee" (Asiatic Eskimo) crania made in the early sixties by W. H. Dall; a larger series of crania gathered in 1881 on St. Michael and St. Lawrence Islands by E. W. Nelson; 28 skulls with 3 skeletons brought in 1898 by E. A. McIlheny from Point Barrow; a valuable lot of skulls from Indian Point, Siberia, with a few from St. Lawrence Island, collected by W. Bogoras; and some scattered specimens by other explorers. To this were added in 1912 an important collection of skulls, with a few skeletons, made by Riley D. Moore, at that time my aide, on St. Lawrence Island; an important lot of crania gathered a few years later by V. Stefánsson at Point Barrow; and a third large and highly interesting lot, this time of both skulls and skeletons, collected near Barrow for the University Museum at Philadelphia in 1917-1919 by W. B. Van Valin. But none of the later material was described excepting the McIlheny collection which, in 1916, was reported upon by E. W. Hawkes.[142]

During the survey which is the subject of this report a special effort was made to collect all the older skeletal material along the Bering Sea and Arctic coasts that could be reached, and the result was the bringing back of some 450 crania, nearly 50 with skeletons, and many separate parts of the skeleton; nearly all of the specimens proceeding from localities thus far not represented in the collections. To which were added in 1927 nearly 200 skulls with a good number of skeletons gathered by H. B. Collins, jr., assistant curator in the Department of Anthropology, United States National Museum, and my aide, T. D. Stewart, on Nunivak Island and along the west coast of Alaska from Bristol Bay to near the Yukon delta.[143]

We thus have now a relatively vast amount of skeletal material on the western Eskimo; it is essentially a virginal material; it is well identified as to locality; and the specimens are mostly in very good condition.

Aside from Hawkes's thesis, nothing of note had been published on these collections until 1924, when the first number of my Catalogue of Human Crania in the United States National Museum Collections appeared, which includes the principal measurements on 290 skulls of the western Eskimo. Since then, in view of the growing importance of the subject, I have remeasured every specimen reported before; have measured personally all the new collections; and thanks to the kindness of those in charge have been enabled to extend the measurements to all the collections of Eskimo crania, both from Alaska and elsewhere, that were preserved up to the spring of 1928 at the National Museum at Ottawa, the American Museum of Natural History of New York, and the Wistar Institute of Philadelphia, which now contains the University Museum collections. The total records reach now to 1,283 adult skulls from practically all important parts of the total Eskimo area, besides a considerable quantity of other bones of the skeleton. The main results of the work will be given here, the detailed measurements being reserved for another number of the Catalogue.

To save repetitions and possible confusion and to show more clearly the status of the southwestern and midwestern Eskimo, the entire cranial material will be dealt with in this section, and previous records on the northeastern and a few other groups of the Eskimo will not be drawn upon to preserve the advantage of dealing with data obtained by the same methods, instruments, and observer.

In presenting the records it is found expedient, both on geographical and anthropological grounds, to make but three groupings. The first of these comprises the Eskimo from their southernmost limit to Norton Sound and the Bering Sea islands; the second group takes in Seward Peninsula (or the larger part of it) and the Arctic coast to Point Barrow; while the third embraces all the Eskimo east of Point Barrow. The first of these three groups is remarkably homogeneous, the second and third show each some exceptional units. It may be said at once that the dialectic subdivisions of Dall, Nelson, and others, in a large majority of cases are not found to be accompanied by corresponding physical differences, so that in a somatological classification they become submerged.

FOOTNOTES:

[142] Skeletal Measurements and Observations of the Point Barrow Eskimo, Amer. Anthrop., n. s. XVIII, pp. 203-244, Lancaster, 1916.

[143] In 1928 Mr. Collins brought another important accession to these collections.

SKULL SIZE

The external size of the skull is best expressed by the cranial module or mean of the three principal diameters; the internal size, respectively the volume of the brain, by the "cranial capacity."

The module among the southwestern and midwestern Eskimo averages 15.44 centimeters in the males and 14.77 centimeters in the females. For people of submedium stature these are good dimensions. Fifty-two male and 40 female skulls of the much taller Sioux (writer's unpublished data) give the modules of only 15.25 and 14.27 centimeters; while 6 male and 9 female Munsee Indians, also tall,[144] give practically the same values as these Eskimos, namely 15.48 centimeters for the males and 14.75 centimeters for the females.

Not all the western groups, however, give equally favorable proportions. In general, the coast people below Norton Sound, and especially below the Yukon, give, so far as the males are concerned, the lowest values. It is interesting to note that it is precisely these people who among the western Eskimo are reputed to be about the lowest also in culture. The Togiak and near-by Kulukak males showed, as seen before, also about the smallest head in the living. The St. Lawrence Island males stand just about the middle, but the females of this island, as, interestingly, also in the living, show markedly less favorably. The Nunivak skulls, as with the living, are somewhat above the average, while in the small Pilot Station (Yukon) group, just as in the near-by contingent of Marshall among the living, the males have the largest heads in this western territory. The lower Yukon Eskimo were also shown, it may be recalled, to be of a higher stature than the majority of the coast people. It is a group that deserves further attention.

The module of the female skull does not evidently stand always in harmony with that of the male. The most striking example of this is shown, as already mentioned, by the St. Lawrence Island females, both skulls and the living. The females of this isolated island are also unduly short, but their small head is not entirely due to the defective stature. There must exist on this island, it would seem, some conditions that are disadvantageous to the female. In the small groups, such as that from the Little Diomede, the disharmonies are doubtless partly due to small numbers of specimens, but there may also be other factors, such as the bringing in of women from other places.[145]

Taking the mean of all the groups equalizes conditions, and it is seen that the module in both sexes is almost identical with that of the more northern groups, to Point Barrow. But the north Arctic and northeastern groups give a cranial module that in both sexes is somewhat higher, though their stature, according to the available data (Deniker, Boas, Duckworth, Steensby, Thalbitzer), is not superior.

A very remarkable showing is that of the percentage relation of the female to male skull size in the three large groupings. In the first two it is identical, in the third it differs less than could confidently be expected among the closest relatives. Another remarkable fact is that this important relation is found to be much like that in the Eskimo in various groups of Indians; thus it was _96_ in the Indians of Arkansas and Louisiana,[4] _95.5_ in the Munsee of New Jersey,[146] and _96.4_ in the Indian skulls of California.[147] But it is only _93.6_ in the Sioux (52 male, 40 female skulls) and differs more or less also in other tribes and peoples. A comprehensive study of this relation, with due respect to age, will some day well repay the effort.

ESKIMO: CRANIAL MODULE ((L+B+H)/3)

MALES IN ASCENDING ORDER

_Southwestern and midwestern_

Males Females
(5) (7)
Togiak 15.21 14.73
(4) (6)
Mumtrak 15.22 14.68
(3) (2)
Southwestern Alaska 15.25 14.90
(9) (4)
Hooper Bay 15.30 14.68
(8) (6)
St. Michael Island 15.30 14.72
(5) (7)
Little Diomede Island 15.33 15.09
Pastolik and Yukon (14) (20)
Delta 15.34 14.83
(145) (128)
St. Lawrence Island 15.42 14.27
Golovnin Bay to Cape (4) (2)
Nome 15.52 14.65
(46) (70)
Nunivak Island 15.53 14.90
(13) (16)
Indian Point (Siberia) 15.54 14.88
(3) (2)
Chukchee 15.56 15.05
(4) (1)
Port Clarence 15.57 (14.57)
(9) (16)
Nelson Island 15.59 14.64
(3) (3)
Pilot Station, Yukon 15.91 15
General averages, (275) (290)
approximately _15.44_ _14.77_
Females vs. males
(M = 100) _95.7_

_Northwestern_

(2) (1)
Kotzebue Sound 15.05 (14.67)
(12) (8)
Shishmaref 15.19 14.71
(132) (84)
Point Hope 15.37 14.72
(47) (52)
Point Barrow 15.45 14.75
(35) (34)
Barrow and vicinity 15.46 14.66
(27) (24)
Old Igloos near Barrow 15.52 14.72
(19) (14)
Wales 15.66 14.86
General averages, (274) (217)
approximately _15.39_ _14.73_
Females vs. males
(M = 100) _95.7_

_Northern and northeastern_

(49) (52)
Greenland 15.51 14.72
Hudson Bay and (5) (2)
vicinity 15.55 14.57
Baffin Land and (16) (17)
vicinity 15.55 15.04
(6) (10)
Northern Arctic 15.63 14.85
(9) (6)
Southampton Island 15.65 15.18
(7) (2)
Smith Sound 15.81 15.15
General averages, (92) (89)
approximately _15.62_ _14.92_
Females vs. males
(M = 100) _95.5_

FOOTNOTES:

[144] Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 22, Nos. 326-313.

[145] More or less danger in such cases as these lies in erroneous sexing of the skulls. Due to experience, care, and especially to the relatively numerous accompanying bones or skeletons, this danger in the present series has been reduced to the minimum.

[146] Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 23.

[147] Cat. Crania, U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 2.

MODULE AND CAPACITY

A comparison of considerable interest is also that of the cranial module or mean diameter, to the capacity of the same skulls. This comparison reveals an important sex factor.[148] Relatively to the module, the capacity is very appreciably smaller in the female than it is in the male. This is a universal condition to which, so far as known, there are occasional individual but no group exceptions. It appears very clearly in the Eskimo. In 283 western male Eskimo skulls in which we have so far measured the capacity,[149] the module averages 15.38 centimeters, the capacity 1,490 cubic centimeters; while in 382 female skulls thus far gauged the former averages 14.82 centimeters, the latter 1,337 cubic centimeters. The percentage relation of the capacity to the module, the numbers taken as a whole, is _96.8_ in the males but only _90.2_ in the females. This means that relatively to the external size of the skull the female Eskimo brain is 6.66 per cent smaller. Similar sex disproportion exists in other American groups as well as elsewhere. Some day when suitable data accumulate it will be of much interest to study this condition on a wider scale.

FOOTNOTES:

[148] See writer's "Relation of the Size of the Head and Skull to Capacity in the Two Sexes," Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., 1925, VIII, No. 3.

[149] All measured de novo by my aide, T. D. Stewart; for procedure see my "Anthropometry."

ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON CRANIAL MODULE

Before we leave this subject, it may be well to point out two noteworthy facts apparent from the data on the northwestern and northeastern groups. The first is that the figures on both sexes from Barrow and Point Barrow are very nearly the same, suggesting strongly the identity of the people of the two settlements; and the Point Hope group is in close relation. The second fact is the curious identity of the old Igloo group, 8 miles southwest of Barrow, with the Greenlanders. The import of this will be seen later.

SKULL SHAPE

Utilizing the materials of the Otis and Barnard Davis Catalogues and with measurements taken for him on additional specimens in several of our museums, Boas, in 1895 (Verh. Berl. anthrop. Ges., 398), as already mentioned, reported the cranial index of 37 "western Eskimo" skulls of both sexes (without giving localities or details) as _77_. He also reports in the same place (p. 391) the cephalic index of 61 probably male living "Alaska Eskimo," again without locality, as _79.2_. These rather high indices and the relatively elevated stature (61 subjects, 165.8 centimeters) lead him to believe (p. 376) that both are probably due to an admixture with the Alaskan Indian, though the report contains no measurements of the latter.

The data that it is now possible to present may perhaps throw a new light on the matter. As was already seen in part from the data on the living, the head resp. the skull tends to relative shortness and broadness throughout the southwestern, midwestern, and Bering Sea region (excepting parts of the Seward Peninsula). Important groups in this region, particularly those on some of the islands, had little or no contact with the Indian. The cranial index in most of the groups of the southwestern and midwestern Eskimo equals or even exceeds that of the Indian. And Eskimo groups with a relatively elevated cranial index are met with even in the far north, as at Point Hope, Hudson Bay, and Smith Sound.[150] Finally, the shorter and broader head connects with that of the Asiatic Eskimo and that of the Chukchee, as well as other northeastern Asiatics.[151]

The records now available show the highest cranial indices to occur on the coast between Bristol Bay and the Yukon and on lower Yukon itself, while the lowest indices of the midwest area, though still mesocranic, occur in the aggregate of Nunivak Island and the mouths of the Yukon. Another geographical as well as somatological aggregate is that of the people of the St. Lawrence and Diomede Islands and of Indian Point, Siberia, the cranial index in these three localities being identical.

ESKIMO: CRANIAL INDEX

Mean of both sexes ((Male+Female index)/2) on 1,281 adult skulls.

IN DESCENDING ORDER

_Southwestern and midwestern_

(11)
Togiak 80.1
(13)
Hooper Bay 79.7
(10)
Mumtrak 79.6
(6)
Pilot Station, Lower Yukon 79.3
(5)
Chukchee (Siberia) 78.6
(26)
Nelson Island 78
(6)
Southwestern Alaska 77.7
(32)
Indian Point (Siberia) 77.4
(12)
Little Diomede Island 77.4
(299)
St. Lawrence Island 77.2
(5)
Port Clarence 76.6
(34)
Pastolik and Yukon Delta 76.1
(14)
St. Michael Island 75.7
(116)
Nunivak Island 75.6

_Northwestern_

(222)
Point Hope 76.0
Kotzebue Sound and Kobuk (3)
River 75.4
(22)
Shishmaref 74.5
(101)
Point Barrow 74.1
(73)
Barrow 73.5
(33)
Wales 73.5
(7)
Golovnin Bay [152]72.6
(52)
Igloos, southwest of Barrow 69.7

_Northern and northeastern_

(7)
Hudson Bay and vicinity 76.3
(9)
Smith Sound 76.2
(15)
Southampton Island 74.8
(15)
Northern Arctic 73.6
(33)
Baffin Land and vicinity 73.2
(101)
Greenland 71.9

The Seward Peninsula shows sudden differences. There are a few localities along its southern coast where the cranial type belongs apparently to the Bering Sea and southern area. One site at Port Clarence was one of these. But already at Golovnin Bay, which is not far from Norton Sound and St. Michael Island, and according to the evidence of the most recent collections (Collins 1928), also at Sledge Island, there is a sudden appearance of marked dolichocrany, which is repeated at Wales, on the western extremity of the peninsula, approached at Shishmaref, the main Eskimo settlement on its northern shore, and, judging from some fragmentary material seen at the eastern end of the Salt Lake, also in the interior. The cause of this distinctive feature in the Seward Peninsula is for the present elusive. The little known territory urgently needs a thorough exploration.

The distribution of the cranial index farther north along the western coast shows several points of interest. The first is the exceptional position of Point Hope, one of the oldest and most populous settlements in these regions, which by its cranial index seems to connect with the Bering Sea groups. The second is the closeness, once more, of Barrow and Point Barrow. The third and greatest is the presence, in a small cluster of old igloos 8 miles down the coast from Barrow, of a group of people that finds no counterpart in its cranial index and, as will be seen later, also in some other characteristics, in the entire western region; in fact, in the whole Eskimo territory outside of Greenland. As noted before, the size of the head in this group is also closest to that of Greenland. These peculiar facts indicate a problem that will call for separate consideration.

The northern and northeastern groups, with the exception of the mesocranic Hudson Bay and Smith Sound contingents, and the very dolichocranic Greenlanders, show dolichocrany much the same as that of Barrow and Point Barrow.

FOOTNOTES:

[150] Compare writer's "An Eskimo Brain," Amer. Anthrop. n. s., vol. III, pp. 454-500, New York, 1901; and his "Contribution to the Anthropology of Central and Smith Sound Eskimo," Anthrop. Papers, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., V, pt. 2, New York, 1910.

[151] Compare, besides present data, measurements by Bogoras in his report on "The Chukchee," Mem. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1904-9, XI, 33; 148 male and 49 female adults gave him the mean stature of 162.2 and -152, the mean cephalic index of _82_ and _81.8_.

[152] Including 4 female skulls collected by Collins in 1928 and received too late for general inclusion into these series.

HEIGHT OF THE SKULL

This is a measurement of much value, both alone and as a supplement to the cranial index, for skulls with the same index may be high or low and thus really of a radically distinct type.

The height of the vault is best studied in its relation to the other cranial dimensions, particularly to the mean of the length and breadth, with both of which it correlates. But in the Eskimo it is also of interest to compare the height with the breadth of the skull alone. The former relation is known as the mean height index and the latter as the height-breadth index. Both mean the percentage value of the basion-bregma height as compared to the other dimensions.

The mean height index H/(Mean of L+B), advocated independently by the writer since 1916 (Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 116), is proving of much value in differentiation of types and has already become a permanent feature in all writers' work on the skull. There is a corresponding index also on the living.

In the American Indian the averages of the index range from approximately 76 to 90. (See Catalogue of Crania, U. S. Nat. Mus., Nos. I and II.) Where the series of specimens are sufficiently large the index does not differ materially in the two sexes. Indices below 80 may be regarded as low, those between 80 and 84 as medium, and those above 84 as high.[153]

The southwestern and midwestern Eskimo skulls show mean height indices that may be characterized as moderate to slightly above medium. In general the broader and shorter skulls show lower indices, approaching thus in all the characters of the vault the Mongolian skulls of Asia. (Compare Catalogue Crania, U. S. Nat. Mus., No. I.) The Indian Point, St. Lawrence Island, and Little Diomede Island skulls are again, as with the cranial index, very close together, strengthening the evidence that the three constitute the same group of people. (Pls. 59, 60.)

The northwestern Eskimo and most of those of the northeast have relatively high vault. Barrow and Point Barrow are once more almost the same. The Point Hope group shows a high vault, though also rather broad. The somewhat broad Hudson Bay crania are but moderately high, like those of the southwestern Eskimo. The northern Arctic skulls give smaller height than would be expected with their type; the Southampton Island specimens give higher. The old Igloo group from near Barrow stands again close to Greenland; its skull is even a trace narrower and higher, standing in both respects at the limits of the Eskimo. The whole, as with the cranial index, shows evidently a rich field of evolutionary conditions.

ESKIMO: CRANIAL MEAN HEIGHT INDEX

(H-FLOOR-LINE OF AUD. MEATUS TO BG×100)
---------------------------------------
MEAN OF L+B

MEAN OF BOTH SEXES IN ASCENDING ORDER

_Southwestern and midwestern_

(11)
Togiak 81.8
(25)
Nelson Island 82.1
(6)
Southwest Alaska 82.3
(6)
Pilot Station, Yukon 82.3
(10)
Mumtrak 82.5
(13)
Hooper Bay 82.7
(116)
Nunivak Island 83.3
(5)
Chukchee 83.3
(34)
Pastolik and Yukon Delta 83.4
(4)
Port Clarence 83.4
(29)
Indian Point (Siberia) 83.8
(279)
St. Lawrence Island 84.1
(12)
Little Diomede Island 84.5
(14)
St. Michael Island 85.1

_Northwestern_

(69)
Barrow 83.8
(99)
Point Barrow 84.1
Kotzebue Sound and Kobuk (2)
River 84.4
(20)
Shishmaref 84.5
(33)
Wales 85.0
(216)
Point Hope 85.7
(4)
Golovnin Bay--Cape Nome 85.9
(51)
Igloos, southwest of Barrow 86.3

_Northern and northeastern_

(7)
Hudson Bay and vicinity 82.2
(15)
Northern Arctic 82.7
(33)
Baffin Land and vicinity 84.4
(9)
Smith Sound 85.1
(101)
Greenland 85.1
(15)
Southampton Island 85.5

The height-breadth index (H×100)/(B) of the Eskimo skull shows in substance the same conditions as did the mean height index, but while less informative or dependable on one side, on the other it accentuates the relative narrowness of the skull in some of the groups.

SKULLS FROM OLD BURIALS, POINT HOPE; RIGHT SKULL SHOWS LOW VAULT. (U.S.N.M.)]

SKULLS FROM OLD BURIALS, POINT HOPE; RIGHT SKULL SHOWS LOW VAULT. (U.S.N.M.)]

ESKIMO: HEIGHT-BREADTH INDEX OF THE SKULL

MEAN OF BOTH SEXES IN ASCENDING ORDER

_Southwestern and midwestern_

(12)
Togiak 91.9
(6)
Pilot Station, Lower Yukon 92.8
(10)
Mumtrak 93.1
(5)
Chukchee 93.1
(13)
Hooper Bay 93.2
(25)
Nelson Island 93.7
(5)
Yukon Delta 94.7
(5)
Southwest Alaska 95.2
(12)
Little Diomede Island 96.3
(279)
St. Lawrence Island 96.5
(116)
Nunivak Island 96.7
(31)
Indian Point (Siberia) 96.7
(29)
Pastolik 96.8
(6)
Cape Nome and Port Clarence 97.0
(14)
St. Michael Island 98.2

_Northwestern_

(99)
Point Barrow 98.7
(69)
Barrow 98.8
(20)
Shishmaref 98.9
(216)
Point Hope 99.2
Kotzebue Sound and Kobuk (3)
River 99.6
(33)
Wales 100.3
(51)
Igloos, southwest of Barrow 105.0

_Northern and eastern_

(7)
Hudson Bay and vicinity 95.3
(16)
North Arctic 97.8
(9)
Smith Sound 98.3
(15)
Southampton Island 99.8
(33)
Baffin Land and vicinity 99.9
(101)
Greenland 101.8

FOOTNOTES:

[153] These subdivisions are somewhat arbitrary and may, as data accumulate and are better understood, be found to need some modification.

THE FACE

The facial dimensions of the Eskimo skull offer a number of points of unusual interest. The face is absolutely and especially relatively to stature very large in all measurements. It is particularly high between the upper alveolar point and nasion.

The large size of the Eskimo face will best be appreciated from a few figures.

FACIAL DIMENSIONS OF THE WESTERN AND OTHER ESKIMO CRANIA COMPARED
WITH THOSE OF THE SIOUAN AND ALGONQUIAN TRIBES

-----------------+-------------------+---------------+------+----------
| Southwestern and | Eskimo |Siouan|Algonquian
| midwestern Eskimo | in general |tribes| tribes
+----------+--------+------+--------+------+----------
|Mean of 14| 10 | 27 | 22 | 12 | 15
| groups | groups |groups| groups |groups| groups
| (male) |(female)|(male)|(female)|(male)| (female)
-----------------+----------+--------+---------------+------+----------
Total height | | | | | |
(ment.-nas.) | 12.60 | (11.63)| 12.52| (11.59)| 12.26| 12.11
Upper height | | | | | |
(alv. pt.-nas.)| 7.87 | (7.29)| 7.79| (7.21)| 7.52| 7.35
Diameter | | | | | |
bizyg. max. | 14.25 | (13.27)| 14.26| (13.22)| 14.16| 13.89
Module of | | | | | |
upper face | | | | | |
(U. H. + B)/2 | 11.06 | (10.28)| 11.03| (10.22)| 10.84| 10.62
-----------------+----------+--------+------+--------+------+--------

So far as known there are no larger faces among the Indians than those of the Sioux, yet they remain very perceptibly, in all three measurements, behind the Eskimo. No face as large as that of the Eskimo is known, in fact, from anywhere else in the world. In whites the mean diameter of the largest faces (see data in Martin's Lehrbuch Anthrop., 789-791) does not exceed 10.36 centimeters. The above showing assumes especial weight when it is recalled that both the Siouan and the Algonquian tribes are among the tallest there are on the American Continent. The cause of the large size of the Eskimo face can only be the excessive use of the jaws; no other reason even suggests itself. But the character may already be more or less hereditary. It furnishes another attractive subject for further investigation.

With its large dimensions the face of the Eskimo skull presents generally also large orbits, large molars, submedium prominence and breadth of the nasal bridge, shallow suborbital (canine) fossae, large dental arch above medium teeth, and a large and stout lower jaw with broad not seldom more or less everted angles, giving the whole a characteristic appearance. With partial exception of the orbits and the nose, which are subject also to other factors, all these features of the Eskimo face are explainable as strengthenings resulting from the increased function of mastication.

The main dimensions of the cranial face in the three large groupings of the Eskimo are given in the next table.

WESTERN AND OTHER ESKIMO: FACIAL DIMENSIONS IN THE SKULL

----------------+-----------------------------------
| Males
+------+------+-------+-------------
| | Alve-| Diam- | Cranial
| Men- | olar | eter | facial
| ton- |point-| bizy- | index
|nasion|nasion|gomatic+------+------
| | |maximum| Total| Upper
+------+------+-------+------+------
Groups | (9) | (14) | (14) | (8) | (14)
Southwestern | | | | |
and midwestern| 12.60| 7.87 | 14.25 |_88.2_|_55.3_
Groups | (5) | (7) | (7) | (5) | (7)
Northwestern | 12.58| 7.73 | 14.23 |_88.3_|_54.4_
Groups | (5) | (6) | (6) | (5) | (5)
North Arctic and| | | | |
northeastern | 12.22| 7.69 | 14.32 |_85.9_|_53.7_
----------------+------+------+-------+------+------

----------------+-----------------------------------
| Females
+------+------+-------+-------------
| | Alve-| Diam- | Cranial
| Men- | olar | eter | facial
| ton- |point-| bizy- | index
|nasion|nasion|gomatic+------+------
| | |maximum| Total| Upper
+------+------+-------+------+------
Groups | (8) | (10) | (10) | (8) | (10)
Southwestern | | | | |
and midwestern| 11.63| 7.29 | 13.27 |_87.7_|_54.9_
Groups | (2) | (7) | (7) | (2) | (7)
Northwestern | 11.55| 7.19 | 13.18 |_88.2_|_54.6_
Groups | (3) | (5) | (5) | (3) | (5)
North Arctic and| | | | |
northeastern | 11.61| 7.13 | 13.15 |_85.7_|_54.2_
----------------+------+------+-------+-----+-------

These data show a number of interesting conditions. The height of the upper face (alveolar point-nasion) is greatest in the southwestern and midwestern groups, is slightly lower in the northwesterners, and still further slightly lower in the north Arctic and the northeast. On the other hand the facial breadth is slightly higher in the north and east, and that although the vault has become mostly decidedly narrower.

These facts are shown best by the upper facial index, which in the males descends quite perceptibly in the west from the south to the north and in the Arctic from the west to the east. In the females there is a parallel gradual diminution in the upper facial height from the south to the north and then east, but the facial breadth diminishes very slightly also instead of increasing, as a result of which the upper facial index shows only minor differences; yet these differences are in the same direction as those in the males.

These matters are involved with a number of factors--the stature, the breadth of the vault, and the development and direct influence of the temporal muscles, besides hereditary conditions. Their proper study will necessitate even more--in fact, much more--material than is now at our disposal.