Chapter I: Part 1

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THE PURPLE CRESTED CORYTHAIX ____ Corythaix macrorhynchus

_Nat. Size_]

CASSELL'S BOOK OF BIRDS.

From the Text of Dr. Brehm.

by

THOMAS RYMER JONES, F.R.S.,

Professor of Natural History and Comparative Anatomy in King's College, London.

With Upwards of Four Hundred Engravings, and a Series of Coloured Plates.

In Four Volumes.

VOL. II.

London: Cassell, Petter, and Galpin; and New York.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

CATCHERS (_Captantes_).--_Continued._

THE HAWKS (_Accipiter_):--The Laughing Hawk--The Double-toothed
Hawk--The Sparrow Hawk--The True Hawk, or Gos Hawk. The SINGING
HAWKS (_Melierax_):--The True Singing Hawk--The Serpent Hawk 1-7

RAPTORIAL BIRDS.

THE EAGLES (_Aquila_):--The Tawny Eagle--The Golden
Eagle--The Imperial Eagle--The Spotted Eagle. The DWARF
EAGLES (_Hieraëtos_):--The Booted Eagle--The Dwarf Eagle.
The WEDGE-TAILED EAGLES (_Uroaëtos_):--The Bold Wedge-tailed
Eagle. The HAWK EAGLES (_Pseudaëtos_, _Eudolmaëtos_, or
_Asturaëtos_):--Bonelli's Hawk Eagle. The HOODED EAGLES
(_Spizaëtos_):--The Martial Hooded Eagle--The Tufted Eagle. The
DESTROYING EAGLES (_Pternura_):--The Urutaurana. The BRAZILIAN
EAGLES (_Morphnus_):--The Crested Brazilian Eagle--The Harpy
Eagle. The SEA EAGLES (_Haliaëtos_):--The Sea Eagle--The
White-headed Sea Eagle--The African Screaming Sea Eagle--The
Osprey, River Eagle, or Fish Hawk 7-31

THE KITES (_Milvus_):--The Short-tailed Kite. The GLIDING
KITES (_Elanus_):--The True Gliding Kite. The HOVERING KITES
(_Ictinia_):--The Mississippi Kite. The CROOKED-BILLED KITES
(_Cymindis_):--The Buzzard Kite--The Syama or Baza 31-37

THE TRUE KITES:--The Black Kite--The Govinda--The Parasite
Kite--The Red or Royal Kite--The Swallow-tailed Kite. The
CHELIDOPTERI:--The Dwarf Swallow-tailed Kite. The FIELD KITES,
or HARRIERS (_Circus_). The MEADOW KITES (_Strigiceps_):--The
Blue Kite or Hen Harrier--The Kite of the Steppes, or Pallid
Harrier--The Meadow Kite, or Ash-coloured Harrier--The Reed Kite,
or Marsh Harrier. SPOTTED KITES (_Spilocircus_):--Jardine's
Spotted Kite 37-47

THE BUZZARDS (_Buteo_). The SNAKE BUZZARDS (_Circaëtos_):--The
Snake Buzzard. The CRESTED BUZZARDS (_Spilornis_):--The
Bacha--The Honey Buzzard, or Wasp Kite--The Crested Honey
Buzzard--The Rough-legged Buzzard--The Common or Mouse
Buzzard--The Red-winged or Grasshopper Buzzard--The Tesa--The
Caracolero, Snail Buzzard, or Hook-beaked Buzzard--The Urubitinga
47-56

THE VULTURE FALCONS (_Polyborus_):--The Chimango--The
Vulture Buzzard--The Carancho or Traro. SCREAMING BUZZARDS
(_Ibicter_):--The Ganga--The Secretary or Crane Vulture 56-64

THE VULTURES (_Vulturidæ_):--The Bearded Vulture. The TRUE
VULTURES (_Vultur_). The CONDORS, or WATTLED VULTURES
(_Sarcorhamphus_):--The Condor--The Californian Condor--The
King of the Vultures. The GOOSE VULTURES (_Gyps_):--The Tawny
Goose Vulture--The Sparrow-hawk Goose Vulture. The CRESTED
VULTURES:--The Cowled Vulture--The Variegated or Crested
Vulture. The EARED VULTURES (_Otogyps_). The RAVEN VULTURES
(_Catharta_):--The Scavenger or Egyptian Raven Vulture--The Monk
Vulture--The Urubu or Turkey Buzzard--The Gallinazo 64-84

THE OWLS (_Striginæ_).

THE DAY OWLS (_Surnia_):--The Sparrow-hawk Owl--The Snow Owl.
The STONE OWLS (_Athene_):--The Stone Owl Proper. The BURROWING
OWLS (_Pholeoptynx_):--The Brazilian or Rabbit Owl--The Prairie
Owl. The SPARROW OWLS (_Microptynx_):--The European Sparrow Owl.
The _Eared Owls_, or UHUS (_Bubo_):--The Uhu--The Short-eared
Uhu--The Milk-white Uhu--The Virginian Uhu--The Brown Fish
Owl--The Woodland Owl--The Marsh Owl. The DWARF EARED OWLS
(_Scops_):--The Dwarf Eared Owl 84-99

THE NOCTURNAL OWLS:--The Tree Owl--The Hairy-footed Owl. The
VEILED OWLS (_Strix_):--Kirchhoff's Veiled Owl--The Flame Owl, or
Barn Owl 99-103

THE GAPERS (_Hiantes_).

THE SWALLOWS (_Hirundo_). The TRUE SWALLOWS (_Cecropis_):--The
Chimney Swallow--The Senegal Swallow--The Thread-tailed
Swallow--the Martin or Roof Swallow 104-111

THE MOUNTAIN or SHORE SWALLOWS (_Cotyle_):--The Rock
Swallow--The Sand Martin--The Ariel Swallow. The WOOD SWALLOWS
(_Atticora_):--The Striped Wood Swallow. The SAILOR SWALLOWS
(_Progne_):--The Purple Swallow 111-115

THE SWIFTS (_Cypselus_). The TREE SWIFTS (_Dendrochelidon_):--The
Klecho. The SALANGANES (_Collocalia_):--The Salangane Proper--The
Kusappi. The PRICKLY-TAILED SWIFTS (_Acanthylis_):--The
White-throated Prickly-tailed Swift--The Dwarf Swift--The
Palm-tree Swift--The Steeple Swift--The Alpine Swift 115-124

THE NIGHT JARS, or GOATSUCKERS (_Caprimulgus_):--The Nacunda.
The TWILIGHT NIGHT JARS (_Chordeiles_):--The Night Falcon--The
Common Goatsucker--The Resplendent Goatsucker. The BRISTLED
NIGHT JARS (_Antrostomus_):--The Whip-poor-Will. The AFRICAN
NIGHT JARS (_Scotornis_). The LYRE-TAILED NIGHT JARS
(_Hydropsalis_):--The Lyre-tailed Night Jar. MACRODIPTERYX:--The
Long-winged Macrodipteryx--The Streamer-bearing Night Jar, or
"Four Wings." The GIANT GOATSUCKERS (_Nyctibius_):--The Ibijau,
or Earth-eater--The Guachero, or Oil Bird. The OWL SWALLOWS
(_Podargus_):--The DWARF OWL SWALLOWS (_Ægotheles_):--The True
Dwarf Owl Swallow. The GIANT OWL SWALLOWS (_Podargus_):--The
Giant Owl Swallow. The FROG-MOUTHS (_Batrachostomus_):--The
Plumed Frog-mouth 124-140

THE SINGING BIRDS (_Oscines_).

THE TOOTH-BEAKED SINGING BIRDS (_Dentirostres_). The SHRIKES
(_Lanius_):--The Sentinel Butcher Bird, or Great Grey Shrike--The
Southern Shrike--The Grey, or Black-browed Shrike. The BUTCHER
BIRDS PROPER (_Enneoctonus_):--The Red-backed Shrike, or True
Butcher Bird--The Red-headed Shrike, or Wood Chat--The Masked
Shrike. The THICK-HEADED SHRIKES (_Pachycephalus_):--The Falcon
Shrike. The BUSH SHRIKES (_Malaconotus_). The FLUTE-VOICED
SHRIKES (_Laniarius_):--The Scarlet Shrike--The Flute Shrike.
The HOODED SHRIKES:--The Tschagra--The Helmet Shrike. The
CROW SHRIKES (_Cracticus_):--The Magpie Shrike. The RAVEN
SHRIKES (_Thamnophilus_):--Vigors' Raven Shrike. The DRONGO
SHRIKES (_Edolius_):--The King Crow, or Finga. The DRONGOS
(_Chaptia_):--The Singing Drongo. The FLAG-BEARING DRONGOS
(_Edolius_ or _Dissemurus_):--The Bee King. The DRONGO SHRIKES.
The SWALLOW SHRIKES (_Artamius_):--The Wood Shallow Shrike
140-158

THE FLY-CATCHERS. The KING or TYRANT SHRIKES (_Tyrannus_):--The
True Tyrant Shrike, King Bird, or Tyrant Fly-catcher--The
Bentevi. The FORK-TAILED TYRANTS (_Milvulus_):--The
Scissor Bird--The Royal Tyrant. The STILTED FLY-CATCHERS
(_Fluvicola_):--The Yiperu, or Yetapa--The Cock-tailed
Fly-catcher. The CATERPILLAR EATERS (_Campephaga_):--The Red
Bird, or Great Pericrocotus. The FLY-SNAPPERS (_Myiagra_). The
PARADISE FLY-CATCHERS:--The Paradise or Royal Fly-snapper.
The FANTAILS (_Rhipidura_):--The Wagtail Fantail. The TRUE
FLY-CATCHERS (_Muscicapa_):--The Grey or Spotted Fly-catcher. The
MOURNING FLY-CATCHERS (_Muscicapa_):--The Black-capped or Pied
Fly-catcher--The Collared or White-necked Fly-catcher--The Dwarf
Fly-catcher. The SILK-TAILS (_Bombycilla_):--The European, or
Common Silk-tail, Bohemian Chatterer, or Wax-wing 158-174

THE MANAKINS (_Pipra_). The ROCK BIRDS (_Rupicola_):--The Cock
of the Rock. The TRUE MANAKINS (_Pipra_). The LONG-TAILED
MANAKINS (_Chiroxiphia_):--The Long-tailed Manakin--The Tije--The
Black-cap Manakin. The PANTHER BIRDS (_Pardalotus_):--The Diamond
Bird. The BALD-HEADED CROWS (_Gymnoderus_):--The Capuchin Bird,
or Bald Fruit Crow--The Umbrella Bird, or Umbrella Chatterer.
The BELL BIRDS (_Chasmarhynchus_):--The Bare-necked Bell
Bird--The Araponga--The True Bell Bird--The Three-wattled Bell
Bird, or Hammerer. The THRUSHES (_Turdidæ_). The GROUND SINGERS
(_Humicola_) 174-185

THE NIGHTINGALES (_Luscinia_):--The Nightingale. The HEDGE
SINGERS, or TREE NIGHTINGALES (_Aëaou_ or _Agrobates_):--The Tree
Nightingale. The BLUE-THROATED WARBLERS (_Cyanecula_)--Swedish
Blue-throat--White-starred Blue-throat. The RUBY NIGHTINGALES
(_Calliope_):--The Calliope of Kamschatka. The Robin Redbreast
186-193

THE WARBLERS (_Monticola_). The REDSTARTS (_Ruticilla_):--The
Black-capped Redstart--The Garden Redstart. The MEADOW WARBLERS
(_Pratincola_):--The Brown-throated Meadow Warbler--The
Black-throated Meadow Warbler. The CLIPPERS (_Ephthianura_):--The
Wagtail Clipper. The CHATS (_Saxicola_):--The Fallow Chat, or
Wheatear--The Eared Stone Chat and Black-throated Stone Chat.
The RUNNING WARBLERS (_Dromolæa_):--The White-tailed Wheatear.
The STONE THRUSHES, or ROCK WAGTAILS (_Petrocincla_):--The
Stone Thrush, or Rock Wagtail--The Blue Rock Wagtail, or Blue
Thrush--The Bush Warbler 193-204

THE THRUSHES (_Turdus_):--The Red-winged Thrush--The Red-throated
Thrush--The Pale Thrush--The Siberian Thrush--The Wandering
Thrush--The Hermit Thrush--Wilson's Thrush--Swainson's
Thrush--Dwarf Thrush--The Soft-feathered Thrush--The
Black-throated Thrush--The Ground Thrush--The Missel Thrush--The
Song Thrush--The Fieldfare, or Juniper Thrush--The Redwing--The
Ring Ouzel, or Ring Thrush--The Blackbird, Black Thrush, or
Merle. The MOCKING THRUSHES (_Mimus_):--The Mimic Thrush, or
Mocking Bird--The Ferruginous Mocking Bird, or Thrasher--The
Cat Bird. The BABBLERS, or NOISY THRUSHES (_Timalia_):--The
Grey Bird--Le Vaillant's Grey Bird. The TRUE BABBLERS
(_Timalia_):--The Red-headed Babbler. The HOOK-CLAWED BABBLERS
(_Crateropus_):--The White-rumped Babbler. The LAUGHING THRUSHES
(_Garrulax_):--The White-tufted Laughing Thrush 204-223

THE WATER OUZELS (_Cinclus_):--The Water Ouzel, or Dipper--The
American Water Ouzel. The PITTAS, or PAINTED THRUSHES
(_Pitta_):--The Nurang--The Pulih--The Noisy Pitta--The ANT
THRUSHES (_Myiothera_):--The Fire Eye--The Ant King--The Tapacolo
or Tualo 223-232

THE LYRE BIRD (_Menura superba_) 232-237

THE WARBLERS (_Sylvia_). The SONG WARBLERS (_Sylvia_). The
TRUE SONG WARBLERS (_Curruca_):--The Sparrow-hawk Warbler--The
Orpheus Warbler--The Greater Pettichaps, or Garden Warbler--The
Lesser Whitethroat--The Capirote, or Black-cap--The White
Throat--The Spectacled Warbler--The White-bearded Warbler--The
Fire-eyed Warbler--Rüppell's Warbler--The Black-headed Fire-eyed
Warbler--The Sardinian Fire-eyed Black-head--The Provence
Fire-eyed Warbler, or Dartford Warbler. The TREE WARBLERS
(_Phylloscopus_):--The Field Tree Warbler, or Willow Wren. The
LEAF WRENS (_Reguloides_):--The Leaf Wren. The GARDEN WARBLERS
(_Hypolais_):--The Melodious Willow Wren--The Chiff-Chaff--The
Ashy Garden Warbler. The MARSH WARBLERS (_Calamodytæ_). The REED
WARBLERS (_Acrocephalus_):--The True Reed Warbler. The SEDGE
WARBLERS (_Calamodus_):--The Sedge Warbler. The GRASSHOPPER
WARBLERS (_Locustella_):--The Grasshopper Warbler. The BUSH
WARBLERS (_Drymoica_):--The Pinc-Pinc. The TAILOR BIRDS
(_Orthotomus_):--The Long-tailed Tailor Bird--The Emu Wren 237-269

THE WRENS (_Troglodytæ_):--The Common Wren. The MARSH WRENS
(_Thryothorus_):--The Carolina Wren--The House Wren--The
Flute-player 269-274

THE PIPITS (_Anthus_):--The Meadow Pipit, or Meadow Titling--The
Tree Pipit--The Rock Pipit, Shore Pipit, or Sea Titling--The
Stone Pipit, or Fallow-land Pipit. The SPURRED PIPITS
(_Corydalla_):--Richard's Spurred Pipit 274-282

THE WAGTAILS (_Motacilla_):--The White Wagtail--The Pied
Wagtail--The Dhobin--The Rock Wagtail--The Mountain Wagtail. The
SHEEP WAGTAILS (_Budytes_):--The Cow or Meadow Wagtail--Ray's
Wagtail--The Velvet-headed or Sheep Wagtail--The Yellow-headed
Wagtail--The Gomarita, or Garden Wagtail. The SWALLOW WAGTAILS
(_Enicurus_):--The MENINTING 282-292

THE ACCENTORS (_Accentor_). The HEDGE SPARROWS, or HEDGE WARBLERS
(_Tharraleus_, or _Accentor_):--The Hedge Sparrow, or Hedge
Warbler--The Siberian Accentor--The Alpine Accentor 292-296

THE TITS (_Parus_). The CRESTED WRENS or KINGLETS
(_Regulus_):--The Golden-crested Wren--The Dalmatian Wren--The
Fire-crested Wren--The Satrap Crowned Wren--The Ruby Crowned
Wren. The _Penduline Titmice_ (_Ægithalus_):--The True Penduline
Titmouse. The REED TITMICE (_Panurus_):--The Bearded Titmouse.
The LONG-TAILED TITS (_Orites_):--The Long-tailed Titmouse. The
CRESTED TITS (_Lophophanes_):--The Crested Tit--The Toupet Tit.
The WOOD TITS (_Parus_):--The Great Tit--The Sombre Tit--The Cole
Tit. The BLUE TITS:--The Blue Tit--The Azure Tit--The Siberian
Tit--The Marsh Tit--The Carolina Titmouse--The Black-cap Titmouse
296-320

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

COLOURED PLATES.

PLATE XI.--THE ANGOLA VULTURE.

" XII.--THE JAVA OWL.

" XIII.--THE TAWNY GOATSUCKER.

" XIV.--THE RED-BACKED SHRIKE.

" XV.--THE PURPLE-CRESTED CORYTHAIX.

" XVI.--EGGS.

" XVII.--EGGS.

" XVIII.--THE NIGHTINGALE.

" XIX.--THE AZURE PITTA.

" XX.--THE ORONOKO CORACINA.

WOOD ENGRAVINGS.

FIG. PAGE

1. The Gos Hawk (_Astur palumbarius_) 4

2. Eagles 8

3. The Golden Eagle (_Aquila chrysaëtos_) 12

4. The Imperial Eagle (_Aquila imperialis_) 13

5. Bold Wedge-tailed Eagles (_Uroaëtos audax_) 16

6. The Tufted Eagle (_Lophoaëtos occipitalis_) 20

7. The Harpy Eagle (_Harpyia destructor_) 24

8. The Sea Eagle (_Haliaëtos albicilla_) 25

9. The White-headed Sea Eagle (_Haliaëtos leucocephalus_) 28

10. The African Screaming Sea Eagle (_Haliaëtos
vocifer_) 29

11. The Short-tailed Kite (_Helotarsus ecaudatus_) 33

12. The Parasite Kite (_Hydroictinia parasitica_) 40

13. The Red or Royal Kite (_Milvus regalis_) 41

14. The Swallow-tailed Kite (_Nauclerus furcatus_) 42

15. The Reed Kite or Marsh Harrier (_Circus rufus_) 45

16. The Snake Buzzard (_Circaëtos brachydactylus_,
or _Circaëtos Gallicus_) 48

17. The Common or Mouse Buzzard (_Buteo vulgaris_) 53

18. The Carancho or Traro (_Polyborus vulgaris_ or
_Brasiliensis_) 60

19. Track across the Pampas 61

20. The Secretary, or Crane Vulture (_Gypogeranus
serpentarius_) 64

21. Vultures feasting 65

22. The Bearded Vulture, or Lämmergeier (_Gypaëtos
barbatus_) 68

23. The Condor (_Sarcorhamphus gryphus_, or _Sarcorhamphus
condor_) 72

24. The King of the Vultures (_Sarcorhamphus
papa_) 73

25. The Tawny Goose Vulture (_Gyps fulvus_) 76

26. The Monk Vulture (_Neophron pileatus_) 79

27. African Vultures (_Gyps fulvus_) 80

28. The Scavenger, or Egyptian Vulture (_Percnopterus
stercorarius_, or _Neophron Percnopterus_) 81

29. The Urubu (_Cathartes aura_) 83

30. The Snow Owl (_Nyctea nivea_) 88

31. The Stone Owl (_Athene noctua_) 89

32. The Uhu at bay 92

33. The Uhu (_Bubo maximus_) 93

34. The Virginian Uhu (_Bubo Virginianus_) 96

35. The Marsh Owl (_Otus brachyotus_) 97

36. The Tree Owl (_Syrnium aluco_) 100

37. The Barn Owl (_Strix flammea_) 101

38. Tail-piece 103

39. The Chimney Swallow (_Cecropis Hirundo rustica_) 105

40. The Thread-tailed Swallow (_Cecropis Uromitus
filifera_) 108

41. The Martin (_Chelidon urbica_) 109

42. The Ariel (_Chelidon Ariel_) 113

43. The Klecho (_Dendrochelidon Klecho_) 116

44. Salanganes 117

45. The White-throated Prickly-tailed Swift
(_Acanthylis caudacuta_) 120

46. The Steeple Swift (_Cypselus apus_) 121

47. The European Goatsucker (_Caprimulgus Europæus_) 128

48. The Whip-poor-Will (_Antrostomus vociferus_) 129

49. The Lyre-tailed Night Jar (_Hydropsalis forcipata_) 130

50. The Oil Bird (_Steatornis Caripensis_) 133

51. The True Dwarf Owl Swallow (_Ægotheles
Novæ Hollandiæ_) 137

52. The Giant Owl Swallow (_Podargus humeralis_) 139

53. The Sentinel Butcher Bird (_Lanius Excubitor_) 144

54. Butcher Bird and Fly-catchers 145

55. The Falcon Shrike (_Falcunculus frontatus_) 148

56. The Flute Shrike (_Laniarius Æthiopicus_) 149

57. The Helmet Shrike (_Prionops poliocephalus_) 152

58. The Magpie Shrike (_Cracticus destructor_) 153

59. The True Tyrant Shrike, King Bird, or Tyrant
Fly-catcher (_Tyrannus intrepidus_) 160

60. The Scissor Bird (_Milvulus tyrannus_) 161

61. The Paradise Fly-catchers (_Tersiphone paradisea_) 165

62. The Collared or White-necked Fly-catcher
(_Musicapa albicollis_) 172

63. The Silk-tail, Bohemian Chatterer, or Wax-wing
(_Bombycilla garrula_) 173

64. The Cock of the Rock (_Rupicola crocea_) 176

65. The Diamond Bird (_Pardalotus punctatus_) 179

66. The Capuchin Bird, or Bald Fruit Crow (_Gymnocephalus
calvus_) 180

67. The Umbrella Bird, or Umbrella Chatterer
(_Cephalopterus ornatus_) 181

68. The Nightingale (_Luscinia Philomela_) 185

69. The Swedish Blue-throat (_Cyanecula Suecica_) 189

70. The Robin Redbreast (_Erythaca rubecula_, or
_Rubecula silvestris_) 192

71. The Garden Redstart (_Ruticilla phœnicura_, or
_Phœnicura ruticilla_) 193

72. The Black-throated Meadow Warbler (_Pratincola
rubicola_) 196

73. The Wheatear (_Saxicola œnanthe_) 197

74. The Eared Stone Chat (_Saxicola aurita_) 200

75. The Stone Thrush, or Rock Wagtail (_Petrocincla
Turdus saxatilis_) 201

76. The Bush Warbler (_Thamnolæa albiscapulata_) 204

77. The Song Thrush (_Turdus musicus_) 208

78. Fieldfares 209

79. The Redwing (_Turdus iliacus_) 210

80. The Blackbird (_Turdus merula_) 212

81. The Mocking Bird (_Mimus polyglottus_) 213

82. The Cat Bird (_Galeoscoptes Carolinensis_) 217

83. The Grey Bird (_Pycnonotus arsinoë_) 219

84. The White-rumped Babbler (_Crateropus leucopygius_) 221

85. The White-tufted Laughing Thrush (_Garrulax
leucolophus_) 222

86. Water Ouzels and Kingfisher 224

87. The Water Ouzel, or Dipper (_Cinclus aquaticus_) 225

88. The Tapacolo (_Pteroptochus megapodius_) 232

89. The Lyre Bird (_Menura superba_) 233

90. The Sparrow-hawk Warbler (_Curruca nisoria_) 239

91. The Orpheus Warbler (_Curruca Orphea_) 241

92. The White Throat (_Curruca cinerea_) 245

93. The Spectacled Warbler (_Curruca conspicillata_) 248

94. The Field Tree Warbler, or Willow Wren
(_Phyllopneuste Trochilus_) 253

95. The Chiff-Chaff (_Hippolais rufa_) 256

96. The Reed Warbler (_Acrocephalus turdoides_) 257

97. The Sedge Warbler (_Calamodus phragmitis_) 260

98. The Long-tailed Tailor Bird (_Orthotomus longicauda_) 265

99. The Emu Wren (_Stipiturus malachurus_) 268

100. The Common Wren (_Troglodytes parvulus_) 269

101. The Tree Pipit (_Anthus arboreus_) 276

102. The Rock Pipit (_Anthus petrosus_) 277

103. The Fallow-land Pipit (_Agrodroma campestris_) 280

104. Wren and Wagtails 281

105. The White Wagtail (_Motacilla alba_) 284

106. The Mountain Wagtail (_Calobates sulphurea_) 288

107. The Meninting (_Enicurus coronatus_) 293

108. The Alpine Accentor (_Accentor Alpinus_) 296

109. The Golden crested Wren (_Regulus vulgaris_,
_flavicapillus_, or _auricapillus_) 300

110. Bearded and Penduline Tits 304

111. The Long-tailed Titmouse (_Orites caudatus_) 308

112. The Great Tit (_Parus major_) 313

_CASSELL'S_
BOOK OF BIRDS.

CATCHERS (_Captantes_).--Continued.

THE HAWKS.

THE HAWKS (_Accipitres_) are a group of birds that rival the Falcons in rapacity, but are entirely without those qualities popularly supposed to lend a certain nobility to the murderous propensities of their more favoured relatives.

The HAWKS are recognisable by their compact body, long neck, and small head, their short rounded wings, very long tail, and high tarsi; the toes vary considerably in size. The beak is less vaulted and more compressed at its sides than in the Falcons; the tooth-like appendages are placed further back, and are less distinctly developed, and the bare circle around the eye is entirely wanting. The plumage is thick and soft, usually dark blueish grey above, and of a lighter shade upon the lower parts of the body, the latter being often darkly striped. Old birds of both sexes are alike in plumage, but the young differ considerably from their parents. The members of this family are found throughout the whole world, some species being confined to a comparatively limited extent of country, whilst others are to be met with everywhere. All frequent woods and forests, from whence they sally forth to find their food in the fields and valleys of the surrounding country. Hawks seldom fly to any great altitude; they move with great rapidity, altering their course at once with the utmost facility, and passing in and out among the branches and bushes with the dexterity of a Martin; they run swiftly upon the ground, assisting their progress with their wings. Their eyrie is usually built upon high trees, and is by some species prettily decked with green twigs, which are renewed from time to time. The eggs are numerous, and during the period of incubation the parent birds will fiercely attack even men should they attempt to molest the brood. Some few species have been trained for hunting purposes, but these attempts have almost always proved unsuccessful.

THE LAUGHING HAWK.

The LAUGHING HAWK (_Herpetotheres cachinnans_) is a South American bird, to which we have assigned the first place, inasmuch as in some respects it resembles the Falcons; the name it bears has been given to it on account of the very peculiar sound of its loud and resonant voice. Its distinguishing characteristics are its comparatively large head, which is profusely covered with feathers, and the robust development of the hinder parts of its body. The wings when closed reach to the middle of the tail, their primaries are narrow and pointed, the third and fourth quills being longer than the rest; the tail is long, the exterior feathers somewhat shortened; the tarsi are of moderate height and strength, the toes small, and the claws remarkably short and thick; the beak is short, much compressed at its sides, and terminates in a short hook; the lower mandible is shallow, and bifurcated at its tip; the region of the eye is bare, and the body covered with long-pointed and strong-shafted feathers. In size the Laughing Hawk resembles its European congeners; the plumage is pale yellow from the top of the head to the nape, each feather having a black shaft; the bridles, nape, and cheeks are black, the mantle brown, the feathers being bordered with a lighter shade; the entire lower portion of the body and a stripe upon the neck are white, which changes into red upon the breast and legs; the upper part of the tail is black, its under portion whitish yellow, tipped with white and ornamented with six or seven grey stripes; the inner web of the brown quills which form the wings is shaded from reddish yellow to white, and edged with a delicate irregular brown line; the eye is reddish yellow, the beak black, the cere and legs are yellow.

THE DOUBLE-TOOTHED HAWK.

The DOUBLE-TOOTHED HAWK (_Harpagus bidentatus_) resembles the Falcons in its general form, but is recognisable by its comparatively small head, long broad tail, and short wings. The beak is very peculiar in its construction, the upper portion being excised immediately behind the hook at its tip, and the lower mandible, which terminates abruptly, has near its extremity two sharp teeth at each side; the third quill of the wings is longer than the rest, the tarsi are short, and of the same length as the toes. This bird, of which there are two species, is only found in South America.

The _Guaviao_, as the Double-toothed Hawk is called by the Brazilians, is thirteen and a half inches long and twenty-six inches broad; the wing measures eight inches, and the tail six inches. The plumage upon the upper part of the body is blackish grey, embellished with a metallic lustre; the under portions are reddish brown, with narrow white stripes upon the throat; the rump is also white, the quills of the wings are brown, ornamented with an irregular border, which is pure white upon the inner web; the tail is black above, brown beneath, and marked with three broad and crooked lines; the eye is light carmine, the cere greenish yellow, the beak blackish grey, and the feet of a beautiful reddish yellow. The plumage of the young is brown above and white beneath, delicately marked with undulating brown lines of various shades.

THE SPARROW HAWK.

The SPARROW HAWK (_Nisus communis_) is the European representative of a very numerous group distributed throughout the world. These birds (see Coloured Plate IX.) are distinguished by their elongated body, small head, and delicate beak, furnished with a very sharp hook at the extremity of the upper mandible; the wings are short, tail long, and short at its tip; the tarsi are high and weak, the toes long and slender, and armed with extremely sharp claws. The plumage varies but little in its colour. This species is about one foot long, and two broad; the wing measures seven inches and two-thirds, and the tail six inches; the female is about three inches longer and five inches broader than her mate. In the full-grown bird the entire upper portion of the body is blackish grey, the under parts are white, marked with undulating reddish brown lines; the shafts of the feathers are also of the latter hue, and brighter in colour in the male than in the female; the tail is tipped with white, and has five or six black stripes. In the young birds the upper portion of the body is a greyish brown, beneath the throat white, striped with brown; the belly and legs are ornamented with irregular spots, the beak is blue, the cere yellow, the iris golden yellow, and the feet pale yellow.

The Sparrow Hawk inhabits the whole of Europe and Central Asia; it is stationary in some parts of the latter continent, but migrates from Europe as winter approaches, and seeks a warmer climate in Northern Africa or India, appearing, according to Jerdon, in the latter country about the beginning of October, and leaving about February or March. This species makes its home principally in woodland districts, preferring such regions as are mountainous or hilly, and is more numerous in the central portions of Europe than in the extreme south. Despite the shortness of its wings, the Sparrow Hawk flies with ease and rapidity, but when upon the ground it hops in the most ungainly manner. Towards such of its feathered brethren as are larger than itself it exhibits no trace of fear, and pounces upon its prey with a dexterity and courage that will bear comparison with the demeanour of the noblest of its congeners. In these encounters, the female bird has decidedly the advantage over her mate, and can bear the brunt of a battle to which his strength would be quite inadequate. Instances have been recorded in which this Hawk has been so eager in the pursuit of its prey as to follow the victim even into a house or wagon, and we lately heard of one darting into a railway carriage when in rapid motion in order to secure its prize. Birds of all sizes, including domestic fowls, are boldly attacked; Naumann mentions having even seen a Sparrow Hawk swoop down and fasten itself upon the back of a Heron. Small quadrupeds are devoured by these birds in great numbers, and they will sometimes stoop upon hares, but whether this is done with any hope of overcoming them, or merely for pleasure, we have not been able to ascertain. In so much dread is this formidable enemy held by the objects of its attack, that on its approach some birds will throw themselves as though dead upon the ground; others will make for their hiding-place with such devious turnings from the direct path as baffle even the skilful steering of their pursuer, and then dart into the inmost recesses of some protecting bush, and thus place themselves for the time in safety. Such of the swift-flying smaller birds as do not hold the Sparrow Hawk in dread, avenge themselves by following it boldly with loud cries whenever it appears; and so annoying does this reception prove to the tyrant of the woodland, that on the approach of some species of Swallows, whose flight is too rapid to admit of revenge, it will soar at once high into the air and beat a hasty retreat to its forest glades. The prey of the Sparrow Hawk is usually conveyed to some quiet spot to be devoured at leisure; the large quills are then pulled out and the carcase devoured piecemeal, the indigestible portions, such as bones, feathers, and hair, being subsequently ejected from the mouth, collected into large balls called castings; it also frequently destroys the eggs and young of such birds as make their nests upon the ground. The voice of this species is but seldom heard except during the breeding season. The nest, which is placed in some thicket at no great elevation, is built of small branches of fir, birch, or pine trees, and the slight hollow that forms the bed for the young is lined with down from the body of the female parent. The eggs, from three to five in number, are large, and very various both in shape, colour, and size; the shell is thick, smooth, white, or greyish or greenish white, and more or less distinctly marked with spots of reddish brown or greyish blue, sometimes lying thickly together and sometimes very sparsely scattered over the surface. The female alone sits upon the eggs, and testifies the utmost solicitude and affection for her young brood, retaining her seat upon the nest in spite of repeated alarms, and doing battle with all intruders. Both parents seek the food necessary for the young family, though the female only is capable of preparing morsels delicate enough for the tender beaks of the nestlings, who, we are told, occasionally perish from hunger should they lose their mother and be left to the more clumsy ministrations of the male bird. The young are fed and instructed long after they have left the nest. Most numerous are the dangers to which the European Sparrow Hawk is exposed, for not only men, but all such birds as are more powerful than itself pursue it with unextinguishable hatred and animosity; in some parts of Asia, on the contrary, it is regarded with favour, owing to the facility with which it can be trained to hunt the smaller kinds of game, particularly Quails; in the southern districts of the Ural, according to Eversmann, large numbers caught in the summer are trained for this purpose, and after having been employed during the autumn are again let loose in order to avoid the difficulty of keeping them through the winter months. The female alone is reared for the chase, the male, when captured, being allowed to fly again, as useless. In India this bird and another species are regarded with equal favour, and are employed by the native falconers in the pursuit of Partridges, Quails, Snipes, Pigeons, and Minas.

THE TRUE HAWK, OR GOS HAWK.

The TRUE HAWK, or GOS HAWK (_Aster palumbarius_) resembles the Sparrow Hawk in many of its features, but differs from that bird in the compactness of its body, and in the strength of its beak; the tail is rounded, the feet powerful, and the plumage peculiarly marked. This Hawk is about one foot and three-quarters in length, and three feet and a half across; the wing measures twelve inches, and the tail eight and a half; the female is five inches longer and six inches broader than her mate. The plumage upon the upper part of the body is blackish brown, more or less shaded with greyish blue; the lower portions are white, the shafts of the feathers being brownish black, as are the undulating lines with which they are ornamented; the beak is greyish brown, the cere, eyes, and feet pale yellow. In young birds the upper portion of the body is brown, each feather being bordered and spotted with reddish yellow; the lower parts are of a reddish shade, and at a later period of a reddish white, marked with longitudinal brown streaks; the beak, eyes, cere, and feet are paler than in the adult.

The habitat of the Gos Hawk is as extensive as that of the Sparrow Hawk; it is found in great numbers in northern countries, and in some districts may be regarded as stationary; in Southern Europe it is extremely rare, and, according to our own observation, is seldom met with in Northern Africa or India. Wooded country, interspersed with fields and valleys, afford it the localities it prefers, and it is much more numerous in extensive forests than in comparatively small woods. In its habits this species is eminently unsocial, living almost invariably alone, except during the breeding season; its disposition is cunning, wild, and violent, and its movements active and powerful. When upon the wing, it may be seen hovering from time to time, and then rushing down upon its prey with noisy impetuosity; in making a swoop it cleaves the air with great force, the tail at these times being partly outspread. In the air the Gos-Hawk is completely master of its movements, and steers its course with imposing majesty; whilst upon the ground, on the contrary, its gait is awkward and ungainly, its step being a sort of lame hop. Its voice consists of a variety of sounds, but is rarely heard; it is loud, resonant, and extremely unpleasing. So rapacious is this formidable bird, that its destructive attacks are repeated almost without intermission during the entire day on birds of all sizes, and even rabbits, squirrels, and water-fowl may be numbered among its victims, the prey being seized with equal facility either when running, flying, or swimming; some of the smaller quadrupeds are so completely paralysed with fear at the approach of their destroyer that they crouch down incapable of moving a limb, while the Hawk swoops down upon them with wings almost closed and talons outspread, producing as it descends a rushing sound, that may be heard above a hundred paces from the spot. Remarkable anecdotes are cited by reliable writers of the extreme cunning and intelligence of these birds when strength proves unavailing. Count Wodzicki tells of a sagacious Hawk that, when all other means had failed by which it hoped to seize upon some tempting but wary pigeons, at length decided upon perching motionless upon a branch, with neck drawn in, so as to simulate an owl; the _ruse_ completely succeeded, for the birds, fearing nothing from the huge but helpless looking creature, ventured out and were seized with a rapidity from which escape was hopeless. The same author mentions an instance of a trick played upon another flock of pigeons, in which very different means were adopted; the Hawk in this case, finding that its hoped-for prey utterly refused to come out and allow themselves to be caught, at last alighted upon the dove-cot, and beat and stamped upon it with such violence that the terrified inhabitants were fairly driven from their retreat. Audubon mentions having seen a Hawk kill five Blackbirds in succession as a flock was passing the Ohio, the victims being successively thrown down upon the water until the destroyer had time to collect them at his leisure; this latter feat was accomplished by a series of very dexterous movements, and the booty safely deposited upon dry land. The extraordinary rapacity of the Hawk fully accounts for its unsocial habits; it would, in fact, be impossible for these birds to live together; no relation of life appears to excite any natural feeling, even parents, devour their offspring with the most revolting cruelty--indeed, so great is their ferocity, that although provided with abundance of other food, they cannot restrain their murderous propensities, if brought in contact with birds even of their own species. Such of the feathered denizens of the forest as are sufficiently swift of wing to be able to elude the Gos Hawk, pursue it fearlessly, and chase it with rude cries whenever it appears; Crows and Swallows are particularly addicted to this most harassing mode of avenging the wrongs of their more helpless companions.

The eyrie of this species is large and shallow, built of green fir or pine branches, which are added to or renewed from time to time; the bed for the young is lined with down stripped from the parent birds. Old and high trees are usually preferred for building purposes, the nest being placed on a large branch near the main stem; year after year a pair of Hawks will return to the same spot, at each visit making such repairs as the eyrie requires, and renewing the green branches. The eggs, two to four in number, are large, long, and very wide towards the middle; the shell is thick, rough, of a greenish-white colour, and either entirely unmarked, or spotted with yellow; the female alone sits, but both parents guard the nest with jealous care, often attacking men, or even horses should they approach too near. The young grow very quickly, and are so voracious that the eyrie often looks like a slaughter-house, the parents having as much to do as they can manage in catering for their clamorous family, whose greed is so excessive that they will often fall upon and destroy each other when too impatient to await a fresh supply of food. Many and various are the means employed to clear the country of these destructive birds, but all attempts prove inadequate to cope with the extreme cunning and sagacity which they display on the approach of danger. In some parts of Asia their worst qualities are the points on which the favour of the native falconers is grounded, and by them these birds are prized as unrivalled for the purposes of the chase; they even employ them in the pursuit of such large game as hares. When about to hunt large animals, the legs of the Hawk are carefully covered with a kind of leather gaiters, to defend them when dragged through bushes and brambles, as their intended victim endeavours to escape from its clutch; seldom, however, does it succeed, for the bird holds firmly on with one foot, keeping the other raised to clear aside the branches, or get a firm grasp upon a bush, and thus arrest the progress of its quarry when the proper moment arrives.

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The SINGING HAWKS (_Melierax_) are an African group, differing somewhat in shape from their European relatives. Their body is more slender, the beak less powerful, and the wings longer than in the races hitherto described; the tail is rounded at its extremity; the tarsi are strong and high, and the feet provided with comparatively short claws.

THE TRUE SINGING HAWK.

The TRUE SINGING HAWK (_Melierax musicus_), as the largest member of this group is called, inhabits Southern Africa, and is replaced in the central portions of that continent by another species (_Melierax polygonus_), closely resembling it in appearance, though somewhat smaller. In the latter the plumage on the upper part of the body, throat, and upper breast, is slate-coloured; the belly, wings, hose, and large wing-covers are white, striped with delicate grey zig-zag markings. The quills are brownish black, the tail-feathers of a paler shade, the latter are tipped with white, and striped three times with a crooked white line; the iris is of a beautiful brown, the beak dark blue, the cere and feet bright orange. The length of this bird is about one foot seven inches, its breadth three feet two inches; the wing measures eleven inches and two-thirds, the tail eight inches and one-third. The female is about one inch and a half longer and two inches broader than her mate. The plumage of the young is brown above, and upon the belly and breast white striped across with light brown; the sides of the head and a line over the breast are of the latter colour. The first-mentioned species is similar in its colour and markings. Le Vaillant, who first described these remarkable Hawks, tells us that they are numerous in Caffraria, where they usually frequent the widely scattered trees, and subsist principally upon hares, partridges, quails, rats, mice, or similar fare. The nest is large, and contains four pure white eggs. Le Vaillant has given the name of Singing Hawk to the species, from an extraordinary fact of which he assures us he had personal experience, namely, that they are capable of pouring out a flow of song, and sometimes continue their vocal exercise for hours together. For our own part we have never heard one of these birds sing, and therefore must abstain from either depreciating or maintaining this statement; but similar species, carefully observed by ourselves, in the more northern parts of Africa, were capable of nothing but a prolonged whistle or piping scream. In appearance alone do these Hawks bear any resemblance to their European congeners; in their habits they are dull, extremely indolent, and entirely incapable of the daring exploits that render other members of their race so formidable; it is by no means uncommon for them to sit for hours together dozing upon a tree, or lazily scanning the surrounding country almost too idly even to note the prey they might easily secure. When in the air their movements resemble in some respects those of our Hawk, but are entirely without the precision and rapidity which render that bird so terrible an opponent. Whilst perched among the branches their appearance is ungainly, as they squat motionless with head drawn in, staring fixedly at one particular spot. According to our own experience, they devour toads, grasshoppers, and various kinds of insects in great numbers; Hartmann tells us that they will also eat lizards. The prey is usually pounced upon as it goes down to the water to drink, yet even then, so slow and apathetic is this bird in its behaviour, that an attempt to seize the victim often proves abortive. We are entirely destitute of particulars as to the incubation of this species.

THE SERPENT HAWK.

The SERPENT HAWK (_Polyboroides typicus_) is a very remarkable member of the Hawk family, inhabiting the same parts of Africa as the bird last mentioned; a very similar species is also met with in Madagascar. The Serpent Hawk is recognisable by the smallness of its head and body, bare cheeks, slender beak, and enormous wings; the tail is long, broad, and slightly rounded; the tarsi high and thin, and the toes small. The plumage is dark greyish blue upon the upper portion of the body, front of neck, and breast; the primary quills are black, the upper secondaries grey, with a black spot near the tip; the tail-feathers are black tipped with white, and have a broad white streak across the middle. The belly, hose, and tail-covers are white, delicately marked with black. The eye is brown, the beak black, the feet lemon colour, the cere and bare patches round the eyes pale yellow. The male bird is one foot eleven inches and a half long, and four feet four inches across the span of the wings; these latter are sixteen and the tail eleven inches in length; the tarsus measures three inches and a quarter, and the middle toe not more than one and a half.

This species is met with throughout the woodland districts of Eastern Soudan, where it frequents such localities as are in the immediate vicinity of water, as it there finds in abundance the reptiles on which it principally subsists. The manner in which this Hawk obtains its prey is very remarkable, as it is enabled to draw its victims from their holes by the aid of a most curious contrivance; the tarsus is so constructed as to allow the foot to be turned in all directions, backwards as well as to the sides, and the claws being comparatively small, the leg can be introduced through a very narrow aperture; it is then moved rapidly into every recess and cranny of the hole, to the inevitable discovery of its helpless occupant. The Serpent Hawks rarely pass much time upon the wing, and, indeed, do little more than fly from one tree to another, exhibiting in all their habits that sluggish and unsocial temperament common to most reptile-eating birds; they live for the most part alone, and spend their time in perching lazily on a bough, or flitting from tree to tree. Verreaux tells us that they will sometimes pursue small birds or quadrupeds.

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The succeeding families of RAPTORIAL BIRDS are distinguished by the circumstance that, although they pursue and kill living prey, they will likewise occasionally eat carrion; in order, however, to make the arrangement of this heterogeneous multitude at all clear to the general reader, we must subdivide them into several different groups.

THE EAGLES.

THE EAGLES (_Aquilæ_) are distinguishable by the following characteristics: their body is stoutly and compactly built, their head is of moderate size and entirely covered with feathers, and the beak, which is straight to a considerable distance from its base, terminates in a curve or hook; the upper mandible is without teeth, but is slightly waved at its sides; the cere is bare, the tarsi are of moderate size, strong, and more or less covered with feathers, extending in some cases down to the toes; these latter are very powerful, often of great length, and armed with large, much curved, and sharply pointed talons. The wings of some species reach as far as the end of the tail, in others no farther than its root; in all they are rounded at the tip, the fourth and fifth quills being longer than the rest; the tail is long, broad, and either rounded or straight at its extremity. The plumage consists of large and usually pointed feathers, rich in texture, often very soft, but occasionally coarse and harsh. One of the distinguishing features in the plumage of the Eagle is that the feathers on the back of the head and nape are either pointed or considerably prolonged. The eye is large and fiery, and the eyebrows very distinctly marked, thus giving an expression of fierceness to the face.

A glance at different members of the Eagle tribe will at once convince us that they do not all belong to the same country or climate. It is true that they are dispersed over the surface of the whole earth, but each species has its appointed district; all, however, avoid the abodes of man, and make their nests in some unfrequented spot. Mountains, forests, sea-coasts, or the banks of lakes or rivers have each their appointed forms, while some species roam at large over the open plains of the countries in which they live. Such members of the family as inhabit the more northern portions of the globe migrate as winter approaches, and pass their lives in sweeping from land to land, except at such times as they are busied with the cares of incubation. In their habits all are unsocial, keeping company rarely even with individuals of their own race, except during their winter journeyings, and suffering no intruder to approach the spot selected as a breeding-place; so strong is this dislike to society that even when several Eagles are attracted by the same prey the companionship is merely in appearance, each bird coming and going without any reference to the movements of the rest. Notwithstanding this unwillingness to join company with others, even of their own species, they are much attached to their mates, each pair living in close companionship throughout their whole lives, and frequently permitting smaller birds to make their nests in close proximity, either regarding them as entirely beneath their notice, or, perhaps, feeling that such despicable morsels are not worth the long and troublesome chase which their pursuit would necessitate. To some members of the Eagle family the name of Hawk Eagles has been assigned, on account of their very decided resemblance to the Hawk, not merely in appearance, but in disposition.

Though unable to cleave the air with the rapidity of the Falcon, the flight of an Eagle is extremely imposing, as it rises with slow and majestic strokes of its large wings, steering its course by the aid of its tail, or hovers for minutes at a time without any apparent effort; when descending to seize its prey its movements are somewhat more rapid, but are not to be compared with the stoop of the Hawk. While upon the ground nothing can be more clumsy than the mode of progression employed by these large birds; they hop, or rather jump, with a most peculiar step, at the same time helping themselves along with their wings; far different is their appearance when they are seen perched with body erect upon some tree, from whence they gaze upon the world beneath with a calm dignity worthy of the royalty not unfrequently assigned to them. The sight of the Eagle is more highly developed than any other sense; it also hears well, and exhibits a marked dislike to any sharp sound. Many wonderful tales have been circulated as to the power of appreciating odours possessed by these birds, but for our own part we consider these accounts as much exaggerated. All the members of the family are intelligent, prudent, in some cases cunning, and they have such an appreciation of their own strength as to impart an air of nobility to their demeanour even towards man himself. When in pursuit, Eagles exhibit great fierceness, and seem to enjoy the full excitement of the chase; even such large quadrupeds as foxes fall victims to their ferocity, and the swiftest inhabitants of the air are not safe from their pursuit; instances are on record in which man himself has had to combat the attacks of these bold and audacious birds.

The eyries built by the various species of Eagles differ but little in appearance; all are exceedingly large, broad, and very shallow. They are formed of boughs, sometimes of considerable thickness, on these are placed smaller branches, and the interior is then padded with twigs upon which the leaves have been left, in order to form a warm bed. These nests are usually constructed upon a tree, or upon some rocky precipice. The breeding season varies according to the climate; the eggs often but one, rarely three in number, are incubated by the female alone. Both parents, however, assist in rearing their progeny, and have been known to fly to a distance of many miles in search of food for their hungry family. The nestlings are tended for some time after they are fully fledged.

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Foremost among the Eagles three species stand pre-eminent, and have been celebrated and dreaded from the most ancient times. These form the group of TRUE EAGLES, and are recognisable by their powerful bodies, large and well-shaped heads, and broad long wings, which reach to the end of the tail; in the wings the fourth quill is longer than the rest; the tail is long, and the legs strong and of moderate height; the beak is large, the upper mandible curves very decidedly from the cere downwards, and bulges outwards at its sides; the eyes, which are of great size, lie partly concealed under the projecting brows; the feet are powerful and of moderate length, the claws large, curved, and sharp. The plumage is rich and soft, and its feathers pointed, those at the back of the head and on the nape being slender and elongated; the tarsi are feathered down to the toes.

Thus far we have described collectively the three species forming the family of True Eagles; but, to avoid confusion, we will now speak of the Tawny, the Golden, and the Imperial Eagles, each under its proper heading.

THE TAWNY EAGLE.

The TAWNY EAGLE (_Aquila fulva_), the largest, strongest, and most compactly built member of the family, is from two and three-quarters to three feet in length, and from six and two-thirds to seven feet in breadth; the wing measures from one foot two inches to two feet, and the tail thirteen or fourteen inches. The largest of these measurements applies to the female bird. When the plumage is in its full beauty, the head and back of the neck are brownish yellow, and the rest of the feathers of a uniform dark brown; the tail is white, striped, or spotted with black at its upper portion, the lower half entirely black; the hose are almost white. Naumann tells that only the two centre tail-feathers are of equal length, those towards the sides being slightly graduated.

THE GOLDEN EAGLE.

The GOLDEN EAGLE (_Aquila chrysaëtos_) is much more slenderly built and has a smaller head than the bird above described, but the wings and tail are longer, and the former do not extend as far as the extremity of the tail. The male is three feet long and seven feet and a quarter across the span of the wings; the wing measures two feet four inches and the tail thirteen inches; the female is three feet two inches in length, and seven feet and a half across. The plumage is lighter than that of the Tawny Eagle, and more of a reddish brown upon the breast, hose, and lower tail-covers; the region of the shoulder is indicated by a white spot; the tail is always brownish grey, marked with irregular crooked black lines, and the black stripes are narrower than in the preceding species. All the feathers that compose the tail are of equal length, except the two outer ones, which are somewhat shortened; the lower part of the wing is always very dark, and often entirely without markings. The plumage of the young is darker, and without the white patch in the shoulder, and the reddish-brown feathers on the back of the head and neck, that characterise the adult bird.

THE IMPERIAL EAGLE.

The IMPERIAL EAGLE (_Aquila imperialis_) is considerably smaller than the preceding, not exceeding two feet and a half to two feet and three-quarters in length; its breadth across the wings is from six to six feet and two-thirds, the wing measures from two, to two feet and a quarter, and the tail from ten, to twelve inches and a half. The female is of the same size as the male Tawny Eagle. The body of this species is compact, and the wings so long that they extend beyond the comparatively short tail. In the adult the plumage is of a dark, somewhat variegated, brown; the head and nape are reddish yellow, and the shoulders are ornamented with a white patch; the tail-feathers are grey, striped with black. The plumage of the young is tawny, marked longitudinally with dark brown. Both the Golden and Tawny Eagles are found throughout all such countries of Europe as possess high mountains or extensive forests, and both are met with in many parts of Asia and North America. The Imperial Eagle, on the contrary, inhabits the south-eastern portion of our continent from Hungary to Mongolia; Jerdon tells us that it not only visits India during its migrations, but breeds there. This last species frequents open tracts of country, whilst the Tawny and Golden Eagles prefer rocky districts, the former always building amongst the mountain fastnesses, and the latter occasionally making her eyrie among the branches of one of the gigantic trees of the forest. The Imperial Eagle also makes its nest upon trees, and often at no great distance from the abodes of man. All these birds have many habits in common; they commence their pursuit of prey long after the sun rises, and confine their excursions within the limits of a certain district. Both mates hunt together, but the possession of some delicate morsel which one or other refuses to share with its companion is often a cause of strife between them. The chase lasts till noon, when they retire to rest in some quiet spot, and remain perched with drooping plumage, but with ever watchful eye, whilst the work of digestion is going on. When this period of repose is over they fly in search of water, not only drinking largely, but bathing in the cooling stream. The afternoon is passed in the same manner as the morning; and the early part of the evening is spent in soaring and floating through the air, till darkness has closed around, when the wary couples quietly retire to their safe and often unapproachable sleeping-places. The force with which these enormous birds clutch their prey is so violent that the entrance of a Golden Eagle's claws into the sides of its victim can be distinctly heard, and its flesh is often partially devoured before life is extinct.

Many tales are told of Eagles having carried off young children, and we know instances in which they have attacked man himself. Naumann mentions an amusing example that came under his own notice, a Tawny Eagle in his possession having been captured under the following circumstances:--This rash and hungry bird, he tells us, was tempted to seize upon a fine fat pig as it ran about its native village; but the pig was so obstinate as to appear by no means inclined to leave this world quietly, and uttered such piercing cries as brought a passer-by to its assistance. The peasant succeeded in dislodging the Eagle, who, however, determined not to be entirely baffled, pounced upon a cat that was contemplating the struggle, and flew with pussy to a neighbouring hedge. Exasperated at this second attack, the man rushed into a cottage, seized a loaded gun, and returned in the hope of saving the second victim; but no sooner did the Eagle observe the approach of this disturber of its quiet enjoyment than it darted upon him and attacked him with such fury that he was with difficulty saved by the people who ran in answer to his cries for help, and at last succeeded in taking the bird prisoner.