Chapter XVIII: Part 18

The COMMON WREN (_Troglodytes parvulus_) is about four inches long, and from five inches and a half to six inches broad; the wing measures an inch and three-quarters and the tail about an inch and a half. Upon the upper portion of the body the plumage is reddish brown, streaked with pale black; the under side is paler, marked with undulating dark brown lines; a brown cheek-stripe passes across the eyes, and a narrow brownish white line above them. The centre feathers in the wing-covers are decorated with oval white patches, touched with black; the quills are deepish grey on the inner web, and on the outer alternately spotted or streaked with reddish yellow and black; the tail-feathers are reddish brown, lightest at the edges, and marked with undulating dark brown lines; the eye is brown; the beak and feet reddish grey. The female is paler than her mate, and the young have more spots on the under side, and fewer on the back, than the old birds. The Wren inhabits all parts of the continent of Europe, from Northern Scandinavia to the most southern confines of Spain and Greece; in the Faroë Islands it is replaced by a very similar but much larger species (_Troglodytes borealis_); and another but more spotted variety (_Troglodytes Naumanni_) is met with in some parts of Central Europe. In North-western Africa and Asia Minor it is also common, but is, we believe, never seen in other parts of Asia. Such as inhabit India are nearly allied but not identical species. Like most members of its family, the Common Wren is lively and social, constantly seeking the immediate vicinity of man. Its song consists of a great variety of clear piping notes, intermingled with numerous trills, and is poured out with an energy and power that appear really astonishing, if we consider the small dimensions of the little singer. Throughout almost the entire year this cheerful music is to be heard; no inclemency of weather appears to daunt the brisk but diminutive vocalist, who carols forth his joyful anticipations of the coming spring, even when the snow-covered ground renders it impossible for him to procure a sufficient supply of food, and cold and want have completely silenced all his feathered companions. Like those of other members of its family, the movements of this species in the trees and on the ground are extremely agile and lively, but its flight, even for a Wren, is weak and unsteady. So slight are its powers of endurance, that Naumann assures us that a man can readily run it down and capture it with the hand. Indeed, a curious practice, as we are told, "has prevailed from time immemorial in the south of Ireland, of hunting this harmless little bird on Christmas Day. The hedges are beaten with sticks, and when the unfortunate little creature is driven from its concealment, it is struck down with a second stick carried by each hunter. On St. Stephen's Day the dead birds are hung by the children on an ivy-bush decorated with bright ribbons, which they carry about with songs, and collect money to 'bury the Wren.' This cruel piece of folly is, we are happy to learn, now falling into disuse."

This pretty little bird lives principally upon insects and berries, and when these fall short, it often ventures fearlessly into houses and outbuildings, in the hope of obtaining a meal. The situation of the nest and the materials employed for building it vary considerably. Trinthammer mentions an instance in which one of these birds made its nest year by year in the hut of some charcoal-burners, following them season after season in all their wanderings; indeed, it is not uncommon for a pair to build many times, before they have satisfied their fastidious requirements; and, strange to say, a solitary male will often make several nests before it has selected a mate. Boenigk, who observed a Wren attentively from April to August, tells us that the male constructed four nests before it took a partner. After it had found a mate, both worked together at three different nests, each in succession being left uncompleted, until at last the female, despairing of obtaining a place wherein to deposit her eggs, deserted her capricious spouse, who consoled himself by constructing two more nests, which, like the rest, were never employed.

"It is remarkable," says Montague, "how the materials of the Wren's nest are generally adapted to the place: if built against the side of a hayrick, it is composed of hay; if against a tree covered with white moss, it is made of that material; and with green moss if against a tree covered with the same; thus instinct directs it for security." Mr. Jesse mentions that he possessed a nest "built amongst some litter thrown into a yard, which so nearly resembled the surrounding objects that it was only discovered by the birds flying out of it. Some of the straws that composed it were so thick that one wondered how so small a bird could have used them." A correspondent in the _Magazine of Natural History_ says:--"In watching a pair of Wrens building their nest in an old road, I noticed that one confined itself entirely to the construction of the nest, which it never left for a moment, whilst the other was as incessantly passing and repassing with materials for the structure. These materials, however, this helper never once attempted to put into their places; they were always regularly delivered to the principal architect employed in constructing the building."

"I was not aware," says Mr. Weir, "it had been taken notice of by any naturalist that the European Wrens, or at least some of this species, take possession of their nests as places of repose during the severity of winter, until I perused a very interesting account of the habits of these little birds by Neville Wood, Esq., who says, 'Whether the nests in which one or two broods had been reared in the summer are tenanted every night throughout the winter by the old or the young birds is a question more curious than easy to determine, on account of the difficulty, almost impracticability, of catching the birds at night. This I have repeatedly endeavoured to effect without success. I am happy to say that, after much trouble, I have so far succeeded in determining this curious question. About nine o'clock of the evening of the 7th of March, in one of their nests which was built in a hole in an old wall, I caught the male and female, and three of the brood. The other four of the young birds which were also in the nest, made their escape. They were the Wrens I mentioned formerly as having occupied the two nests which wanted the lining of feathers.'"

"I know not," says Macgillivray, "a more pleasant object to look at than the Wren; it is always so smart and cheerful--to it all weathers are alike. The big drops of a thunder shower no more wet it than the drizzle of a Scotch mist; and, as it peeps from beneath a bramble, or glances from a hole in the wall, it seems as snug as a kitten frisking on the parlour rug."

"It is amusing," continues this writer, "to watch the motions of a young family of Wrens just come abroad. Walking among furze, or broom, or juniper, you are attracted to some bush by hearing issue from it a lively and frequent repetition of a sound which most resembles the syllable "Chit." On going up you perceive an old Wren flitting about the twigs, and presently a young one flies off, uttering a stifled 'Chirr,' while the parents continue to flutter about, uttering their loud 'Chit! chit! chit!' with indications of varied degrees of excitement."

The Wren produces two broods in the course of the year, the first in April, the second in July. The eggs, from six to eight in number, are large and round, of a pure white or yellowish white, delicately spotted with reddish brown or blood-red, these latter markings often taking the form of a wreath at the broad end. The male and female brood alternately for thirteen days, and cleanse the nest and feed their hungry family with great assiduity. The young remain for a considerable time with their parents, and generally return to pass the night in their old homes for some time after they are fully fledged. Although largely insectivorous, these hardy little birds are enabled to brave the severest winters, not only of our own climate but of still more northern regions. They are not uncommon in Zetland, where their sweet notes serve greatly to enliven the dreary landscape.

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The MARSH WRENS (_Thryothorus_) are a group of American species, distinguished from other members of the family by their comparatively long, thin, and slightly-curved beaks.

THE CAROLINA WREN.

The CAROLINA WREN (_Thryothorus Ludovicianus_), according to the Prince von Wied, is five inches long and seven broad; the wing measures two inches and one-sixth, and the tail an inch and three-quarters. The plumage of the upper portion of the body is reddish brown, marked with undulating lines of a deeper hue; the chin and throat are white, the rest of the lower parts yellowish red, with black markings on the sides; a stripe over the eyes is white. The quills are blackish brown on the inner, and striped on the outer web. The feathers of the wing-covers are tipped with white. The eye is greyish brown; the upper mandible light grey, the lower one lead-colour, tipped with pale brown. This species is the largest and most numerous of all the many species of Wrens inhabiting North America; it is met with alike in mountain tracts, low-lying regions, dense forests, or even districts near the abodes of man.

"The quickness of the motions of this little bird," says Audubon, "is fully equal to that of the mouse. Like the latter, it appears and is out of sight in a moment; peeps into a crevice, passes rapidly through it, and shows itself at a different place in the next instant. When satiated with food, or fatigued with these multiplied exertions, the little fellow stops, droops its tail, and sings with great energy a short ditty, something resembling the words '_Come to me, Come to me_,' repeated several times in quick succession, so loud, and yet so mellow, that it is always agreeable to listen to its music. During spring these notes are heard from all parts of the plantations, the damp woods, the swamps, the sides of creeks and rivers, as well as from the barns, the stables, and the piles of wood within a few yards of the house. I frequently heard one of these Wrens singing from the roof of an abandoned flat boat fastened to the shore, a short distance below the city of New Orleans. When its song was finished, the bird went on creeping from one board to another, thrust itself through an auger-hole, entered the boat's side at one place and peeped out at another, catching numerous spiders and other insects all the while. It sometimes ascends to the higher branches of a tree of moderate size, by climbing along a grape-vine, searching diligently among the leaves and in the chinks of the bark, alighting sideways against the trunk, and conducting itself like a true Creeper."

The vocal capabilities of the Carolina Wren would appear to be respectable, and it can imitate with tolerable accuracy the notes of other birds. "Amidst its imitations and variations," says Nuttall, "which seem almost endless, and lead the stranger to imagine himself, even in the depth of winter, surrounded by all the quaint choristers of the summer, there is still with our capricious and tuneful mimic a favourite theme, more constantly and regularly repeated than the rest. This was also the first sound that I heard from him, delivered with great spirit, though in the dreary month of January. This sweet and melodious ditty--_tsee-toot, tsee-toot, tsee-toot_, and sometimes _tsee-toot, tsee-toot, seet_, was usually uttered in a somewhat plaintive or tender strain, varied at each repetition with the most delightful and delicate tones, of which no conception can be formed without experience. That this song has a sentimental air may be conceived from its interpretation by the youths of the country, who pretend to hear it say '_Swĕet-heart, swĕet-heart, sweet_!' Nor is the illusion more than the natural truth, for usually this affectionate ditty is answered by its mate, sometimes in the same note, at others in a different call. In most cases it will be remarked that the phrases of our songster are uttered in threes; by this means it will generally be practicable to distinguish its performance from that of other birds, and particularly from the Cardinal Grosbeak, whose expressions it often closely imitates, both in power and delivery. I shall never, I believe, forget the soothing satisfaction and amusement I derived from this little constant and unwearied minstrel, my sole vocal companion throughout many weary miles of a vast, desolate, and otherwise cheerless wilderness. Yet, with all his readiness to amuse by his Protean song--the epitome of all he had ever heard or recollected--he was still studious of concealment, keeping busily engaged near the ground, or in low thickets, in quest of his food; and when he mounted a log or brush-pile, which he had just examined, his colour, so similar to the fallen leaves and wintry livery of Nature, often prevented me from gaining a glimpse of the wonderful and interesting mimic."

"The nest of the Carolina Wren," says Audubon, "is usually placed in a hole of some low, decayed tree, or in a fence stake, sometimes even in the stable, barn, or coach-house, should it there find a place suitable for its reception. I have found some not more than two feet from the ground in the stump of a tree that had long before been felled by the axe. The materials employed in its construction are hay, grasses, leaves, feathers, and horsehair, or the dry fibres of the Spanish moss; the feathers, hair, or moss, form the lining, the coarse materials the outer parts. When the hole is sufficiently large, the nest is not unfrequently five or six inches in depth, although only just wide enough to admit one of the birds at a time. The number of eggs is from five to eight. They are of a broad oval form, greyish white, sprinkled with reddish brown. Whilst at Oakley, the residence of my friend James Perrie, Esq., near Bagon, Jura, I discovered that one of these birds was in the habit of roosting in a Wood Thrush's nest, that was placed on a low horizontal branch, and had been filled with leaves that had fallen during the autumn. It was in the habit of thrusting its body beneath the leaves, and, I doubt not, found the place very comfortable. They usually raise two, sometimes three broods in a season. The young soon come out from the nest, and, in a few days after, creep and hop about with as much nimbleness as the old ones. Their plumage undergoes no change, merely becoming firmer in the colouring."

THE HOUSE WREN.

The HOUSE WREN (_Thryothorus platensis_), a South American species, is brown on the upper portion of the body, shading into red towards the rump. The quills and tail-feathers are finely striped with blackish brown, the former edged with a paler shade on the inner web; a pale streak passes over the eye; the throat is white; the region of the cheek striped with brown; the throat, breast, and belly are pale reddish yellow, the sides of the breast being deepest in tint, and faintly streaked. The eye is deep brown; the beak dark grey, whitish at its base; the foot reddish brown. The length of the body is four inches and six lines, the breadth six inches; the wing measures one inch and ten lines, and the tail an inch and a half. "This agreeable singing bird," says the Prince von Wied, "may be regarded as replacing our Common House Sparrow about the Brazilian houses. In appearance and habits it closely resembles the Common Wren, and is constantly to be seen hopping nimbly about the gardens and over the roofs and fences, or creeping with astonishing quickness through tiny holes or compact hedges. Its loud, sweet-toned voice is very similar to that of the True Warblers. The nests, which are small and carelessly constructed, are generally built upon the house-tops, or in holes of walls; those we saw were open above and very shallow, formed externally of stalks and grass, thickly lined with feathers. The eggs, four in number, were rose-pink, marked with deep red."

THE FLUTE-PLAYER

The FLUTE-PLAYER (_Cyphorhinus cantans_), a very noted species of Wren inhabiting South America, represents a group distinguished by the following characteristics:--The beak is strong, compressed at its sides; the nostrils small, round, quite open, and surrounded by a skin, whereas in other members of the family they are furnished with a covering; the wings are short and much rounded; the tail of moderate size, and graduated at its sides; the legs are strong, and the moderate-sized toes armed with very disproportionately powerful claws. The upper part of the plumage is reddish brown, lightest upon the brow and top of the head. The mantle-feathers are marked with blackish brown; the chin, throat, and front of the neck are light rust-red; the sides of the throat, cheeks, and region of the ear black, with white shafts to the feathers; the belly and centre of the breast are whitish yellow, the sides pale greenish brown, with dark markings. The length of this species is five inches, the wing measures two inches and one-sixth, and the tail one inch and one-third.

The Flute-player, as this bird is called by the Peruvians, on account of its strange and very beautiful voice, frequents the inmost recesses of the South American forests, where it lives in parties, and seeks for insects and berries either upon the ground or on such branches as are not more than two feet above its surface. During the middle of the day, according to Schomburghk, its song is rarely or never heard.

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The PIPITS (_Anthi_) form, as it were, a connecting link between the Warblers and Larks, and until lately were classed among the latter birds. Their body is slender; their wings, in which the third and fourth quills are the longest, are of moderate size; the upper wing-covers often of great length; the tail of medium size; the tarsus slender; the toes weak; and the claws very large, the hindermost, like that of the Lark, being prolonged into a spur. The beak is thin, straight, narrow at its base, and awl-shaped, its margins turn inwards, and are incised at the slightly-curved tip of the upper mandible; the smooth, glossy plumage is of a brownish or greenish hue. The young usually resemble their parents. The family of Pipits comprises a great number of species distributed over all parts of the world, some occupying mountain tracts, and others forests, plains, or marshy districts. All live principally on the ground, and sometimes, but rarely, they perch on the branches of trees. Their manner of progressing on _terra firma_ is rather by a rapid running step than by a series of leaps, and is accompanied by considerable agitation of the whole body, and constant gentle whisking of the tail. The flight of the Pipits is rapid, light, and undulatory, when they are desirous of going to any considerable distance, but changes to a hovering and fluttering motion when they rise into the air previous to singing. They are very intelligent, and their song, though simple, is agreeable; the call is a kind of piping sound, whence the name of Pipits, by which they are distinguished. Their principal food consists of beetles, moths, flies, snails, and aphides; some species also devour spiders and worms, and, according to recent observations, various kinds of seeds; all seek their food on the ground, and rarely seize their prey in the air, or by darting from the branches of trees or bushes. The nest is loosely formed of blades of grass, portions of plants and roots, lined with wool or hair, and is constructed on the ground. The eggs are of a dusky hue, and faintly marked with spots and streaks. The female alone broods, but both parents assist in tending the young. Most species lay more than once in the year.

THE MEADOW PIPIT, OR MEADOW TITLING.

The MEADOW PIPIT, or MEADOW TITLING (Anthus pratensis), is of a greenish brown, spotted with brownish black on the upper portion of the body; the breast is light rust-red, spotted with dark brown; the throat and belly are whitish, and a yellowish white streak passes over the eyes; the quills are brownish black, with light edges, and the feathers of the wing-covers bordered with dull green; the tail-feathers are brownish black, edged with olive-green, those at the exterior decorated with a large white spot at the tip. The eye is dark brown, the beak grey, and the foot reddish grey. This species is six inches long, and nine and a half broad; the wing measures two inches and five-sixths, and the tail two inches and a quarter. The female is a trifle smaller than her mate.

The Meadow Pipit is known to breed in all the northern half of the European continent, and is also met with in North-western Asia and North Africa. During the course of its journeyings in Egypt it usually settles near the coast among marshes, or near fields that are lying under water. In the British Isles it remains throughout the year, and is known in the lake district as the "Ling Bird," from the constancy with which it frequents the moors overgrown with heather or _ling_ in that part of the country. Like the Larks it migrates in large flocks, and frequently in company with those birds, travelling day and night; it usually makes its appearance in this country about March, leaving again in November or December. Meadows, marsh-lands, or commons, afford the resorts it prefers, but it generally avoids arid or barren districts. The movements and habits of this species resemble those of other members of its family; it lives on excellent terms with birds of its own kind, but constantly exhibits a strong desire to annoy and irritate its other feathered companions.

"When progressing from place to place," says Mr. Yarrell, "the flight of this bird is performed by short unequal jerks, but when in attendance on its mate, and undisturbed, it rises with an equal vibratory motion, and sings some musical soft notes on the wing, sometimes while hovering over its nest, and returns to the ground after singing. Occasionally it may be seen to settle on a low bush, but is rarely observed sitting on a branch of a tree, or perched on a rail, which is the common habit of the Tree Pipit. The Meadow Pipit, when standing on a slight mound of earth, a clod, or a stone, frequently moves his tail up and down like a Wagtail."

The nest is placed on the ground, sometimes so much sunk as to be with difficulty perceived; sometimes sheltered by a tuft of grass. It is composed externally of stems and leaves of grass, lined with finer grass, fibres, and hair.

W. Thompson, Esq., in his valuable communications on the natural history of Ireland, says that "A friend at Cromac has frequently found the nest of the Meadow Pipit on the banks of watercourses and drains, as well as on the ground in fields. One which was known to him at the side of a drain was discovered by some bird-nesting boys, who pulled away the grass that concealed it. On visiting it the next day he observed a quantity of withered grass laid regularly across the nest; on removing this, which, from its contrast in colour with the surrounding grass, he considered must have been placed there by the boys, the bird flew off the nest, and, on his returning the following day, he found the grass similarly placed, and perceived a small aperture beneath it, by which the bird took its departure, thus indicating that the screen, which harmonised so ill with the surrounding verdure, had been brought thither by the bird itself. The same gentleman once introduced the egg of a Hedge Accentor into a Meadow Pipit's nest containing two of its own eggs, but, after a third egg was laid, the nest was 'abandoned.'" "This, however," observes Mr. Yarrell, "was probably induced by the visits of the observer rather than by the introduction of the strange egg, as the egg of the Cuckoo is more frequently deposited and hatched in the nest of the Meadow Pipit than in that of any other bird."

The eggs, four or five in number, have a dirty white or dull red shell, thickly strewn with brownish spots and streaks; they are generally hatched in thirteen days. The young leave the nest before they can fly, but conceal themselves with such adroitness at the first alarm of danger that they are rarely discovered. The first brood is produced in the beginning of May, and by the end of July the nestlings are capable of providing for themselves.

THE TREE PIPIT.

The TREE PIPIT (_Anthus arboreus_) so closely resembles the species above described as very frequently to be mistaken for it. It is, however, distinguishable by its superior size, the comparative strength of its beak and tarsi, and the shortness of the much curved centre claw. The upper part of the body is yellowish brown, or dull brownish green, darkly spotted in stripes; the rump and under side are of one uniform tint; a stripe over the eyes, the throat, crop, sides of the breast, legs, and lower wing-covers, are pale reddish yellow; the crop, upper breast, and sides, being spotted with black. The stripes on the wings and edges of the shoulder-feathers are lighter than in the plumage of the Meadow Pipit. The eye is brown, the beak greyish black, and the foot reddish grey. The body is six inches and a half long, and ten and three-quarters broad; the wing measures three inches and a quarter, and the tail two inches and a half. The female is considerably smaller than her mate. During the summer the Tree Pipits frequent the woodland districts of Europe and Siberia, and in the winter wander southward as far as the African steppes and the Himalayas; they usually arrive in England about the third week in April. In many respects these birds resemble their congeners, but, unlike most of them, take up their quarters in well-wooded and cultivated localities, and at once seek shelter in trees at the approach of danger, and run along the branches with ease. They are also far less social in their habits, and, except in the autumn, while still occupied with their young, live alone, or associate but seldom with the other feathered denizens of their favourite woods and groves. The song of the Tree Pipit far exceeds in its quality that of most other species; indeed, some of its loud, clear tones will bear comparison with those of the Canary. The male sings almost incessantly from sunrise to sunset, until the end of June, and pours out his lay from the point of some projecting branch, from whence he rises into the air, and after hovering for a short time slowly descends and finishes his song upon the perch he had just left. The nest is placed in a hollow in the ground, or carefully concealed in grass and clumps of plants; it is very clumsily built, only the interior being arranged with anything like neatness or care. The four or five eggs vary considerably both in form and colour, the tints being either reddish, greyish, or blueish white, spotted, mottled, or streaked with a darker shade. The female sits with such devotion that she often will not quit her eggs unless driven from the spot. The young are most tenderly reared by the exertions of both parents, and quit the nest before they are able to fly.

"The Tree Pipit," says Mr. Yarrell, "is a summer visitor to this country, arriving about the third week in April, and frequents the enclosed and wooded districts of England. It is not uncommon around London, and I have observed it frequently in the highly-cultivated and wooded parts of Kent. The male has a pretty song, perhaps more attractive from the manner in which it is given than the quality of the song itself. He generally sings while perched on the top of a bush, or one of the upper branches of an elm-tree, standing in a hedgerow, from which, if watched for a short time, he will be seen to ascend on quivering wing about as high again as the tree, then, stretching out his wings and expanding his tail, he descends slowly by a half-circle, singing the whole time, to the branch from which he started, or the top of the nearest other tree; and, so constant is this habit with him, that if the observer does not approach too near to alarm him, the bird may be seen to perform this same evolution twenty times in half an hour, and I have witnessed it most frequently during and after a warm May shower." "The Tree Pipit," continues Mr. Yarrell, "is found in all the wooded and cultivated districts of the southern counties of England, but is seldom met with in open unenclosed country. It is comparatively rare in Cornwall; not very numerous in either North or South Wales; and some doubts are still entertained whether it extends its range to Ireland."

In a communication from Mr. Weir (who observed the birds in East Lothian) to Mr. Macgillivray, he says:--"The Tree Pipits generally make their appearance here about the beginning of May, and frequent the woods. They perch upon the highest branches of a tree, from which they ascend into the air, uttering a twittering note at each extension of the wings. They send forth their song during their descent, which they perform with wings extended and tail erected, till they again reach the tree, where they continue a short time after perching, and then descend to the ground in the same manner. They generally build their nests in plantations, at the root of a tree, and amongst long grass. It is very difficult to discover them, as they are so cunningly concealed, and as the birds generally run several yards from them before they mount into the air. The nest in which I caught the old ones being in a park grazed by cattle, and very near a plantation, afforded me an excellent opportunity of observing their motions. When they fed their young ones, which they did with flies, caterpillars, and worms, they always alighted at the distance of twenty or thirty feet from their nests, cowering, and making zig-zag windings, and now and then putting up their heads and looking around them with the greatest anxiety and circumspection. They are seldom met with in my neighbourhood; and, in the long space of fourteen years, I have seen only two or three of their nests."

"The Indian Tree Pipit," says Jerdon, "is very similar to its European congener, but appears to differ slightly. It is found over all India in the cold season, for it is a winter visitant, only coming early in October and departing about the end of April. It frequents gardens, groves, thin tree jungle, also occasionally grain-fields, beds of woody streams, &c. It is social in its habits, many birds being generally found together. It usually feeds on the ground on various insects, and also on seeds, but, on being disturbed, flies up at once to the nearest tree. It now and then feeds on trees, hopping about the upper branches, and occasionally snapping at an insect on the wing. It is said by the natives to kill many mosquitoes, hence many of its native names. Mr. Blyth says he has seen small parties of these birds flying over their haunts, in a restless unsettled way, now and then alighting on a tree, uttering a slight chirp, and continuing this till nearly dark. The flesh of this species is used by falconers as a restorative to the Bhagri, and is said to be very delicate. It is taken in numbers for the table in Bengal and elsewhere, and sold as Ortolan."

THE ROCK PIPIT.

The ROCK PIPIT, SHORE PIPIT, or SEA TITLING (_Anthus petrosus_, or _aquaticus_), is deep olive-grey, spotted faintly with blackish grey on the back and greyish white upon the lower portion of the body, the sides of the breast being spotted with dark olive-brown; a light grey streak passes over the eyes, and the wing is enlivened by the light grey borders; the eye is dark brown. This species is from six inches and three-quarters to seven inches long, and from eleven and a quarter to eleven and a half broad; the wing measures three inches and a half, and the tail two and three-quarters. The claw of the hinder toe is long and very much curved. Unlike their congeners, the Rock Pipits inhabit mountain ranges, and only descend upon the plains during their migrations. In the Swiss Alps they are exceedingly common birds. "In spring," says Tschudi, "this species appears upon such parts of the mountains as are free from snow, and in summer large flocks seek safety from the violent storms that frequently break over the Alps in more sheltered situations. As winter approaches, and the cold becomes more severe, they venture down into the plains beneath, and occupy marsh-land and the neighbourhood of lakes or streams." In Great Britain they remain upon the coast throughout the year, and are seldom seen at any great distance from the sea; how far north they wander seems uncertain, for it is at present undecided whether the SHORE PIPIT (_Anthus rupestris_), a bird found throughout the whole of Scandinavia, is the same, or merely a nearly allied species. During the breeding season the Rock Pipits entirely lay aside the timidity they exhibit at other times, and boldly approach any intruder on their privacy, flapping their wings as they fly about him, and uttering loud and anxious cries. Their pleasing song, which is heard about the end of July, is poured out with great rapidity, as they rise quickly into the air; and after hovering for a time, with a gentle swimming motion, slowly descend, with wings outspread, to the spot from which they rose. They very rarely sing when perching on the rocks or bushes. The nest is far less carefully concealed than that of other Pipits, and is generally placed in a crevice, hole, or under a tree-root so situated as to afford an overhanging shelter to the little family. The eggs, from four to seven in number, have a dirty white shell, very thickly marked with various shades of brown and grey; they bear a considerable resemblance to those of the Common House Sparrow. Tschudi tells us that on the Alps it is not uncommon for both parents and young to perish in the heavy snow that often falls in spring.

"Though called the Rock Pipit," observes Mr. Yarrell, "it inhabits as well low, flat shores in the vicinity of the sea, and the neighbouring salt marshes, where it feeds on marine insects, sometimes seeking its food close to the edge of the retiring tide. I have seen these birds very busily engaged in the examination of sea-weed, apparently in search of the smaller crustacea. This species is readily distinguished from the Tree and Meadow Pipit by its larger size. The hind claw is long and very considerably curved. The localities frequented by the Rock Pipit are, however, strikingly distinguished from those in which the other Pipits are so constantly found. I do not remember to have seen the Rock Pipit except within a short distance of the sea-shore; and so generally is it there distributed, that I never remember looking for it, when visiting any part of our sea-coast, without finding it. It does not wander far inland, and is very seldom seen at any considerable distance from the sea. It remains in this country on the coast throughout the year."

"The Rock Pipit," Mr. Lloyd tells us, "is exceedingly common on the whole coast of Scandinavia, from Scania to North Cape. Every rocky islet, indeed," he continues, "is occupied by a pair or two of these birds, but I do not remember having seen them in the interior of the country.

"The fishermen in the province of Blekinge look upon the Rock Pipit as a very useful bird, for the reason that when the water is low it repairs to the bare rocks, and feeds on the _grund märla_, a little shrimp or crustacean, which is so injurious to their nets that, during a long autumnal night, it will destroy them altogether.

"The female forms her nest on grass-grown ledges of rocks, but, though in appearance pretty substantial, it is so fragile that it falls to pieces at the least handling. She lays from four to five eggs of a greyish brown or greenish brown colour, marked with ash-brown spots, and usually hatches at the beginning of May."

THE STONE PIPIT, OR FALLOW-LAND PIPIT.

The STONE PIPIT, or FALLOW-LAND PIPIT (_Agrodroma campestris_), the largest member of this family, represents a group of slenderer form, and having a stronger beak and foot than those above described. The length of this species is from six inches and three-quarters to seven inches, its breadth ten inches and a half to ten inches and three-quarters; the wing measures three inches and a quarter, and the tail two inches and five-sixths. The upper parts of the body are pale yellowish grey, sparsely marked with clearly-defined dark spots; the under side is dirty yellowish white; the feathers over the crop have dark streaks on the shafts; a light yellow line passes over the eye; and the wings are decorated with yellowish white stripes. The young are darker, and their feathers edged with yellow. The region of the crop is also much spotted.

The Fallow-land Pipit frequents unfruitful, arid, or stony localities, such as are avoided by other members of the family, and is far more numerous in the southern countries of Europe than in the northern parts of our continent. Bolle tells us that it inhabits the hottest and most barren districts of the Canaries in very large numbers, and in the Balearic Isles it is one of the commonest birds; we have ourselves met with it during the winter in all parts of North-eastern Africa and in Soudan. Jerdon also mentions it as frequenting some parts of India. It is a remarkable fact that though this species is so numerous in the Balearic Isles, it is comparatively rarely seen in Spain, except during its migrations. In most parts of Europe it usually arrives in April and leaves for warmer regions at the end of August; in fine weather the flocks journey by day, but if the season be unfavourable they pursue their course principally during the night. In its movements and habits the Fallow-land Pipit much resembles both the Larks and Wagtails. It runs upon the ground with extraordinary rapidity, usually preferring the furrows of ploughed fields or dry ditches, when in search of food, and frequently pauses in its labours to perch upon a stone or clod, and survey surrounding objects; while thus quietly resting, the body is held erect and the tail lowered, but when the bird is excited, the tail is agitated after the manner of a Wagtail. When in flight the wings rapidly open and close, the undulatory course thus produced being diversified by a slow hovering motion, or by a direct descent towards the earth, with pinions completely closed. Such of these birds as inhabit Europe are extremely shy, but those occupying the Canary and Balearic Isles boldly approach the houses, and evidently prefer to be in the immediate neighbourhood of man. The song of the Fallow-land Pipits is extremely simple and monotonous. During the breeding season each pair takes possession of a certain spot, from whence they drive off every intruder, and the male at once commences a series of vocal exercises for the entertainment of his mate; these he carols forth as he soars in the air. The nest, which consists of moss, earth, and dry leaves, lined with softer materials, is built upon the ground. The first eggs are laid about the end of May, and in July the nestlings are fully fledged.

"The Stone Pipit (_Agrodroma campestris_)," says Jerdon, "is found in suitable places in India. I have found it most abundant in the Deccan, at Mhoa, in Central India, and on the Eastern Ghauts; it is rare in the Carnatic. Blyth has it from Midnapore and the North-western Provinces. It frequents barren, open, stony land, and is never found in rich pastures. It breeds in this country (India). In Palestine it is recorded as frequenting the lower plains and hills."

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The SPURRED PIPITS (_Corydalla_) are recognisable by their large size, pointed wing (in which the three first quills are of equal length), their long tail, incised at its extremity, and high slender foot, the hinder toe of which is furnished with a claw of great length.

RICHARD'S SPURRED PIPIT.

RICHARD'S SPURRED PIPIT (_Corydalla Richardii_).--The mantle of this species is of a dull brown, each feather having a light edge; the region of the cheeks, a stripe over the eye, and the entire under side are yellowish white, shaded with grey upon the breast; the sides of the throat are white, decorated with oval, dark brown spots; the centre quills are greyish brown, broadly shaded with light reddish grey on the inner web; the outer web of the first quill is almost white, the rest shade gradually into reddish yellow; the middle tail-feathers are brownish black, the others, like those of the wing, become gradually lighter, the outer feathers being nearly entirely white. The summer plumage is deeper in tint, and the edgings to the feathers more clearly defined than at other seasons. The eye is brown, the upper mandible dark brown, the lower one yellow towards its base; the feet are yellowish brown. This bird is from seven inches and a half to eight inches long, and twelve inches and a half broad; the wing measures three inches and four-fifths, and the tail three inches and a quarter.

The Spurred Pipits frequent Great Britain, Spain, France, Italy, Austria, Greece, and Sardinia, but are never seen in large numbers; they are also occasionally found in Heligoland; and Jerdon informs us that during the winter they are met with in the Himalayas, Bengal, Nepaul, Ceylon, Burmah, and other parts of India; at the latter season, according to Swinhoe, they are also numerous in Central China. We ourselves have never succeeded in finding the true Corydalla in either Spain or Africa. Marshes, boggy districts, and the grassy margins of ponds or streams, are the localities to which they resort. Jerdon tells us that they particularly frequent rice-fields, always associating in small parties. Their flight is light, graceful, and undulating. The nest, which is very flat, and placed in a hollow or hole in the ground, is formed of stalks woven together with fibres. The eggs, usually laid about May, are oval, glossy, and of a delicate blueish white, spotted with blueish grey, yellowish brown, or dark brown, and occasionally spotted and streaked with brownish grey; they much resemble those of the Meadow or Rock Pipit. We learn from Jerdon that a large number of these birds are sold in the markets of Calcutta, and passed off as Ortolans.

This species was first found in England by N. Vigors, Esq., in 1812, since which time a few other specimens have been seen in different parts of the island. According to Yarrell, "The habits of the Spurred Pipit--as far as the peculiarities of so rare a bird can be known, for it is equally scarce on the Continent--are said to be very similar to those of other Pipits. It is mostly observed on the ground, frequenting old pastures, where it stands very high and runs with facility, waving the tail up and down, with a gentle airy motion, like that observed in the Wagtails, while its long hind claw, but slightly curved, connects it with the Larks; it has, like them, an agreeable song."

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The WAGTAILS (_Motacillæ_) are readily distinguished from the Pipits by the comparative slenderness of their shape; their legs are high and thin, the wings of medium size, the third quill longer than the rest, and the secondaries scarcely longer than the primaries; the tail is very long, composed of narrow feathers, and often forked at its extremity. The beak is slender, straight, and awl-shaped, with a ridge at its culmen, and slightly incised at its tip. The plumage is much variegated, differs somewhat according to the sexes, and is twice moulted.

The various members of this family inhabit the eastern hemisphere, and within its limits are met with in every latitude; most species prefer the immediate vicinity of water, but some few often seek their food in comparatively arid situations, returning, however, within a few hours to their usual haunts. The movements of the Wagtails are characterised by considerable liveliness and grace, they are neither so hurried nor so rapid as those of the Pipits. Upon the ground they generally walk with a thoughtful, deliberate bearing, bowing the head at each step, and agitating the tail so incessantly as to entitle them to the name by which they are commonly known. Their flight is light and undulatory, being produced by a rapid opening and closing of the wings, and their song, though by no means powerful, is simple and pleasing. Flies, beetles, and larvæ of all kinds afford them their principal means of subsistence; these they not only seek upon the ground, but pursue them to a considerable distance through the air. The northern species migrate as far as Central Africa and India; others only wander somewhat farther south, but few remain throughout the entire year in their native land. The nest, which is carelessly formed of twigs, roots, straw, grass, moss, and dry leaves, is lined internally with wool, or some similar material, and is constructed in holes or hollows in the vicinity of water; if no stream or pond is at hand, a mere pool will often satisfy the requirements of the building pairs. The eggs have a thin, finely-spotted, light grey shell. The nestlings, when first fledged, entirely differ from the parents in their appearance.

Most species of Wagtail exhibit a decided predilection for the immediate neighbourhood of man, whose favour they almost invariably obtain by their confiding and lively disposition.

THE WHITE WAGTAIL.

The WHITE WAGTAIL (_Motacilla alba_) is grey upon the mantle, the nape is of velvety blackness, the throat and upper part of breast are also black, the rest of the under side brown, while the bridles, cheeks, and sides of the throat are white; the quills are black, edged with whitish grey; the centre tail-feathers are black, the rest white. The female resembles her mate, but the black patch upon her throat is of smaller size. After the moulting season both sexes have a white patch upon the throat, surrounded by a horseshoe-shaped black line. The young are of a dull grey above, and grey or dirty white beneath, with the exception of a dark line on the throat. The eyes of all are deep brown, the beak and feet black. This species is seven inches and a half long, and ten inches and two-thirds broad; the wing measures three inches and a quarter and the tail three inches and three-quarters.

The White Wagtail is found in every part of Europe; in Africa as far as eleven degrees north latitude; and in Asia as far south as Aden; it appears in Europe about March, and leaves again in October or December. Like other members of its family this species frequents the neighbourhood of water, and lives in a state of continual restlessness; even when the bird is not running to and fro, the tail is constantly agitated. Its movements closely resemble those of other Wagtails, and its song is agreeable but very simple. Although social as regards their own kind, these birds always exhibit a most pugnacious and daring disposition towards the rest of their feathered companions, whatever their size or powers; indeed, so entirely are they free from any timidity, or sense of inferiority, that they often combine in parties, and pursue really large birds of prey, meanwhile uttering such loud cries as warn the whole neighbourhood of the impending danger; the enemy having been routed the party separate, after noisily expressing their pleasure at the feat they have accomplished. Insects and larvæ afford them their principal means of subsistence; it is not uncommon to see these bold birds seize their prey from under the very feet of the cattle as they graze, or follow the footsteps of the ploughman as he turns up the earth. The pairing season is inaugurated by desperate battles between the rival males, who confront each other upon the ground and fight till one or the other is compelled to quit the field. No sooner has the victor obtained undisputed possession of his prize, than his whole demeanour changes, and he becomes as tender and gentle as he was before fierce and quarrelsome. Each couple takes possession of a particular spot, and within its limits make their nest, placing it indifferently in the most diverse situations. The little structure is formed of twigs, roots, and grass, hay, leaves, and a great variety of similar materials, and lined with wool, hair, or other equally elastic substances. The first brood is laid in April, and consists of from six to eight eggs of a grey or blueish white hue, thickly spotted and streaked with grey; the second batch of eggs is produced in June. The female alone broods, but both parents assist in the business of feeding the hungry nestlings, who grow with great rapidity, and are soon able to take care of themselves. In the autumn young and old again assemble, and pass the night in reed-covered marshy localities, in company with Swallows and Starlings; as the season advances these parties increase to large flocks, which during the day fly from one ploughed field or pasture to another, always keeping in a direct course towards their winter quarters, and, when night has set in, they rise together into the air, and, amid loud outcries, start forth upon their long and wearisome pilgrimage.

"The belief expressed in the first part of this work," says Mr. Yarrell, in his third edition of his valuable work on British Birds, "that this species is the true _Motacilla alba_ of Linnæus, has been verified in several instances; the coloured figures and descriptions of Swedish and other Continental authors leave us no room to doubt, and when the subject has been further investigated, it will probably be found that the present species is the real _Motacilla alba_, and therefore called the White Wagtail. It is only a summer visitor to Britain, while many of the better known Pied Wagtails remain with us all the year."

In the south of Sweden, where this Wagtail appears about the time the ice is breaking up, it is called "Is Spjärna"--literally, the "kicker away of the ice." In some places it goes also by the name of the "Kök Ärla," or the "Clod Wagtail," because it is so constantly seen amongst the clods in the newly-ploughed fields. There is, moreover, a saying in parts of Sweden, that if the farmer commences ploughing either before the coming or after the departure of the White Wagtail, success will not attend his labours.

THE PIED WAGTAIL.

The PIED WAGTAIL (_Motacilla Yarrelli_) was formerly supposed to be identical with the bird just described. Mr. Gould, who first decided that the two species were quite distinct, thus discriminates between them, in a communication to the _Magazine of Natural History_:--"The Pied Wagtail of England is somewhat more robust in form than the true _Motacilla alba_, and in its summer dress has the whole of the head, chest, and back of a full, deep jet-black; while in the White Wagtail (_Motacilla alba_), at the same period, the throat and part of the head alone are of this colour, the back and the rest of the upper surface being of a light ash-grey. In winter the two species more nearly assimilate in their colouring; and this circumstance has doubtless been the cause of their being hitherto considered identical, the black back of _Motacilla Yarrelli_ being grey at this season, although never so light as in _Motacilla alba_. An additional evidence of their being distinct (but which has doubtless contributed to the confusion) is, that the female of our Pied Wagtail never has the back black, as in the male; this part, even in summer, being dark grey, in which respect it closely resembles the other species."