Chapter XIII: Part 13

According to Middendorf, these birds frequent the well-watered provinces and marshy districts of North-eastern Asia, from the middle of May till the beginning of October (occasionally, only, till the end of August), when they commence their migrations, journeying through Eastern Siberia, Mongolia, Southern China, and Japan, and reaching India about November. The Calliope usually remains concealed during the day, and only ventures forth after twilight to obtain food, in quest of which it runs about exactly in the manner of the Blue-throats, displaying, however, even greater agility than they are capable of, when making its way through the long grass that abounds in its favourite marshy retreats.

Jerdon speaks of this species as shy, unsociable, and very silent during the greater part of the year; but with this last statement we by no means fully agree. Whilst performing their migrations, the two sexes certainly associate in flocks; and during the spring the notes of the males are to be heard both by day and night. The voice of the Calliope is very sweet, and though by no means loud, very clear. As the breeding season approaches the male commences singing still more energetically, and is usually to be seen perched, with inflated throat, wings outspread, and tail raised at a right angle with his body, on the topmost branch of a birch or alder-tree, whilst he perseveringly endeavours to attract the admiration of his mate who sits beneath, almost entirely concealed from view. The nests of these birds found by Middendorf on the banks of the Taimye were most beautiful works of art, neatly covered with a roof, and approached by a horizontal entrance-gallery excavated in the sand. The nests were found to contain about five blueish green eggs, which were laid in June. In China the Calliope is known as the "Hung-po" (Redbreast), or "Ching-po" (Goldbreast), and is much prized as a domestic favourite by people of all classes: it is constantly kept by the Chinese, not in a cage, but secured to a perch or branch by means of a string tied round the neck. This peculiar and very practical manner of preventing the escape of a bird is, as Swinhoe tells us, very extensively adopted in the Celestial Empire.

THE ROBIN REDBREAST.

The ROBIN REDBREAST (_Erythaca rubecula_ or _Rubecula silvestris_) is the last member of the family to which our space permits us to allude. In this species the upper mandible is arched and incised immediately behind its curved tip. The feet are of moderate height, and delicately formed; the wings, in which the fourth and fifth quills are the longest, are rather short and weak; the tail is of medium size, and slightly incised at its extremity.

The plumage is lax, and of a deep olive-grey upon the upper part of-the body; the under side is grey; the brow, throat, and upper portion of the breast yellowish red. The female is somewhat paler than her mate, and the young are distinguishable by reddish yellow spots on the shafts of the upper feathers; the under side is reddish yellow, with grey spots and light edges to the feathers; the large, expressive eyes are brown, the beak blackish brown, and the feet reddish grey. The length of this bird is five inches and a half, and its breadth eight inches and a half; the wing measures two inches and three-quarters, and the tail two inches and a half.

Europe must certainly be regarded as the home of the Redbreasts; beyond its limits they seldom venture, except during their migrations, when some few travel as far as North-western Africa and the adjacent islands. By far the greater number of those met with in the northern and central countries of our continent usually only journey as far as Southern Europe. This lively, beautiful little bird, with whose sweet twittering voice and social fearless habits we are so familiar, is met with in all woodland districts, and may constantly be seen hopping nimbly about our fields and gardens, or flitting from bush to bush, quite close to our houses, in search of the spiders, worms, snails, and beetles upon which it subsists. In winter, when it is difficult to obtain these means of support, it lives upon various kinds of berries. The nest of the Robin is placed in holes in the ground, in hollow trunks of trees, or similar situations, at no great elevation, and is formed of moss, stalks, and leaves, woven together, and delicately lined with hair, wool, and feathers. Should the margin of the cavity in which the nest is placed not project in such a manner as to form a sheltering cover, a roof is constructed, and an entrance made in the side. The eggs, which are of a yellowish white, marked with reddish yellow spots (see Fig. 33, Coloured Plate XVI.), are from five to seven in number; these are laid about May. The parents brood alternately during a fortnight, they feed the nestlings assiduously with worms and insects, and diligently instruct and tend them for about a week after they are fledged; they are then permitted to go forth into the world on their own account; whilst, if the weather be fine, the old birds at once prepare for a second family. Numberless are the anecdotes that might be quoted to show the kindly disposition of these interesting little favourites, but we must confine ourselves to the mention of two or three exemplifications of their habits.

The first that we shall narrate happened in our own village. Two male Redbreasts were captured and confined in the same cage. From the moment of their imprisonment they seemed entirely to have laid aside their usual amiable and social demeanour; morning, noon, and night they squabbled and pecked each other, and fought with an enduring rancour which plainly showed that they each grudged every atom of food or drop of water obtained by the other. This state of affairs was at last brought to a very unexpected termination; one of the captives broke its leg, and forthwith the conduct of its companion was completely changed; it at once took charge of the helpless invalid with as much tenderness as if it had been one of its own young, fed and tended it until the limb was restored; and, strange to say, even after the invalid was strong and well again, neither of the birds ever showed the slightest inclination to renew former hostilities.

An instance of the truly parental affection they often exhibit towards the young of entirely different species is mentioned by Naumann, who upon one occasion introduced an unfledged Linnet into the cage of a Redbreast. No sooner did the hungry nestling begin to clamour for food than the parental feelings and sympathy of the Robin were awakened; it at once hopped off to procure a dainty mouthful, which it placed tenderly in the youngster's gaping beak, repeating the performance till the calls of hunger were completely satisfied. Even in its native woods, and surrounded by its own kind, the Redbreast will occasionally contract a close friendship with a bird of another species. Posslen mentions a pretty instance of this social tendency as having occurred in Germany. "In a wood near Köthen," he says, "a Redbreast was found to have actually deposited six eggs in the same nest with the six eggs laid by a Linnet, the two mothers brooding side by side until the nestlings made their appearance."

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The WARBLERS (_Monticolæ_) constitute a numerous family, whose members vary considerably in size, but closely resemble each other, both in appearance and habits. These birds are recognisable by their slender bodies, moderate-sized or long wings, in which the third quill generally exceeds the rest in length; short tail, either straight or excised at its tip; slender tarsi, and awl-shaped beak, with quite straight or slightly arched upper mandible, the latter furnished with a very short, delicate hook at its extremity. The coloration of their thick, lax plumage differs according to the age and sex, the males being usually much more beautifully coloured than their mates, and the young distinguishable from the adults by the spots with which they are adorned. Many species are remarkable for the brownish red and white hues that predominate in the tail-feathers. Most of the various members of this family occupy rocky or stony districts, whilst some few, on the contrary, frequent woods, gardens, or pasture-land. In disposition they are watchful, lively, and restless, but by no means social, never congregating, even during the migratory season, in flocks, but living invariably in pairs, or at most in families. Morning has no sooner dawned than they commence hopping, or rather running over the ground, climbing among the branches of bushes, or flying about in short courses over a considerable tract of country, always returning to pass the night upon their usual resting-place. Unlike other singing birds, when excited, they bow the head repeatedly, and either flourish and spread their tails or agitate them with a tremulous kind of motion. The voices of this family, though possessing many sweet notes, are generally marred by an intermixture of harsh tones, and a constant repetition of the same cadence. Many species have great facility for imitation, and constantly introduce the notes and strophes of other birds into their own natural song. All such as inhabit the northern portions of the globe migrate to warmer latitudes at the approach of winter, whilst those that live in southern regions remain throughout the entire year in their native lands. The reason of this difference in their habits is at once explained, if we reflect that the insects upon which they almost exclusively subsist are only found in northern countries during the summer, but are readily obtained in southern climes throughout the entire year. Both sexes assist in the labours attendant on building and incubation. The nest, which is carefully hidden from view, is usually situated in clefts or fissures of rocks and stones, or occasionally in hollow trees and similar situations, and though very rudely constructed externally, is provided with a well-lined interior, for the reception of the little family. The eggs, from four to six in number, are generally of a pale blue colour.

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The REDSTARTS (_Ruticilla_) are distinguishable by their slender body, awl-shaped beak, which is furnished with a slight hook at the tip of the upper mandible; slender, delicate feet; high tarsi; moderately long wings and tail, the latter almost straight at its extremity, and lax plumage, which varies considerably according to the age and sex of the bird. The members of this group inhabit the eastern hemisphere (Asia especially being tolerably rich in species), and resemble each other no less in their habits and general disposition than in their general coloration and appearance.

THE BLACK-CAPPED REDSTART.

The BLACK-CAPPED REDSTART (_Ruticilla atra_ or _Ruticilla titys_) is black upon the head, the back and lower part of the breast being grey. The belly is whitish, the wings spotted with white; the feathers on the wings, and those that form the tail, with the exception of two in the centre, are yellowish red. Uniform deep grey predominates in the coloration of the female and one year old male, the plumage of the latter being marked with undulating black lines. The length of this species is six, and its breadth ten inches. The wing measures three inches and one-third, and the tail two inches and a half.

The Black-capped Redstart inhabits Europe, and is numerous in such parts of the continent as are rocky or mountainous. In Switzerland it is not uncommon to see these birds not only perching at a very considerable altitude, but disporting themselves over the glaciers and beds of snow. In marshy districts or low-lying valleys they are met with far less frequently, and are much more numerous in the south of Europe than in the northern portions. Though by no means social, this species exhibits but little fear of man, and will take up its abode on the house-tops of a crowded city, apparently quite undisturbed by the noise and bustle of the streets. In disposition it is lively and restless, and from dawn to long after sunset appears to be in a state of constant excitement and activity. Like the Fly-catcher, it seizes its insect prey whilst upon the wing, and performs a great variety of beautiful evolutions, as it alternately soars and sinks through the air. Upon the ground it moves with swiftness and ease, bowing its head repeatedly, and whisking its tail whenever anything happens to attract its particular attention, or when under the influence of emotion. The voice of the Black-capped Redstart, though by no means beautiful, possesses great flexibility, and is capable of imitating the songs of a great variety of other birds.

The nest, which is carelessly constructed of fibres, stalks, and grass, and thickly lined with hair and feathers, is built upon rocks, in holes of walls, under eaves of houses, or in similar situations. Hollow trees are occasionally, but very rarely, employed for this purpose. The eggs have a delicate, glossy, pure white shell, and are usually from five to seven in number. Both parents labour equally in feeding and tending the little family, but upon the female devolves almost the entire work of brooding, the male only relieving her for about two hours at noon. As many as three broods are sometimes produced in the course of a season.

THE GARDEN REDSTART.

The GARDEN REDSTART (_Ruticilla phœnicura_ or _Phœnicura ruticilla_), a common English species, is a very beautiful bird. The sides of its beak, forehead, and throat, are black; the rest of the upper part of the body dark grey. The breast, sides, and tail, are bright rust-red; the part of the head immediately above the brow and the centre of the under side are white. The plumage of the female is dark grey above, and of a lighter shade beneath; her throat is occasionally of a deeper hue. The young are grey, spotted with reddish yellow, on the back; and the feathers on the under side have rust-red borders; the eyes of all are brown, and the beak and feet black. This bird is five inches and a half long, and three broad; the wing measures three, and the tail two inches and a quarter.

The Garden Redstart is an inhabitant of Europe and Asia, from whence it migrates to pass the winter months in the eastern provinces of India or the interior of Africa. In its habits and mode of life it very closely resembles the species last described, with this exception, that it usually perches upon trees. Its sweet song is composed of two or three gentle flute-like cadences. The nest is roughly constructed of dry fibres and grass, and thickly lined with feathers; it is usually situated in a hollow tree, or hole in a wall or rock, such cavities being preferred as have a very narrow entrance. The eggs, from five to eight in number, have a smooth blueish green shell (see Fig. 16, Coloured Plate XVI.), and are laid at the latter end of April. A second brood is produced in June, and, strangely enough, is deposited, not in the nest employed for the first family, but in another, specially prepared for its reception. The pair, however, often return to their first breeding-place the following summer.

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The MEADOW WARBLERS (_Pratincola_) are a group of small, stoutly-built birds, with variegated plumage; short, thick, rounded beaks; wings of moderate size; in which the third and fourth quills exceed the rest in length; short tails, composed of slender feathers; and long, thin legs. The members of this group inhabit the eastern hemisphere, and frequent localities overgrown with shrubs or underwood.

THE BROWN-THROATED MEADOW WARBLER.

The BROWN-THROATED MEADOW WARBLER (_Pratincola rubetra_) presents a very variegated appearance, owing to the broad reddish grey border fringing the blackish brown feathers, with which the upper part of its body is covered. The under side is light yellowish white; the chin, a streak over the eyes, and the centre of the wings are pure white. All the colours in the plumage of the female are indistinct; a stripe over the eyes is of a yellowish shade, and the light-coloured spot on the wings very faintly indicated. In the young birds the upper part of the body is a mixture of rust-red and greyish black, striped longitudinally with reddish yellow. The pale red feathers on the under side are diversified with reddish yellow spots, and tipped with greyish black. The eyes of all are deep brown, the beak and feet black. The body is five inches and a half long, and eight broad; the wing measures two inches and a half, and the tail two inches. The habits of this bird so closely resemble those of the following species that one description will serve for both.

THE BLACK-THROATED MEADOW WARBLER.

The BLACK-THROATED MEADOW WARBLER (_Pratincola rubicola_), a species very nearly allied to that above described, is black upon the throat and over the entire upper part of the body; the under side is rust-red; the rump, a spot upon the wings, and the sides of the neck are pure white. The female is greyish black upon the throat and mantle, the feathers of the latter edged with reddish yellow; the entire under side is of the latter hue. Both these birds inhabit the continent of Europe and some portions of Asia, and are often met with in Northern Africa during their winter journeyings. All, however, do not migrate. We are told on good authority that they are seen in Spain and Great Britain throughout the entire year. Everywhere they show a very decided preference for cultivated districts, and especially delight in well-watered pasture-land, or such open fields as are upon the outskirts of woods; indeed, the more fruitful the situation the more numerously do they congregate. Their voice is sweet, full, and capable of producing a great variety of cadences. Like most other members of their family, they sing almost incessantly during the spring and early part of the summer, and are often to be heard far into the night. The nests of both these species is loosely formed of dry leaves, fibres, or grass, mixed with a little moss, lined with some elastic material, such as a layer of horsehair. Grass-meadows are generally selected, as affording situations adapted for building purposes, and the nests are placed with so much care within hollows on the ground, or beneath a low bush that, as frequently happens, the brooding pairs are not discovered, either when the field is mowed, or even when the haymakers have raked the grass from its surface. The eggs, five or six in number, are broad in shape, with delicate, glossy, light blueish green shells, and are laid from May to June. The female alone broods; the eggs are hatched in about a fortnight. The young are watched and tended with great care, and are saved from many enemies by the prudence of their parents, who, should danger be at hand, remain perfectly silent and motionless until the unwelcome visitor has left the spot. As regards the movements, diet, and habits of these two species, we will only add that in almost every essential particular they resemble those of the Warblers already described.

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The CLIPPERS (_Ephthianura_), another group of the same family, met with in New Holland, are recognisable by their nearly straight beak, which is shorter than the head, compressed at the sides, and incised close to the tip. The third and fourth quills of the long wing exceed the rest in length; the tail is short, and straight at its extremity; the legs are long, the tarsi thin, and the toes slender. We are at present acquainted with but few members of this interesting and probably numerous group.

THE WAGTAIL CLIPPER.

The WAGTAIL CLIPPER (_Ephthianura albifrons_), as the species most frequently met with is called, is deep grey on the upper part of the body, each feather having a dark brown spot in its centre. The wings and tail-feathers are dark brown, the latter, with the exception of those in its centre, decorated with a large, oval, white spot. The fore part of head, face, throat, breast, and belly are pure white. The hinder part of the head and a broad line that passes from the sides of the neck to the upper region of the breast, are black. In the female the mantle is greyish brown; the throat and under side are yellowish white; while the ring about the neck and a light spot on the exterior tail-feathers are only slightly indicated. This species is four inches long. Gould, who first described the Wagtail Clipper, found it upon a small island in Bass's Straits, and afterwards throughout the whole of Southern Australia. Like its congeners, it is lively and active, and ever watchful against the approach of danger. Like them it selects a stone or leafless branch when about to perch, and if disturbed, flies swiftly for a few hundred yards before it again settles. Its step upon the ground is rapid, and generally accompanied by a whisking motion of the tail. The song of the male is extremely pleasing, and is heard constantly about September or October, when the breeding season commences. The nest is formed of small twigs, grass, lined with hair or some similar material; it is usually concealed beneath shrubs or brushwood, at an elevation of only a few inches from the ground. The eggs, three or sometimes four in number, are of a pure white, adorned with reddish brown spots or markings, most numerous at the broad end. The young are carefully tended by their parents, who, however, often betray the situation of the nest, either by their evident uneasiness at the approach of a stranger, or by affecting lameness or exhaustion, in the hope of turning the attention of an unwelcome visitor from their helpless charge to themselves. Two broods are produced during the season, the first family going forth into the surrounding country till the second batch of nestlings are able to support themselves, when they all join company with the parent birds.

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The CHATS (_Saxicolæ_) are slender birds, with awl-shaped beaks, which are very lightly incised on the margin, slightly curved at the tip, and very broad at the base. The tarsi are high and slender, the toes of moderate size, the wings blunt, the tail short, broad, and straight at the extremity. The plumage is rich and lax; it varies considerably in its coloration, but is remarkable from the circumstance that the tail, which is in most instances white, is always of a colour different from the body. These birds are met with extensively in Europe and Asia, and are particularly numerous upon the African continent. We shall, however, confine ourselves to a minute description of but a few species, as the habits of all are very similar.

THE FALLOW CHAT, OR WHEATEAR.

The FALLOW CHAT, or WHEATEAR (_Saxicola œnanthe_), is of a light ash-grey upon the upper part of the body. The breast, brow, and a band over the eyes, are white; the under side and rump reddish yellow; a patch upon the cheek-stripes, the wings, and two centre tail-feathers are black; the rest are white towards the base, and black at the tip. The eye is brown, the beak and feet black. After the moulting season the upper part of the plumage of the male is rust-red, and the under side reddish yellow. In the female reddish grey predominates. The brow and a stripe over the eyes are dirty white, the bridles pale black, the under side light brownish red; the feathers of the wings are dark grey, edged with light yellow. The length of this species is six inches and a quarter, and the breadth eleven inches; the wing measures three inches and a half, and the tail two inches and a quarter; the female is a few lines smaller than her mate. The Wheatear both dwells and breeds in the British Islands, and throughout that portion of Europe that lies between the Alps, Pyrenees, Balkan Mountains, and Lapland; in Asia it is met with in corresponding latitudes; occasionally it appears in the upper provinces of India; we have also seen it ourselves in many parts of Africa. In Southern Europe this bird is replaced by two nearly-related species--

THE EARED STONE CHAT AND BLACK-THROATED STONE CHAT.

The EARED STONE CHAT (_Saxicola aurita_) and the BLACK-THROATED STONE CHAT (_Saxicola stapazina_). The first of these is six inches long, and ten inches and a half broad; the wing measures three inches and a third, and the tail two inches and a half. The plumage on the upper part of the body is whitish grey; that of the under side greyish reddish white; a narrow line that passes from the beak to the eyes, an oval patch on the cheek, the wings, central tail-feathers, and the tips of those at the exterior are black; the colours in the plumage of the female are paler and redder than those of her mate. The Black-throated Stone Chat is rust-red on the upper portions of the body, breast, and belly; the throat and wings are black, the feathers of the single wing-covers edged with rust-red; the exterior tail-feathers are white, tipped with black, and those in the centre entirely black. The young of both species are greyish yellow on the head, nape, and back, every feather being lightly edged with grey at the tip, and streaked with white on the shaft. The under side is dirty white, with a greyish shade upon the breast; the quills and tail-feathers are pale black; the feathers of the wing-covers are bordered with yellowish white.

Though they by no means avoid fruitful tracts or cultivated districts, these birds very decidedly prefer to take up their abode in mountains or stony regions, and are for this reason particularly numerous in Sweden, Southern Germany, and Switzerland; in the latter country they are popularly known as Mountain Nightingales, from the height to which they often ascend. Even the icy and rugged tracts of Scandinavia and Lapland seem to suit their requirements; and we have often seen them hopping nimbly over the glaciers, in situations where no other living object was discernible. Individuals inhabiting more southern latitudes display the same liking for barren ground, and are usually seen in localities so sterile and arid as to appear totally incapable of affording them a sufficient supply of the insects upon which they subsist. Their disposition is lively, restless, vigilant, and very unsocial; only during their winter migrations do they commingle with others of their species. Even when circumstances compel a certain amount of neighbourship, each bird lives for itself, without appearing to take the slightest interest in the proceedings of others in the vicinity.

The flight of the Stone Chat is remarkable, owing to the fact that, at whatever height the perch may be from which it starts, the bird invariably sinks towards the ground, close to the surface of which it always flies, in a series of short, undulating lines. At the approach of the breeding season this mode of flight is changed, and the bird then entertains itself and its mate by repeatedly soaring into the air to a height of some twenty or thirty feet, singing as it goes, and then descending precipitately, to end its joyous song upon its favourite perch. When standing upon a stone or rock, it holds its body erect, shakes its tail, and, should anything unusual catch its eye, at once commences bowing repeatedly. This strange habit has given rise to its Spanish name of the "Sacristan," in allusion to the genuflexions practised by the monks. The voices of all the species we have described are loud and peculiar, but by no means pleasing. Of their performance, however, it may be said that what is wanting in quality is made up by the energy and persistency with which their song is poured out, not only from daybreak to sunset, but long after night has closed in. The nest, which is for the most part built in holes and fissures of rocks and stones, or occasionally in hollow trees, is carefully concealed from view. Its dense roughly-made exterior is formed of fibres, grass, and stalks, lined thickly and warmly with wool, hair, or feathers; the eggs, from five to seven in number, are of a delicate blueish or greenish white, occasionally, but rarely, spotted with pale yellow. The female hatches her brood with but little assistance from her mate, who perches near, in order to keep a strict watch against the approach of danger, and warns her of its appearance by an anxious cry. But one brood is produced in the season, the first eggs being laid about May; occasionally, however, the female produces two broods. The young remain with the parents till the winter migration, which takes place in September. In March they again return to their native lands.

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The RUNNING WARBLERS (_Dromolæa_) constitute another group of this family, recognisable by the predominance of black in the coloration of their plumage, and by the formation of their comparatively long and much compressed beak, which is broad at its base, and very decidedly curved and hooked at its extremity. The wings are long and pointed.

THE WHITE-TAILED WHEATEAR.

The WHITE-TAILED WHEATEAR (_Dromolœa-Saxicola-leucura_) is about seven inches and a quarter long, and eleven and three-quarters broad; the wing measures three inches and two-thirds, and the tail two inches and three-quarters. The plumage is of an uniform rich black; the wing-quills are grey towards their roots, and a band of dazzling white adorns the extremity of the tail. The female is deep brown, but similar to her mate in appearance. The young male and female respectively resemble the father and mother, but are paler. This species inhabits Southern Europe, and almost invariably resorts to its most mountainous districts. In Spain it is particularly numerous, and is also frequently seen in Southern Italy, Greece, and North-western Africa. In the latter portion of the globe and in Asia it is replaced by several nearly allied species. In all these various regions it shows a decided preference for barren heights and rocky precipices, and is as constantly met with on rugged peaks, at an altitude of 500 feet above the sea, as upon the masses of dislodged stone that strew the declivities of the mountains. The darker the colour of the rock, the more dreary and desolate the situation, the more attractive it appears to be, as the blackness of the stone accords well with the dusky plumage of the birds, and renders concealment comparatively easy.

1. Curlew (_Numenius Arquata_).--2. Sandpiper (_Totanus Hypolencos_).--3. Ringed Plover (_Charadrius Hiaticula_).--4. Dunlin (_Tringa variabilis_)--5. Land Rail (_Crex pratensis_).--6. Water Hen (_Gallinula chloropus_).--7. Lapwing (_Vanellus cristatus_).--8. Redshank (_Totanus calidris_).--9. Godwit (_Limosa melanura_).--10. Coot (_Fulica atra_).--11. Oyster Catcher (_Hæmatopus ostralegus_).--12. Rook (_Corvus frugilegus_).--13. Magpie (_Pica caudata_).--14. Jay (_Garrulus glandarius_).--15. Chough (_Fregilus graculus_).--16. Jackdaw (_Corvus monedula_).]

Those who have ventured to scale the rugged heights and steep precipices frequented by these birds, are often startled by the sound of their clear, sweet voices, as they suddenly salute the ear in situations apparently destitute of animal life, whilst those whose patience will permit them to follow the sound until they come to the spot upon which a pair have taken up their abode, will behold a performance that richly repays the trouble of a tedious climb. Upon a ledge or platform of rock he will see the male bird either tripping lightly around the open space, or executing a regular dance, with wings and tail outspread, accompanying the movements of his feet and body with a continuous flow of song, and bowing his head repeatedly: this entertainment being varied by rising suddenly into the air, and sinking again rapidly, with open pinions, to the ground. Upon one occasion, whilst journeying over the Sierra de los Anches, we came upon a pair of these birds, seated near to a nest containing their unfledged young. The terrified female immediately began flitting from rock to rock, while her mate at once commenced dancing, tripping gracefully about, and singing with all his power, as though with the idea of riveting our attention on himself, and thus averting danger from his little family. We could not find it in our hearts to render the wily stratagem abortive, so contented ourselves with a hasty glance at the nest, and left the spot, followed by a loud song of triumph and rejoicing from the anxious father. The nest, which is placed in holes in the rock, is not commenced until the end of April or beginning of May. The exterior is formed of fibres and grass, woven firmly together, the interior being carefully lined with a layer of goats' hair. The eggs are of a pale greenish blue, marked violet or reddish, but their pattern is very variable; they are from four to six in number: in Spain we have occasionally found as many as seven in a brood. The young are reared upon insects, and are no sooner fledged than they may be seen perching upon the rocks or stones, watching their parents as they pursue flies or other insects destined to fill their craving beaks. Meanwhile, should any unusual sight or sound attract the attention of the vigilant father, he instantly warns his brood by a peculiar cry that they must at once seek shelter in the neighbouring holes and fissures, and recalls them with the same note when they may again venture forth. It is only after the moulting season, which continues throughout July, August, and September, that the young withdraw themselves from the protection of their parents, in order to seek a mate and begin life on their own account.

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The STONE THRUSHES, or ROCK WAGTAILS (_Petrocincla_), are comparatively large birds, recognisable by their slender body and strong, awl-shaped beak, which is broad at its base; the upper mandible is slightly arched, and curved at its tip; the tarsi are armed with very decidedly bent claws; the wing is long, its third quill exceeding the rest in length, while the tail is short, and almost straight at its extremity. The plumage is smooth, bright-tinted, and sometimes much variegated.

THE STONE THRUSH, OR ROCK WAGTAIL.

The STONE THRUSH, or ROCK WAGTAIL (_Petrocincla-Turdus-saxatilis_), is a magnificently-coloured bird, about eight inches long and fourteen broad. The head, face, part of the throat, nape, and rump are of a beautiful blueish grey, the entire under side is bright rust-red, the quills are blackish brown, the shoulder-feathers deep grey or slaty black; the two centre tail-feathers are dark grey, and those at the exterior rust-red. In autumn all the small feathers have light edges. The female is of a pale brown, spotted with a still lighter shade on the upper part of the body, whilst the rust-red feathers on the under side are darkly bordered: the throat is white. In both sexes the eyes are reddish brown, the beak pale black, and the feet of a reddish hue; the young resemble the mother. These birds frequent all the mountain regions of Southern Europe, but are also known to breed in some part of Austria, in the Tyrol, along the course of the Rhine, and occasionally in Bohemia and in the Hartz Mountains: in Italy and Greece they are especially numerous, and everywhere appear to prefer the rocky valleys lying immediately at the foot of mountain ranges to the precipices or towering heights occupied by the group last described.

The Rock Wagtails generally appear in Europe about April or May, and almost immediately commence their preparations for breeding. Their nests, usually concealed with great cunning in such holes in the rock or ground as are almost inaccessible, are made of twigs, straw, moss, or grass, heaped roughly together to form the outer wall, the cup-shaped interior being neatly lined with a variety of elastic materials, selected with great care. The delicate blueish green eggs (see Fig. 24, Coloured Plate IV.) are from four to six in number. We have not as yet been able to ascertain whether the male relieves his partner in the work of incubation, or contents himself with amusing her by a kind of dance, performed with ruffled streaming plumage and half-closed eyes, in which he delights to indulge at this season of the year. Both parents, however, assist in tending the young flock, who are reared on the same kinds of insects as form the staple food of the adults; the latter also devour snails and worms, and during the autumn consume large quantities of berries and fruit, including grapes. Their winter migrations take place in September, and often extend over a large portion of Northern Africa; indeed, we have often seen them in the vicinity of the Blue River. In disposition the Rock Wagtail is cautious, sprightly, and restless, passing almost the entire day in active exercise; its flight is extremely light and beautiful, and so rapid as to enable it to seize an insect on the wing; unlike most of the members of its family, it generally flies in a direct line, and, after describing a few circles in the air, hovers awhile before perching. Upon the ground its movements alternate between a tripping step, accompanied by repeated bowings of the head, and the dancing movement alluded to above. Its voice is pleasing, flute-like, and capable of imitating a great variety of notes and sounds; it is for this reason unusually attractive when caged. Count Gourcy tells us that it soon becomes so tame as to greet its master with a song, and testifies its affection by a variety of pretty tricks.

We must not omit to mention one strange propensity to which this species is addicted when in captivity, during the season at which its kind usually migrate. At that time of the year it seems seized with attacks of perfect frenzy, rushes round its cage, leaps about, and utterly refuses to take any food that is not forced upon it. This state of excitement only continues for from eight to ten days, and leaves the bird in its ordinary state of health. Throughout the whole course of the attack the little prisoner exhibits a degree of terror which is quite inexplicable, at sights and sounds that at other times would scarcely attract its attention.

THE BLUE ROCK WAGTAIL, OR BLUE THRUSH.

The BLUE ROCK WAGTAIL, or BLUE THRUSH (_Petrocincla cyana_), is rather larger than the species last mentioned, being from eight inches and three-quarters to nine inches and a half long, and fourteen broad; the wing measures five and the tail three inches and a half. The plumage of the male is of an uniform greyish blue, and the quills and tail-feathers edged with blue. The female is blueish grey upon the upper part of the body, the throat being decorated with light reddish brown spots, each of which is surrounded by a dark line; the feathers on the under side are edged with brownish white, and marked with dark brown crescent-shaped patches; the quills and tail-feathers are also dark brown. The nestlings resemble the mother, but have light brown spots upon the back; the eyes of all are brown, and the beak and feet black. After the moulting season all the feathers in the plumage of the male are of an uniform greyish blue, and the quills and tail-feathers edged with blue.

The Blue Thrushes inhabit the whole of Southern Europe, Northern Africa, and a portion of Central Asia, and are especially numerous in Greece, Dalmatia, Italy, the South of France, Spain, Egypt, and Algiers; during winter a few are occasionally seen in India, but these, no doubt, are stragglers that have lost their way, as, for the most part, these birds remain throughout the entire year in their native land. Like the species last described, they principally occupy rocky valleys and mountainous regions, but are also often to be seen about towns and villages, where they perch upon steeples, roofs, or lofty walls; in Egypt they frequently dwell within the ruins of ancient temples. Although sprightly and active, they are remarkably unsocial, and exhibit a positive dislike to the society not only of man and of birds in general, but of their own kind. During the period of incubation alone do they associate even in pairs; at other seasons each leads an entirely independent life, and exhibits active hostility to every other member of the feathered creation. The flight of this species is much more continuous than that of its congeners, and it usually hovers before perching: like the Thrush, it often soars into the air when about to pour forth its song. Upon the ground it moves with great ease and rapidity. The voice of the Blue Thrush, though inferior to that of the Rock Wagtail, is pleasing, and so flexible as readily to imitate the notes of other birds. The evolutions performed by the male for the delectation of his mate are even more comical than those indulged in by the _Petrocincla saxatilis_, as the little creature inflates his body until it is almost as round as a ball, bows his head, and continually brandishes his tail aloft whilst engaged in going through his dancing steps. The nest is situated in holes in rocks, walls, and ruins, or upon lofty towers or steeples, and is rudely formed of grass; nevertheless, its flat interior is neatly lined with fibres. The four oval-shaped eggs which compose a brood are laid at the beginning of May. These are of a glossy, greenish blue, faintly spotted with violet-grey, and more distinctly with reddish brown; unspotted eggs are also occasionally laid. In Italy, Malta, and Greece, the Blue Thrush is especially esteemed as a domestic favourite, and commands a high price. Wright tells us that in Malta particularly, from fifteen to twenty dollars are frequently paid for a good singer, and that as high a sum as fifty dollars has been given for an unusually gifted specimen. In Malta, such of the lower orders as keep these birds fasten a piece of red cloth to the cage, in order to protect its inmate from the much-dreaded evil eye. Owing to the extreme care with which the nests are concealed, and the unusual timidity displayed by this species, its capture is attended with great difficulty; indeed, none but the most wary and patient of sportsmen can hope to obtain an adult bird.

THE BUSH WARBLER.

The BUSH WARBLER (_Thamnolæa albiscapulata_), an inhabitant of the Abyssinian mountains, possesses a short, decidedly curved beak, slightly pointed wings, in which the fourth quill exceeds the rest in length, a comparatively long and rounded tail, and short feet; its length is eight inches, and its breadth one foot and three-quarters of an inch. The wing measures four inches and one-third, and the tail three inches and three-quarters. The plumage of the male is of a blueish black upon the head, throat, and upper part of the breast, back, wings, tail, and legs; the belly and lower breast are bright rust-red; a band that divides the upper and lower parts of the breast, and the feathers on the small wing-covers are snow-white; the tail-feathers are rust-red on both sides, and tipped with black. The females and young are without the white patches on the breast and wings.

We had many opportunities of observing these birds at Habesch, and saw them constantly in the neighbouring mountains. They lived almost invariably in pairs, and frequented rocks, stones, trees, or the surface of the ground, with equal impartiality. Upon the rocks they conduct themselves after the manner of the Stone Thrush: whilst sporting upon the trees, they hang from the trunk, as they search the bark for grubs, or perch on the very topmost bough, and pour forth their clear and joyous song. We were unable to make any observations respecting their breeding and nidification.

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The THRUSHES (_Turdi_) constitute a very numerous family, whose various members are spread over the whole surface of our globe. These birds closely resemble each other in form and habits, although they differ considerably in size; for whilst some have the dimensions of a Pigeon, the smaller species are no larger than the Warblers we have just described. All have more or less slenderly-formed bodies; the beak is almost straight, and of moderate length, slightly curved along the culmen of the upper mandible, and incised at its tip; the tarsus is slender, and, like the toes, of medium size; the claws, on the contrary, are large. The wings, in which the third and fourth quills exceed the rest in length, are long and pointed; the tail is generally moderately long, and either quite straight, or slightly rounded at its extremity. The plumage is soft, somewhat lax, and very various in its coloration; the sexes are usually similar in appearance, and the young are adorned with spots.

Our space forbids our entering into a particular account of all the European Thrushes, and we can therefore only describe a few of those most commonly known. Of the eighty-one species with which we are acquainted, two inhabit the northern tracts of our globe, whilst fifteen are met with in India and the adjacent countries. There are nine in Africa, five in Australia, and twenty-seven in South America. Of these, the RED-WINGED THRUSH (_Turdus fuscatus_), the RED-THROATED THRUSH (_Turdus ruficollis_), the PALE THRUSH (_Turdus pallens_), the SIBERIAN THRUSH (_Turdus Sibericus_), the WANDERING THRUSH (_Turdus migratorius_), the HERMIT THRUSH (_Turdus solitarius_), WILSON'S THRUSH (_Turdus Wilsoni_) SWAINSON'S THRUSH (_Turdus Swainsoni_), DWARF THRUSH (_Turdus minor_), the SOFT-FEATHERED THRUSH (_Turdus mollissimus_), the BLACK-THROATED THRUSH (_Turdus atrogularis_), and the GROUND THRUSH (_Turdus varius_) are all met with in Europe; the four first-mentioned of these thirteen species come from Siberia, the next in order from North America, the two last but one from Southern Asia, and the GROUND THRUSH (_Turdus varius_) from Australia. The members of this family inhabit every variety of climate, and make their home indifferently within the depths of tropical forests, or under the shelter of the pines and firs that frequently skirt the glaciers of mountain ranges, amidst the rich woodland pastures that adorn highly-cultivated tracts, or upon the sparsely scattered shrubs that draw their scanty means of existence from the burning sands or arid soil of vast steppes. Some few species remain during the entire year within the limits of their native lands, while by far the greater number exhibit such a propensity for wandering about to see the world as is almost without a parallel in the whole feathered creation. All are eminently endowed, and lively and active in their disposition; their flight is remarkably swift, but varies considerably in the different species; that of the Song, Red, and Ring Thrushes being the swiftest and most graceful, whilst that of the Missel and Black Thrushes is very feeble, owing to the comparative shortness of their pinions. All, however, are equally adroit in hopping over the surface of the ground, or climbing amid the trees, and they are all capable of springing with remarkable facility, aided by their wings, to a distant branch. Their sight is so keen as to enable them to detect the smallest insect at a great distance; and their sense of hearing so delicate as to warn them of the approach of danger long before it has been perceived by the other inhabitants of their native woods, who at once seek safe shelter when they hear the warning cry of their more acute and vigilant companions. To this superior sagacity is no doubt attributable the eager desire exhibited by Thrushes to investigate any new or striking object: they, however, take good care to keep at a safe and respectful distance, even while carrying on their examination with the most eager attention. Although extremely quarrelsome--we might almost say vicious--in temperament, the members of this family are eminently social, and constantly assemble in large parties, comprising not only those of their own race, but a variety of other birds. Towards man they appear to feel but little attraction, and are quite acute enough readily to distinguish friends from enemies. As regards their vocal powers, the different groups are somewhat unequally endowed, though the notes of all are in many respects very similar. The song of the "Nightingale of the North," as the Singing Thrush is called in Norway, must certainly be regarded as excelling that of any other species; whilst that of the Missel and Juniper Thrush are also remarkable for great sweetness and variety of tone; of the Hermit Thrush (_Turdus solitarius_) Audubon speaks with great enthusiasm.

Unlike most other birds, the Thrushes do not accompany their notes with any description of movement or gesticulation, but sit perfectly quiet and almost motionless during the whole song; one male has no sooner perched himself on a conspicuous branch, and commenced singing, than he is answered by all those in the neighbourhood, as they hurry to the spot to join in the performance, and share the admiration they evidently expect it will excite. Insects, snails, and worms afford them the means of sustenance during the summer, these being principally obtained from the surface of the ground; they also greedily devour berries, some preferring one sort and some another. Thus the Missel Thrush constantly seeks the fruit of the mistletoe, and for this reason is popularly supposed to bear its seeds from one spot to another; while the Ring Thrush consumes whortleberries in such quantities after the breeding season that, according to Schauer, its flesh acquires a blue, and its bones a red tinge. This very decided predilection for particular fruits and berries renders these birds very troublesome in vineyards and orchards, and brings down upon them severe retribution at certain seasons of the year.

Such groups as inhabit the north rarely commence breeding before June, whilst others usually lay within a very short time after their return to their native lands. The situations of the nest also vary considerably, according to the localities in which they are built.

THE MISSEL THRUSH.

The MISSEL THRUSH (_Turdus viscivorus_) is about ten inches long, and from sixteen inches and a half to seventeen and a half broad; its wing measures from five inches and a half to five inches and three-quarters, and the tail from four inches to four inches and a quarter. Upon the upper part of the body the feathers are deep grey, the under side is whitish, marked on the throat with triangular, and on the other portions with kidney-shaped brownish black spots; the quills and tail are brownish grey, bordered with greyish yellow; the eye is brown, the beak dark, and the feet light horn-colour. The female resembles her mate, but is somewhat smaller; the feathers on the under side of the young are spotted with black, and the wing-covers bordered with yellow. This species is found throughout the entire continent of Europe, and is numerously met with in Great Britain. In Wales it is popularly known as "Penn-y-llwya," or "Master of the Coppice," on account of the overbearing and quarrelsome disposition it displays. In England it is often called the "Storm Thrush," from the fact that its voice is constantly to be heard before a storm of wind or rain. Such of these birds as inhabit the most northern portions of our continent wander somewhat further south as winter approaches, whilst those that occupy more genial latitudes remain throughout the entire year in their native lands. Some few are occasionally known to stray as far as North-western Africa. Districts abounding in lofty trees or pine and fir forests are the localities they prefer. The nest is formed of moss, stalks, lichens, and grass; the outer wall being frequently coated with a layer of mud, and the interior neatly lined with fine grass and similar materials. (The egg is represented in Fig. 12, Coloured Plate XVI.)

The voice of the Missel Thrush resembles that of the Blackbird. "The male," says Mudie, "is not a mere idle songster; he is equally vigilant and bold in the defence of his family. The call-note he utters in case of danger--and which is answered by the female as if she were expressing her confidence of safety while he is on the watch--is harsh, grating, and has the tone of a note of defiance. With the Missel Thrush this defiance is no idle boast, for the sneaking Magpie, the light-winged Kestrel, and even the Sparrow Hawk, are at those times compelled to keep their distance, as the Thrush is too vigilant to be taken by surprise, and under the sprays where these birds contend with him on equal terms he keeps them all at bay. Nor is he the guardian of his own family only--he is in some measure the warder of the whole grove, and when the harsh but shrill sound of his bugle-note of alarm is heard, all the warblers take heed of the danger, and the chorus is mute until he again mounts the highest branch and raises the song of thankfulness for deliverance."

THE SONG THRUSH.