Chapter IX: Part 9

THE NIGHT FALCON.

The NIGHT FALCON (_Chordeiles Virginianus_), a well-known member of this group, is an inhabitant of North and South America. Its length is about eight and a half, and its breadth from twenty to twenty-one inches; the wing measures seven inches and two-thirds. The upper part of the plumage is brownish black, spotted with white and pale brownish red. The secondary quills are dotted with brownish white, and the first five primaries have a broad stripe of white across their centre. The tail is striped with brown and grey, its four exterior feathers being tipped with white; the under side of the body is greyish white, marked with undulating brown lines; the throat is surrounded by a broad white line. The female resembles her mate, but the brown parts are darker, and the whitish spots redder, than in the plumage of the male. Her tail has no white spots at its extremity.

"The Night Falcons," says Audubon, "make their appearance in Louisiana about the first of April, during their migrations eastward, but never breed either in that State or in Mississippi. So rapid is their transit through these parts of the country, that the flocks have entirely disappeared within a few days of their arrival, whilst in the Southern States, on the contrary, they are often to be met with from the fifteenth of August till October. These wandering parties generally fly over the towns and villages, and settle from time to time upon the trees or houses, meanwhile uttering a harsh, shrill note, that cannot fail to attract the attention of all who hear it. We have seen them in Maine about June, and in the Central States somewhat earlier. These birds penetrate northwards as far as New Brunswick, but are rarely or never met with in Labrador or Newfoundland." The flight of the Night Falcons is light, animated, and capable of being long sustained, it is accompanied by loud, shrill cries, as the birds alternately soar above the summits of lofty mountains, or, rapidly sinking, continue their course close to the surface of the water. During such times as they are trying to attract the attention of the female part of the community, their evolutions become almost inconceivably fleet and agile; it is not uncommon to see one of them, after describing a series of the most elegant gyrations, come rushing down with such headlong velocity towards its intended partner, that it seems to render its death inevitable; but when within a few yards of the earth the bird dexterously spreads out its wings and tail, and again rises into the air, in order to recommence its sportive manœuvres. Audubon describes the spectacle of several males thus offering and exhibiting their admiration as being most amusing, and tells us that no sooner has the female made her choice, than the happy mate elect at once begins to harry and drive his rivals from the field.

The food of the Night Falcons consists principally of various kinds of small insects; they consume flies in enormous quantities, seeking their prey during the day, and sleeping at night upon trees or houses, from the tops of which their loud cries may be heard from time to time during the night. The breeding season commences at the end of May; the two eggs that form their brood have a grey shell, spotted with greenish brown or violet-grey (see Fig. 2, Coloured Plate IV.), and are deposited without any previous preparation upon the ground. The nestlings are at first covered with dark brown down, and are tended with great affection by their parents; the female especially exhibits unusual boldness and cunning in protecting or concealing her family from danger. When the young are strong enough to perch it is not uncommon for them to sit motionless beside the father and mother for hours, remaining so perfectly quiet and silent as to render it very difficult to discover their place of concealment. Large numbers of these useful birds are shot out of mere mischief. According to Audubon their flesh is excellent during the autumn, at which season they become well-flavoured and fat.

THE COMMON GOATSUCKER.

The EUROPEAN NIGHT JAR or COMMON GOATSUCKER (_Caprimulgus Europæus_) represents a group of birds whose pursuit of food is carried on _exclusively_ by night. All the various species of nocturnal Goatsuckers have slender bodies, short necks, and broad wings, not very sharply pointed at the extremity, as the second quill is slightly longer than the first. The tail is almost straight at its tip; the beak is short and broad, narrow at its base, and curves downwards from beneath the nostrils. The centre toe of the small delicate foot is considerably longer than the rest, and is connected with that on each side by a fold of skin extending as far as the first joint; the small inner toe is entirely detached from the rest; the tarsus is partially covered with small feathers, and upon its lower portion is defended by horny plates; the claw upon the middle toe is serrated. The plumage, which is composed of large feathers, is fleecy; the upper parts of the body are dark grey, variously marked with brownish black and reddish yellow; the under side is light grey, streaked and spotted with black and dark brown; the brow and edges of the jaws are indicated by whitish lines; the three first quills in the wing of the male are decorated with a white, in the female with a yellow spot. The centre tail-feathers are grey, striped with black; the rest are paler, and rather _spotted_ than streaked with black: they terminate in a pointed white patch. The markings in the plumage of the female are less distinct than in that of her mate, and the exterior tail-feathers are spotted and tipped with reddish yellow. The length of this species is about ten, and its breadth twenty-one inches; the wing measures seven and a quarter, and the tail between four and five inches. The European Night Jar inhabits some parts of Asia and the whole of our continent, if we except its extreme north and the southern provinces of Spain; in the latter country it is replaced by a very similar bird, the Red-breasted Goatsucker (_Caprimulgus ruficollis_). It is at present undecided whether the JOTAKA (_Caprimulgus jotaca_), met with in Japan, is identical with the European species. (The egg of the European Goatsucker is represented at Fig. 41, Coloured Plate XVI.)

THE RESPLENDENT GOATSUCKER.

The RESPLENDENT GOATSUCKER (_Caprimulgus eximius_) is a most beautiful bird, inhabiting Northern Africa, remarkable for the brilliancy of its plumage, which is almost entirely of a bright golden hue, marked upon the head, breast, and back with oval _spots_, and upon the wings and tail with _streaks_ of a somewhat deeper shade; the throat, vent, a spot upon the pinions, and the tips of the exterior tail-feathers are white. Rüppell, who first discovered these birds in Bahiuda, tells us that they frequent vast steppes, and that their gay plumage blends most deceptively with the yellow stubble and light sand which abounds in their favourite haunts. We ourselves have often met with them in Cordofania.

* * * * *

The BRISTLED NIGHT JARS (_Antrostomus_), indigenous to America, are recognisable by their long, flat beak, which is hooked at its tip, by their prominent tube-like nostrils, and the ten stiff strong bristles, of about an inch in length, that grow at the base of the upper mandible, and can be lowered or raised at pleasure. The second or third quill exceeds the rest in length; the tail is long, but comparatively narrow, more rounded at its tip, and the plumage is also thicker, and composed of smaller feathers than that of such of their congeners as we have already alluded to.

THE WHIP-POOR-WILL.

The WHIP-POOR-WILL (_Antrostomus vociferus_), so called from its peculiar cry, is about nine inches and one-third long, and seventeen and a half broad; the wing measures seven and a half, and the tail five inches. The upper parts of the body are dark brownish grey, spotted with brownish black; the region of the cheeks is brownish red, the wing-covers and quills are dark brown, spotted in lines with a paler tint, the latter tipped with a mixture of both shades; the four centre tail-feathers resemble the back in colour and markings, whilst those at the exterior are white, slightly spotted on the upper portion, and dark brown towards the end. The upper parts of the throat and breast are dark brown, with blackish-brown markings; the rest of the under side is of a paler hue. A yellowish white line passes across the front of the throat. North America is the actual habitat of this species, which is, however, frequently seen in Central America and the West Indies during the course of its migrations.

* * * * *

The AFRICAN NIGHT JARS (_Scotornis_) constitute a group of birds distinguished from their congeners by their remarkably long graduated tail, which far exceeds the body in length; the third quill of the wing is longer than the rest, thereby rendering it less pointed than that of most Goatsuckers; the beak is very small and delicate, and the bristles at its base comparatively long; the inner toes are longer than those on the exterior. The plumage is somewhat difficult to describe; in _Scotornis climacurus_ the body is principally of a pale reddish brown, with dark markings; the chin, cheek-stripes, and extremities of the smaller wing-covers are white, the quills black, spotted with grey on the lower half; the first six are striped with white in the middle; the rest are spotted with red and black, and tipped with white. The centre tail-feathers are marked with undulating lines of different shades; those at the exterior are white upon the outer web, and the two next in order terminate in a white spot; the lower side is a mixture of brown and grey, arranged in wave-like curves. The male is about fifteen inches long and twenty broad; the wing measures five inches and a half and the tail full nine and a half. The body of the female is considerably shorter than that of her mate. All the sparely-covered, sandy plains of Central Africa afford a home to the members of this group. According to our own observations they are rarely found beyond sixteen degrees north latitude; other authorities affirm that they occasionally wander as far as Europe, and have been met with in Provence, but we are inclined to question the accuracy of this statement.

* * * * *

The LYRE-TAILED NIGHT JARS (_Hydropsalis_), a group of very remarkable birds inhabiting South America, are recognisable by their long powerful wings, in which the first quill is much bent; their slender, but comparatively strong beak; their delicate feet, partially covered with feathers, and protected with horny plates upon its lower half; and their remarkably forked tail, which in the male bird is occasionally of great length.

THE LYRE-TAILED NIGHT JAR.

The LYRE-TAILED NIGHT JAR (_Hydropsalis forcipata_), as the species with which we are most familiar has been called, is spotted with brown and yellow upon its body, the centre of the throat being white. The exterior tail-feathers of this beautiful bird are from twenty-six to twenty-eight inches long, while the body does not exceed seven, and the wing nine inches. According to Azara, the Lyre-tailed Night Jar is somewhat rarely met with, as it usually frequents the inmost recesses of the vast forests of South America. Its scientific name, _Hydropsalis_, has been derived from the fact that like other Night Swallows it flies close to the water when passing over the lakes or rivers in search of food.

Some Goatsuckers have certain feathers of their wings so remarkably developed, that they have been called by the Arabs "_the four-winged birds_," and are described by Swainson under the name of MACRODIPTERYX.

THE LONG-WINGED MACRODIPTERYX.

The LONG-WINGED MACRODIPTERYX (_Macrodipteryx longipennis_) has the tail of moderate size, and straight at its extremity; the foot resembles that of the European species; the beak is delicate and furnished with long bristles at its base. The plumage of the _male_ bird is characterised by the long appendages which grow between the primary and secondary quills. These appendages, or rather shafts, are frequently seventeen inches long, entirely bare to within six inches of the extremity, where the web grows upon both sides and forms a broad expansion. The wing of the female is entirely without this remarkable structure. The plumage, which is somewhat dusky, is a mixture of red and black; the throat is paler, and the nape decorated with a yellowish tint; the primaries are striped black and red, with a dark tip; the secondaries are black with four red stripes. The centre tail-feathers are grey, spotted and streaked with black. The length of these birds is about five inches: the tail measures from three and a half to four, and the wing six inches and three-quarters.

THE STREAMER-BEARING NIGHT JAR OR "FOUR WINGS."

The STREAMER-BEARING NIGHT JAR, or "FOUR WINGS" (_Cosmetornis vexillarius_), is another remarkable species, closely allied to that above described, but distinguished by the development, not of one only, but of two excessively long feathers, that grow from each wing. These peculiar appendages are furnished with a web upon both sides, extending throughout their entire length. We are entirely without particulars as to the life and habits of this extremely rare bird, which inhabits South-eastern Africa.

* * * * *

All the various groups of Goatsuckers whose outward appearance we have thus briefly described frequent woodland districts or forests, in the immediate neighbourhood of large plains and open fields, as such localities abound with the insects on which they mainly rely for nourishment. Still there are exceptions. The Red-throated Goatsucker, for example, is most frequently seen upon rocks slightly overgrown with trees or shrubs, and though it builds in various situations, prefers plantations of olive-trees, when about to make its nest, whilst the Cream-coloured Night Jar (_Caprimulgus isabellinus_), on the contrary, usually conceals itself amidst the bushes or grass that cover the sandy banks of the Nile. During the day most species seek a shady retreat, and either sit upon the ground whilst reposing, or find shelter upon trees, on the boughs of which they recline, not after the manner of other birds, but in such a position as to allow the entire body to _lie_ along the supporting branch, holding themselves, meanwhile, firmly in place by means of their inner toes, and the serrated claw, with which the central toe is furnished; it is only when disturbed from their slumbers that the Goatsuckers perch in the ordinary manner; as soon as the supposed danger is over, they at once resume their favourite attitude. Whilst asleep the eyelids are kept completely closed, but if suddenly awakened, these birds blink, and peer around them, after the fashion of an Owl, and seek to conceal themselves by lying close to the earth, or to the tree on which they are reposing. Upon the ground they move with much difficulty; indeed, it has often been stated that their feet are useless as a means of progression, but this is not the case, as we have on several occasions seen the African Goatsuckers walk some little distance when passing from one resting-place to another. The flight of all these various groups is unsteady and apparently aimless during the day, but at sunset they seem endowed with new life, and may be seen alternately skimming and hovering over the face of the country, in pursuit of moths, beetles, and various other insects, upon which they subsist. When their appetite is appeased, they rest for a time upon some branch, and then sally forth again before morning dawns to procure a second repast. It is not uncommon for the Goatsuckers to wander to a very considerable distance from their usual haunts during these nocturnal excursions, and even approach the immediate vicinity of towns and villages; nay, so inquisitive and bold are they in regard to the objects they meet with whilst in search of prey, that they will often follow and hover round a man or a dog for a quarter of an hour at a time. During the breeding season their flight becomes still more varied and beautiful, and the birds themselves seem roused to a higher degree of intelligence than is observable at other times; such species especially, as possess the remarkably long wings or tails we have described, cannot fail to impress those who are fortunate enough to see them gliding or hovering aloft, with their flowing plumage alternately closed or outspread, as they perform their light and elegant gyrations through the realms of air. Russegger describes the African "Four Wings" as looking like some strange being from another world, as it whirls along, at one moment appearing to multiply itself by rapidly assuming the most various attitudes, or revolving like a shuttlecock, with its long feathers streaming and twisting in the wind. The voices of these various birds differ very considerably; some species uttering a harsh, droning note, not unlike the sound of a spinning-wheel (whence is derived their name of "Night Jar," or "Night Churr"), whilst others are capable of producing by no means inharmonious tones. The European Goatsucker, when alarmed, purrs very much like a cat, and during the breeding season attracts the attention of its mate by two distinct notes; at other times its cry may be represented by the syllables, "Dak, dak," faintly and hoarsely uttered. So dismal and unearthly are the voices of some American Night Jars, that Schomburghk tell us that neither Indians, Creoles, nor Negroes would venture to shoot one of them, regarding them as direct embodiments of, or emissaries from, the various evil spirits and enchanters, of whose machinations and spells the ignorant natives live in constant dread.

"A Goatsucker," says Waterton, "inhabits Demerara, about the size of an English Wood Owl, whose voice is so remarkable that when once heard it is not to be easily forgotten. A stranger would never believe it to be the cry of a bird, but would say it was the departing voice of a midnight murdered victim, or the last wailing of poor Niobe for her children, before she was turned to stone. Suppose a person in hopeless sorrow, beginning with a loud note, 'Ha, ha; ha, ha; ha, ha, ha;' each note lower and lower, till the last is scarcely heard, pausing a moment between each exclamation, and you will have some idea of the moaning of the Great Goatsucker of Demerara. Other species articulate some words so distinctly that they have received their names from the sentences they utter, and absolutely bewilder a stranger on his arrival in their vicinity. One sits down close to your door, or flies and alights three or four yards before you as you walk along the road, crying, 'Who are you? who, who are you?' Another bids you 'Work away; work, work, work away!' A third cries mournfully, 'Willy, come go; Willy, Willy, Willy, come go!' and a fourth tells him to 'Whip-poor-Will, Whip-poor-Will!' in tones wonderfully clear and startling."

As regards their instincts and capabilities, the nocturnal Goatsuckers are far behind the diurnal members of their family, and exhibit so little sense of self-preservation, as constantly to expose themselves to great danger. We have frequently, whilst camping out in Africa, whenever we have kindled a fire, been visited by numbers of these birds, apparently quite regardless of the risk they ran of being brought down by our gun. In Spain, however, the Goatsuckers appear to be somewhat more on the alert; indeed, owing to their supposed dexterity in evading pursuit, they are there called by the peasantry _Engaña Pastor_, or "Shepherd Deceivers," as that class of men come most in contact with these birds, whilst tending their flocks; not from the absurd reason that has obtained such universal credence, but because these much-maligned visitants perform a most invaluable service both to the farmer and his cattle.

"When the moon shines brightly," Waterton continues, "you may have a fair opportunity of examining the Goatsucker; you will see it close by the cows, goats, and sheep, jumping up every now and then under their bellies. Approach a little nearer; he is not shy; 'he fears no danger, for he knows no sin.' See how the nocturnal flies are tormenting the poor kine, and with what dexterity he springs up and catches them, as fast as they alight on the belly, legs, and udders of the poor animals. Observe how quietly they stand, and how sensible they seem of his good offices; for they neither strike at him, nor try to drive him away as an uncivil intruder. Were you to dissect him, and inspect his stomach, you would find no milk there; it is full of the flies that have been annoying the herd."

All Night Jars breed but once in the year, and that always during the spring-time of their native lands. No nest is built, the parents contenting themselves with any retired, shady nook, when about to deposit their eggs. Towards their young, both parents exhibit great attachment and devotion, and will exert every effort to entice any approaching stranger from the little family. Many strange tales have been circulated as to the manner in which their eggs are conveyed from one place to another, in time of danger, and on this point we may now venture to speak with authority, having been fortunate enough to be an eye-witness to the whole proceeding. Upon the occasion to which we refer, a pair of Night Jars which we purposely disturbed, appeared to be overcome with fear for the space of a minute, then, suddenly recovering themselves, they each seized an egg in their capacious beaks, and bore it carefully and gently away, flying so near the ground as almost to touch it with their feet. Both parents assist in the labour of incubation, and continue to sit, even after the nestlings have left the shell, in order to keep them warm: according to some authorities, this practice is continued until they are almost fledged. The young are fed during the night, and reared upon a variety of insect food. When taken from the nest, they thrive and grow rapidly, if provided with a plentiful supply of flies.

* * * * *

The GIANT GOATSUCKERS (_Nyctibius_) constitute another South American group, easily recognisable by their strongly-hooked beak, heavy foot, the central toe of which has no serrated claw, powerful body, and large head. The wings (in which the third quill exceeds the rest in length) are long and pointed, the tail long, and slightly rounded, and the plumage rich, soft, and lax. The beak is very peculiar in its formation, and appears triangular when seen from above; the upper mandible is extremely broad at its base, sloping gently downwards as far as the nostrils, from which point it becomes thin, round, compressed, and curves gently over the lower mandible, which is also slightly bent at its tip, and somewhat shorter than the upper portion. The sharp edges of the beak have a tooth-like appendage, about one line in length, placed just where it begins to curve. The jaws open almost to the ears, and the gape is therefore enormous. The horny portion of the bill is almost entirely concealed from view by a growth of feathers intermixed with bristles, which covers the upper mandible, from the nostrils almost to the tip. The legs are short, the toes slender, and the claws comparatively strong and hooked. The central nail has a prominent ridge.

THE IBIJAU, OR EARTH-EATER.

The IBIJAU, or EARTH-EATER (_Nyctibius grandis_), is by far the largest member of this group. Its length, according to the Prince von Wied, exceeds twenty-one, and its breadth forty-seven inches; the wing measures fifteen inches and a half, and the tail ten inches and one-third. A whitish or greyish yellow predominates in the coloration of the plumage, which is darkest upon the upper portion of the body, and marked with a variety of fine brown and black lines; the head-feathers have dark streaks upon the shafts, and triangular spots at the tip. The edges of the wings and region of the shoulders are deep reddish brown, streaked with black, and intermixed with white spots upon the carpal joint; the under side is white, ornamented with curved brown lines, each feather being tipped with yellow, the quills are dark greyish brown, striped with a paler shade, and spotted with white upon the outer web, the tail-feathers are decorated with six or seven dark and light stripes, the throat is white, marked with brown, as is the breast, the latter is also streaked longitudinally with black; the hinder parts of the body are pure white; the beak and feet are yellowish grey, and the eyes dark blackish brown.

These large Goatsuckers, though by no means rare in South America, are not frequently seen, as they remain during the entire day ensconced at the summit of the most lofty trees, lying full length upon the thickly foliaged branches in the manner already described. So closely does their plumage resemble the bark of the trees on which they recline, that it is very difficult to detect their presence, and so extremely dull are some species that, as the Prince von Wied tells us, they allow themselves to be fired at repeatedly without attempting to stir, or will sit quietly and permit a snare to be thrown over their heads. We cease to wonder at such utter stupidity when we learn from the same source that though the body of these Swallows equals that of the Raven, their brain does not exceed a hazel-nut in size. Evening has no sooner set in than, like their congeners, they at once commence their search for moths and similar prey, in pursuit of which they soar to a very considerable height; and it is by no means rare to find the ground completely strewn with the wings of the enormous moths and butterflies which they attack and seize in their huge beaks. During the night their dismal cry is constantly heard, as one mate calls to the other; but when morning approaches they seek their favourite retreats. Burmeister tells us that the two eggs that constitute a brood are deposited in any slight cavity in the trees. Such as he obtained were oval in shape, with a lustreless, pure white shell, thickly covered with brown dots of various shades, most thickly strewn over one end.

THE GUACHERO, OR OIL BIRD.

The OIL BIRD (_Steatornis Caripensis_) has hitherto been classed among the Goatsuckers, but it differs so essentially from any other member of that family in its mode of life, that we have decided upon describing it entirely apart. The body of this remarkable species is slender, the head flat and broad; the wing, in which the third and fourth quills exceed the rest in length, though long and pointed, does not extend as far as the extremity of the well-developed tail. The beak is broad at its base, compressed in the middle, and terminates in a hook; its tip, moreover, is furnished with two denticulations; the gape extends to the eyes, but the lower mandible is feeble and considerably shorter than the upper part of the beak. The feet are so small as to be almost useless upon the ground: their soles are callous, and the tarsi without feathers; the front toes are all of equal size, entirely unconnected, and the short hinder toe is reversible. The plumage is extremely soft, almost silky, and the region of the beak is overgrown with long bristles; the large eyes are protected by heavy lids covered with long hairs. The gullet is not dilated into a crop, and the stomach is very muscular; the entrails are covered with a fatty layer of such thickness that they may be said to be embedded in fat. The plumage is of a beautiful reddish brown, deepest in shade upon the back; the head, breast, belly, wings, and tail are rust-red, marked with heart-shaped white spots, which are here and there surrounded by a black line. The eye is blueish black, the beak and feet horn-grey. The length of this species is about twenty-one inches, and its breadth about forty-two inches. Humboldt, who discovered this remarkable bird in 1799, found it living in the rocky caverns of Caripe, and more recent travellers have met with it in the dark clefts and fissures of rocks among the Andes.

"The Cueva del Guachero, or Cave of the Guacheros," as described by Humboldt, "is a vast fissure, pierced in the vertical profile of a rock, facing towards the south; and the rocks which surmount the grotto are covered with trees of immense height; succulent plants and orchidaceæ rise in the driest clefts, and plants waving in the wind hang in festoons at the entrance. Within the cave vegetation continues to the distance of forty paces. Daylight penetrates far into the grotto, but when the light begins to fail the hoarse voices of the inhabitants become audible, and it would be difficult to form an idea of the horrible noise occasioned by thousands of these birds in the dark parts of the cavern. Their shrill and piercing cries strike upon the vaults in the rocks, and are repeated by the subterranean echoes. The Indians showed us the nests of the Guacheros by fixing a torch to a long pole; these nests were fifty or sixty feet above our heads, in holes of the shape of funnels, with which the roof of the grotto is pierced like a sieve. The noise increased as we advanced, the birds becoming scared by the torches we carried, but when the din somewhat abated, immediately around us we heard at a distance the plaintive cries of others at roost in the ramifications of the cavern. It seemed as if different groups answered each other alternately. The Indians enter the Cueva del Guachero once a year, near Midsummer. They go armed with poles, with which they destroy the greater part of the nests. At that season several thousand birds are killed; and the old ones, as if to defend their brood, hover over the heads of the Indians, uttering terrible cries. The young, which fall to the ground, are opened on the spot. Their peritoneum is found extremely loaded with fat, and a layer of fat reaches from the abdomen to the vent, forming a kind of fatty cushion between the legs. At the period commonly called at Caripe the "oil harvest," the Indians build huts with palm leaves near the entrance and even in the porch of the cavern, where, with a fire of brushwood, they melt in pots of clay the fat of the young birds just killed. This fat is known by the name of butter or oil (_mantece_ or _aceite_) of the Guachero; it is half liquid, transparent, without smell, and so pure that it may be kept above a year without becoming rancid. At the convent of Caripe no other oil is used in the kitchen of the monks but that of the cavern, and we never observed that it gave the aliments a disagreeable taste or smell."

Funck, who also visited the cavern above described, states that the Guacheros leave their nests after darkness has completely closed in, and that their harsh, raven-like cry may then be heard as they fly about in quest of food. Fruit forms their usual nourishment, and this they will swallow, even if as large as a Pigeon's egg; but the seeds and kernels they reject as indigestible. The nest is constructed of clay, and the brood consists of from two to four eggs. Grosz also gives an account very similar to that of Humboldt respecting another stronghold of the Oil Birds, called the Ravine of Iconongo, that he visited in New Granada. This extensive nesting-place is about half a mile long, and from thirty to forty feet broad, and had to be entered by means of a rope let down from above. Grosz fortunately succeeded in obtaining many Guacheros, both dead and alive, and made valuable observations relative to their demeanour and habits. Their movements in the air, he tells us, are light and rapid, the pinions and tail during their flight being held fully expanded; upon the ground their gait is extremely awkward, their feet requiring assistance from the wings, even to sustain the creeping hobbling motion to which their progress when on _terra firma_ is restricted. Whilst thus attempting to walk the tail is slightly raised, and the head and neck bent forward in a constant succession of serpent-like movements, in order to maintain their balance. When perched they keep the body erect, supporting it slightly upon the wings, and hang the head droopingly. If much excited whilst in flight, the cry of the Guachero becomes positively unearthly, so dismally hideous are its tones. Both parents brood alternately upon the eggs, which, according to Grosz, are white and pear-shaped. No preparations whatever are made for the reception of the young family, the eggs being merely deposited in the clefts of the rocks. The nestlings, when first hatched, are extremely ugly and uncouth, and completely helpless until they are fully fledged; so extraordinarily voracious are they that, if other food is not on the spot, they will fall furiously upon each other, or even seize and drag at their own feet or wings.

* * * * *

The OWL SWALLOWS (_Podargi_) constitute a family bearing considerable resemblance to the Night Jars, both in their general appearance and mode of life. These birds have a slender body and short neck; their head is broad and flat, their wings short and blunt, their tail long, their tarsi high and powerful. The beak, which opens farther back than the eyes, is large, flat at its base, and broader than the brow; the mandibles are hooked at the tip, of equal length, and smooth at the margin; the nostrils are situated at the base of the beak, and are almost entirely concealed beneath the feathers of the forehead. The foot is short, with three of the toes placed in front, and one pointing directly backwards; the latter is not reversible. The plumage is soft, and dusky in its coloration; the region of the beak, and, in some cases, that of the ear, is covered with a growth of bristles.

Such of these birds as we are at present acquainted with, inhabit the forests of Southern Asia, as also of New Holland and the neighbouring islands; but little has as yet been ascertained respecting their general habits, and we must therefore confine ourselves to the mention of those species with which we are best acquainted.

* * * * *

The DWARF OWL SWALLOWS (_Ægotheles_), found exclusively in New Holland, are recognisable by their long but powerful body, nearly round head, short, rounded wing (in which the second quill exceeds the rest in length), long, rounded tail, and comparatively high and bare tarsi; the toes are of equal length and unconnected; the beak is thick, broad, and compressed at its base, but becomes suddenly narrow towards its extremity, and terminates in a flat hook; the lower mandible is furnished with a hollow rim that encloses the curved tip of the upper part of the beak. The plumage is soft in texture, except around the beak and in the region of the eyes and brows, these parts being covered with a bristle-like growth.

THE TRUE DWARF OWL SWALLOW.

The TRUE DWARF OWL SWALLOW (_Ægotheles Novæ Hollandiæ_) is about nine inches and a quarter long, and above twelve in breadth. The upper part of the body is dark brown, streaked with white; the entire under surface, a spot near the eye, and two sickle-shaped lines, the one on the neck and the other at the back of the head, are grey, dotted with black and reddish yellow; the anterior quills are brown, spotted with light brown and grey on the inner web; the tail is dark brown, regularly striped with grey, and dotted with black; the iris is nut-brown; the feet of a pink flesh-colour. The sexes are alike in size, and similarly tinted, but the plumage of the young is darker than that of the adult bird. Gould tells us that this species lives and breeds in all woodland districts throughout Southern Australia and Tasmania, and that it also frequents the shrubs and bushes upon the coast. Its flight is direct and slow, and, when perched, its attitudes resemble those of an Owl; like that bird, if disturbed, it turns its head rapidly in all directions, and emits a low, hissing sound. The Dwarf Owl Swallow breeds twice in the year, and deposits its four or five round pure white eggs in the hollows of trees. One strange habit possessed by this bird renders the discovery of its retreat very easy; for no sooner is any unusual sound made in the vicinity of its hole than the active little occupant at once scrambles up to the entrance, and putting out its head, peers around to discover the cause of the disturbance. Should danger seem imminent it at once takes flight, and seeks safety elsewhere; but should nothing alarming be in view, it quietly returns to the bottom of its abode, until again roused by some voice from the outer world.

* * * * *

The GIANT OWL SWALLOWS (_Podargus_) are birds of considerable size, with large flat heads, moderately large wings, in which the first quill exceeds the rest in length, long rounded tails, and short tarsi, furnished with a foot of moderate size, the two innermost toes connected by a fold of skin. The beak is hard, powerful, much broader than it is high, slightly curved at the roof of the upper mandible, and very decidedly hooked at its tip, which fits into a corresponding groove in the lower portion of the beak; the gape extends as far as the hindermost corner of the eye. The plumage is soft, and resembles that of the Owl. The beak has but a sparse growth of bristles.

THE GIANT OWL SWALLOW.

The GIANT OWL SWALLOW (_Podargus humeralis_) is a bird about the size of a Crow. The upper part of the body is brown marked with greyish white and dark brown, the top of the head being streaked with blackish brown, and spotted with white. The quills are brownish black, marked with rows of spots upon the outer, and striped upon the inner web; the beak is light brown shaded with purple; the feet and eyes are yellowish brown. The many varieties of this species resemble each other both in appearance and habits.

"Like the rest of the genus, the _Podargus humeralis_ is strictly nocturnal, sleeping throughout the day on the dead branch of a tree, in an upright position, across and never parallel to the branch, and which it so closely resembles as scarcely to be distinguishable from it. I have occasionally seen it beneath the thick foliage of the Casuarinæ; and I have been informed that it sometimes shelters itself in the hollow trunks of the Eucalypti, but I could never detect one in such a situation. I mostly found them in pairs, perched near each other on the branches of the Gums, in places not at all sheltered from the beams of the mid-day sun."--GOULD.

The sleep of the Giant Owl Swallow is so profound that one of a pair may be shot from a branch without the mate that is sleeping at its side being roused, and the heavy sluggard may be pelted with stones, or struck with a stick, without being awakened from its slumbers. Should it at last be roused to consciousness, it scarcely exhibits animation sufficient to prevent it from falling to the ground, as it slowly flutters, in a semi-torpid state, to the nearest tree, when it at once perches, and falls into a sleep as heavy as that from which it has just been disturbed. No sooner, however, has night set in, than the previously drowsy stupid bird becomes a new creature, and after carefully preening its plumage, at once proceeds to run actively and briskly up and down the branches of trees in search of Grasshoppers; it also extracts larvæ from under the bark, after the manner of Woodpeckers, or dives down holes and fissures to find any delicate morsels that may be concealed within. Its flight is not particularly good, owing to the shortness of it wings, but it passes with considerable rapidity from tree to tree, and occasionally amuses itself by a variety of manoeuvres in the air. Gould is of opinion that this species lives entirely upon insects, but Verreaux affirms that it frequents morasses during winter, when food is scarce, and consumes snails or other inhabitants of the water, and that in the breeding season it will attack young birds, kill them by repeatedly striking them against the stem of the tree, and then devour them. The pursuit of prey is carried on late in the evening, and again just before dawn, the intermediate hours being devoted to the process of digestion, combined with heavy sleep. The breeding season commences about July, and is ushered in by repeated battles between the males, whose loud voices become louder and more dissonant as they dispute possession of a female, or exert themselves to please her with their vocal efforts. Both parents co-operate in building their small, flat nest, which is most carelessly constructed of fine twigs lined with grass and feathers, and is usually placed in a forked branch at about five or six feet from the ground. The eggs are from two to four in number, their shape is elongate, and their colour pure white, so that they are often distinctly visible through the thin walls of their slightly constructed abode. Both parents assist in their incubation, the father sitting upon them during the night, and seeking food during the day, whilst the female takes her place upon the nest in his absence. Should the sun's rays prove too powerful for the young, they are carried to a shady nook or hole until mid-day is passed. By November they are fully fledged, but remain for some time longer under parental care and tuition. Gould and Verreaux both inform us that if the season be unusually cold, it is not uncommon for the Giant Owl Swallow to remain for a time in a hole, or on a branch, in a state of complete torpidity. Such of these birds as we have seen caged in Europe were extremely tame, and would not only eat from the hand, but allowed themselves to be carried about the room without any sign of fear.

* * * * *

The FROG-MOUTHS (_Batrachostomus_) constitute a group of comparatively small birds, inhabiting India and its neighbouring islands. Though smaller than the Giant Owl Swallow, they have a still larger beak, which is very broad and flat at its base, slightly arched at its tip, and terminates in a hook; the upper mandible projects over the lower one in all directions; the nostrils are small and covered with feathers, and the wings abruptly rounded; the tail is long, and is either graduated, or has the outer feathers very short; the tarsi and feet are small but strong, the toes powerful and very flexible.

THE PLUMED FROG-MOUTH.

The PLUMED FROG-MOUTH (_Batrachostomus cornutus_ or _B. Javanensis_) is an inhabitant of Java, and distinguished from its congeners, not only by the remarkable arrangement of the head-feathers, but by the beauty of its plumage. In this bird the region of the ears and brow is covered with a plume of long, ragged feathers, which hangs down over the eyes and makes the head appear of a size very disproportionate to the rest of the body. The plumage on the back is light rust-red, marked with fine zig-zag black lines, the nape being adorned with a white crescent-shaped patch; the shoulder-feathers are tipped with white spots thrown into relief by an ornamented semicircular line of black at their tips; the brow is marked with reddish yellow spots. The centre of the throat and upper part of the breast and belly are white, partially marked with zig-zag lines; the lower breast is rust-red, spotted with black and white; the tail is light reddish yellow, striped seven or eight times with a deeper shade, and streaked with black; the quills are similarly decorated. The eye is sulphur-yellow, the feet brown, and the beak pale yellow. This extraordinary looking bird chiefly inhabits the thickets of allangallany palm-trees that abound in Java at about 3,000 feet above the level of the sea. Bernstein, who was the first to give us any account of it, says nothing as to its life or habits, but has given us a description of the nest. This delicate little structure, which is formed almost entirely of down from the body of the bird, is placed in a hole within the stem of the palm, and is so small as to render it impossible for the parent to sit in it whilst engaged in the process of incubation. The female is therefore compelled to lie along the stem that encloses her snug cradle, and whilst holding firmly on with her feet, presses her breast against the opening of the nest, and thus imparts warmth to her young. The one egg found by Bernstein was oval in shape and of a dull white, streaked and spotted with brownish red; these markings were most thickly strewn over the broad end, where they formed a kind of wreath.

Another very similar species (_B. auritus_) has the face ornamented with a pair of large tufts of light feathers that project horizontally, giving the bird a very singular and grotesque appearance.

THE SINGING BIRDS (_Oscines_).

Under this name we class numerous families, all of which are more or less distinguished for the perfection of their vocal apparatus. In appearance the members of this order are for the most part pleasing and elegant, and their disposition usually attractive and engaging. Their body is long, the neck short, and their head comparatively large; the beak, though differing much as to its formation, is almost invariably small, straight, or only very slightly curved, and the upper mandible is generally more or less incised; the tarsi are covered with horny plates, the toes long, and the claws large and sharp; the wings, invariably of moderate size, are formed of ten quills, the first of these being usually much stunted or not at all developed; the tail is by no means large, and composed of twelve feathers. The plumage, which is soft, thick, and occasionally downy in texture, is simple and uniform in its coloration; some few species, however, are brilliantly ornamented. The young at first differ considerably in appearance from the adult birds, and both young and old moult their feathers once within the year. All the members of this extensive order are active, intelligent, and extremely restless; their flight is light and rapid, and their movements amongst the branches or upon the ground are distinguished by extraordinary agility. In all, the sight and hearing are very perfect. They live chiefly upon insects and seeds of various kinds, but some few species will kill and devour small birds or similar prey. Every part of the world is enlivened by the presence of these delightful warblers, whose cheerful voices are heard even in the most dreary and desolate regions, on burning, sandy plains, as well as upon the ice-bound shores of arctic regions. Such as inhabit tropical climates do not migrate; but those within the temperate zones, as winter approaches, remove towards the south, seeing that their native lands at that season do not afford them a sufficient supply of food. Very great variety is observable in the construction of the nests built by different species of singing birds, many exhibiting wonderful skill, and in some cases actually _sewing_ together the materials they employ, with their sharp beaks, whilst others are contented to drag a few leaves into a hole and thereon deposit their brood. The eggs, sometimes five or six in number, are hatched by the agency of both parents, who also assist each other in procuring food for the young progeny. The latter grow with great rapidity, and are capable of providing for a family of their own after the first year.

* * * * *

The TOOTH-BEAKED SINGING BIRDS (_Dentirostres_) constitute a large tribe, the members of which are at once recognisable by a notch or tooth at the extremity of the upper mandible.

* * * * *

The SHRIKES (_Lanii_) are a very numerous and well-known group, equally common in all parts of the world. In these birds the body is powerful and the breast prominent; their neck is strong, the head comparatively large and round, the wings broad and rounded, the third or fourth quill far exceeding the rest in length, while their tail is long and graduated. The beak is powerful, compressed at its sides, and terminates in a strong hook, near which the upper mandible has a very perceptible tooth-like appendage. The feet are large and robust, the toes long, and armed with sharp claws; the plumage is rich, thick, and lax, and its coloration pleasing and varied.

Woods surrounded by meadows or pasture lands are the favourite resorts of these birds; but they are also constantly found dwelling in hedges, among brushwood, or upon solitary trees. Such species as frequent northern latitudes migrate regularly during the autumn, and find their way, in pursuit of food, even to Central Africa. In their habits they closely resemble some of the birds of prey, and their movements bear considerable similarity to those of the Raven family. Although by no means conspicuously endowed in most respects, the voice in some species is highly developed, and all seem capable of improving their natural powers of song, by imitating the sounds produced by other birds. Their flight is irregular, and their step upon the ground a mere series of hops; but, despite these deficiencies, they display great dexterity in securing their prey, even should it equal themselves in size; and are exceeded by no other members of the feathered creation in rapacity and the cruelty which they display towards their victims. They devour insects in large quantities, but by no means rely solely upon them for food, for they destroy great numbers of Sparrows and other small birds; and their attacks are all the more dangerous as they are entirely unsuspected. It is not uncommon to see a large party of little birds quietly perched around a Shrike, and evidently regarding it as a friendly companion, whilst in reality the treacherous intruder is merely watching for a favourable moment to dart upon and kill some member of the group that it has already singled out as its prey. One very remarkable habit, depicted in the engraving on page 145, is highly characteristic of this family; we allude to the practice of spiking their victims upon sharp thorns, from which circumstance they have obtained the well-merited appellation of BUTCHER BIRDS. The nest of the Shrike is artistically constructed of the green portions of plants, and placed in a thick bush or closely-foliaged branch. The brood consists of from four to six eggs, which are hatched by the female alone, whilst her mate undertakes the duty of providing for her nourishment. Both parents assist in feeding the nestlings, and in defending them. The young remain under parental care and instruction for a considerable time after they are fully fledged, sometimes not leaving it until the winter, for the Shrike, if undisturbed, breeds but once in the course of the year.

THE SENTINEL BUTCHER BIRD.

The SENTINEL BUTCHER BIRD, or GREAT GREY SHRIKE (_Lanius Excubitor_), is from nine and a half to ten inches long, and its breadth about fourteen inches; the wing measures four inches and the tail four and a half. Upon the upper part of the body the plumage is of an uniform light grey; the under side is pure white, and a broad black stripe passes across the eyes. The upper half of the large primary quills, as well as the inner webs and tips of the secondaries, are white, their other portions and the rest of the quills being black; the centre tail-feathers are black, but with the exception of a large black spot upon the centre of the inner web of the fifth, and a black streak upon the shaft of the exterior feather, the rest are entirely white. The eye is brown, the beak black, and the foot dark grey; the plumage of the female is less pure in its coloration than that of her mate: the young are recognisable by the wave-like markings upon the breast and other parts of the body. The egg is shown at Fig. 3, Coloured Plate XVI.