Chapter IX: Front Matter (9)

By far the most distinguished of the family, however, was Antoine--_le grand_ Arnauld, as contemporaries called him--the twentieth and youngest child of the original Antoine. Born in 1612, he was originally intended for the bar; but decided instead to study theology at the Sorbonne. Here he was brilliantly successful, and was on the high-road to preferment, when he came under the influence of du Vergier, and was drawn in the direction of Jansenism. His book, _De la frequente Communion_ (1643), did more than anything else to make the aims and ideals of this movement intelligible to the general public. Its appearance raised a violent storm, and Arnauld eventually withdrew into hiding; for more than twenty years he dared not make a public appearance in Paris. During all this time his pen was busy with innumerable Jansenist pamphlets. In 1655 two very outspoken _Lettres a un duc et pair_ on Jesuit methods in the confessional brought on a motion to expel him from the Sorbonne. This motion was the immediate cause of Pascal's _Provincial Letters_. Pascal, however, failed to save his friend; in February 1656 Arnauld was solemnly degraded. Twelve years later the tide of fortune turned. The so-called peace of Clement IX. put an end to persecution. Arnauld emerged from his retirement, was most graciously received by Louis XIV., and treated almost as a popular hero. He now set to work with Nicole (q.v.) on a great work against the Calvinists: _La Perpetuite de la foi catholique touchant l'eucharistie_. Ten years later, however, another storm of persecution burst. Arnauld was compelled to fly from France, and take refuge in the Netherlands, finally settling down at Brussels. Here the last sixteen years of his life were spent in incessant controversy with Jesuits, Calvinists and misbelievers of all kinds; here he died on the 8th of August 1694. His inexhaustible energy is best expressed by his famous reply to Nicole, who complained of feeling tired. "Tired!" echoed Arnauld, "when you have all eternity to rest in?" Nor was this energy by any means absorbed by purely theological questions. He was one of the first to adopt the philosophy of Descartes, though with certain orthodox reservations; and between 1683 and 1685 he had a long battle with Malebranche on the relation of theology to metaphysics. On the whole, public opinion leant to Arnauld's side. When Malebranche complained that his adversary had misunderstood him, Boileau silenced him with the question: "My dear sir, whom do you expect to understand you, if M. Arnauld does not?" And popular regard for Arnauld's penetration was much increased by his _Art de penser_, commonly known as the _Port-Royal Logic_, which has kept its place as an elementary text-book until quite modern times. Lastly a considerable place has quite lately been claimed for Arnauld among the mathematicians of his age; a recent critic even describes him as the Euclid of the 17th century. In general, however, since his death his reputation has been steadily on the wane. Contemporaries admired him chiefly as a master of close and serried reasoning; herein Bossuet, the greatest theologian of the age, was quite at one with d'Aguesseau, the greatest lawyer. But a purely controversial writer is seldom attractive to posterity. Anxiety to drive home every possible point, and cut his adversary off from every possible line of retreat, makes him seem intolerably prolix. "In spite of myself," Arnauld once said regretfully, "my books are seldom very short." And even lucidity may prove a snare to those who trust to it alone, and scornfully refuse to appeal to the imagination or the feelings. It is to be feared that, but for his connexion with Pascal, Arnauld's name would be almost forgotten--or, at most, live only in the famous epitaph Boileau consecrated to his memory--

"Au pied de cet autel de structure grossiere
Git sans pompe, enferme dans une vile biere
Le plus savant mortel qui jamais ait ecrit."

Full details as to the lives and writings of the Arnaulds will be
found in the various books mentioned at the close of the article on
Port Royal. The most interesting account of Angelique will be found in
_Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de Port-Royal_ (3 vols., Utrecht
1742). Three volumes of her correspondence were also published at the
same time and place. There are excellent modern lives of her in
English by Miss Frances Martin (_Angelique Arnauld_, 1873) and by A.
K. H. (_Angelique of Port Royal_, 1905). Antoine Arnauld's complete
works--thirty-seven volumes in forty-two parts--were published in
Paris, 1775-1781. No modern biography of him exists; but there is a
study of his philosophy in Bouillier, _Histoire de la philosophie
cartesienne_ (Paris, 1868); and his mathematical achievements are
discussed by Dr Bopp in the 14th volume of the _Abhandlungen zur
Geschichte der mathematischen Wissenschaften_ (Leipzig, 1902). The
memoirs of Arnauld d'Andilly and of his son, the abbe Arnauld, are
reprinted both in Petitot's and Poujoulat's collections of memoirs
illustrative of the 17th century. (St. C.)

ARNAULT, ANTOINE VINCENT (1766-1834), French dramatist, was born in Paris in January 1766. His first play, _Marius a Minturnes_ (1791), immediately established his reputation. A year later he followed up his first success with a second republican tragedy, _Lucrece_. He left France during the Terror and on his return was arrested by the revolutionary authorities, but was liberated through the intervention of Fabre d'Eglantine and others. He was commissioned by Bonaparte in 1797 with the reorganization of the Ionian Islands, and was nominated to the Institute and made secretary general of the university. He was faithful to his patron through his misfortunes, and after the Hundred Days remained in exile until 1819. In 1829 he was re-elected to the Academy and became perpetual secretary in 1833. Others of his plays are _Blanche et Montcassin, ou les Venitiens_ (1798); and _Germanicus_ (1816), the performance of which was the occasion of a disturbance in the _parterre_ which threatened serious political complications. His tragedies are perhaps less known now than his _Fables_ (1813, 1815 and 1826), which are written in very graceful verse. Arnault collaborated in a _Vie politique et militaire de Napoleon_ (1822), and wrote some very interesting _Souvenirs d'un sexagenaire_ (1833), which contain much out-of-the-way information about the history of the years previous to 1804. Arnault died at Goderville on the 16th of September 1834.

His eldest son, Emilien Lucien (1787-1863), wrote several tragedies, the leading roles in which were interpreted by Talma.

See Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. 7. Arnault's _Oeuvres
completes_ (4 vols.) were published at the Hague and Paris in
1818-1819 and again (8 vols.) at Paris in 1824.

ARNDT, ERNST MORITZ (1769-1860), German poet and patriot, was born on the 26th of December 1769 at Schoritz in the island of Rugen, which at that time belonged to Sweden. He was the son of a prosperous farmer, and emancipated serf of the lord of the district, Count Putbus; his mother came of well-to-do German yeoman stock. In 1787 the family removed into the neighbourhood of Stralsund, where Arndt was enabled to attend the academy. After an interval of private study he went in 1791 to the university of Greifswald as a student of theology and history, and in 1793 removed to Jena, where he fell under the influence of Fichte. On the completion of his university course he returned home, was for two years a private tutor in the family of Ludwig Kosegarten (1758-1818), pastor of Wittow and poet, and having qualified for the ministry as a "candidate of theology," assisted in the church services. At the age of twenty-eight he renounced the ministry, and for eighteen months he led a wandering life, visiting Austria, Hungary, Italy, France and Belgium. Returning homewards up the Rhine, he was moved by the sight of the ruined castles along its banks to intense bitterness against France. The impressions of this journey he later described in _Reisen durch einen Theil Teutschlands, Ungarns, Italiens und Frankreichs in den Jahren 1798 und 1799_ (1802-1804). In 1800 he settled in Greifswald as _privat-docent_ in history, and the same year published _Uber die Freiheit der alien Republiken_. In 1803 appeared _Germanien und Europa_," a fragmentary ebullition," as be himself called it, of his views on the French aggression. This was followed by one of the most remarkable of his books, _Versuch einer Geschichte der Leibeigenschaft in Pommern und Rugen_ (Berlin, 1803), a history of serfdom in Pomerania and Rugen, which was so convincing an indictment that King Gustavus Adolphus IV. in 1806 abolished the evil. Arndt had meanwhile risen from _privat-docent_ to extraordinary professor, and in 1806 was appointed to the chair of history at the university. In this year he published the first part of his _Geist der Zeit_, in which he flung down the gauntlet to Napoleon and called on his countrymen to rise and shake off the French yoke. So great was the excitement it produced that Arndt was compelled to take refuge in Sweden to escape the vengeance of Napoleon. Settling in Stockholm, he obtained government employment, but devoted himself to the great cause which was nearest his heart, and in pamphlets, poems and songs communicated his enthusiasm to his countrymen. Schill's heroic death at Stralsund impelled him to return to Germany and, under the disguise of "Almann, teacher of languages," he reached Berlin in December 1809. In 1810 he returned to Greifswald, but only for a few months. He again set out on his adventurous travels, lived in close contact with the first men of his time, such as Blucher, Gneisenau and Stein, and in 1812 was summoned by the last named to St Petersburg to assist in the organization of the final struggle against France. Meanwhile, pamphlet after pamphlet, full of bitter hatred of the French oppressor, came from his pen, and his stirring patriotic songs, such as _Was ist das deutsche Vaterland? Der Gott, der Eisen wachsen liess_, and _Was blasen die Trompeten?_ were on all lips. When, after the peace, the university of Bonn was founded in 1818, Arndt was appointed to the chair of modern history. In this year appeared the fourth part of his _Geist der Zeit_, in which he criticized the reactionary policy of the German powers. The boldness of his demands for reform offended the Prussian government, and in the summer of 1819 he was arrested and his papers confiscated. Although speedily liberated, he was in the following year, at the instance of the Central Commission of Investigation at Mainz, established in accordance with the Carlsbad Decrees, arraigned before a specially constituted tribunal. Although not found guilty, he was forbidden to exercise the functions of his professorship, but was allowed to retain the stipend. The next twenty years he passed in retirement and literary activity. In 1840 he was reinstated in his professorship, and in 1841 was chosen rector of the university. The revolutionary outbreak of 1848 rekindled in the venerable patriot his old hopes and energies, and he took his seat as one of the deputies to the National Assembly at Frankfort. He formed one of the deputation that offered the imperial crown to Frederick William IV., and indignant at the king's refusal to accept it, he retired with the majority of von Gagern's adherents from public life. He continued to lecture and to write with freshness and vigour, and on his 90th birthday received from all parts of Germany good wishes and tokens of affection. He died at Bonn on the 29th of January 1860. Arndt was twice married, first in 1800, his wife dying in the following year; a second time in 1817.

Arndt's untiring labour for his country rightly won for him the title
of "the most German of all Germans." His lyric poems are not, however,
all confined to politics. Many among the Gedichte (1803-1818; complete
edition, 1860) are religious pieces of great beauty. Among his other
works are _Reise durch Schweden_ (1797); _Nebenstunden, eine
Beschreibung und Geschichte der schottlandischen Inseln und der
Orkaden_ (1820); _Die Frage uber die Niederlande_ (1831);
_Erinnerungen aus dem ausseren Leben_ (an autobiography, and the most
valuable source of information for Arndt's life, 1840); _Rhein- und
Ahrwanderungen_ (1846), _Wanderungen und Wandlungen mit dem
Reichsfreiherrn von Stein_ (1858), and _Pro populo Germanico_ (1854),
which was originally intended to form the fifth part of the _Geist der
Zeit_. Arndt's _Werke_ have been edited by H. Rosch and H. Meisner in
8 vols. (not complete) (1892-1898). Biographies have been written by
E. Langenberg (1869) and Wilhelm Baur (5th ed., 1882); see also H.
Meisner and R. Geerds, _E.M. Arndt, ein Lebensbild in Briefen_ (1898),
and R. Thiele, _E.M. Arndt_ (1894). There are monuments to his memory
at Schoritz, his birthplace, and at Bonn, where he is buried.

ARNDT, JOHANN (1555-1621), German Lutheran theologian, was born at Ballenstedt, in Anhalt, and studied in several universities. He was at Helmstadt in 1576; at Wittenberg in 1577. At Wittenberg the crypto-Calvinist controversy was then at its height, and he took the side of Melanchthon and the crypto-Calvinists. He continued his studies in Strassburg, under the professor of Hebrew, Johannes Pappus (1549-1610), a zealous Lutheran, the crown of whose life's work was the forcible suppression of Calvinistic preaching and worship in the city, and who had great influence over him. In Basel, again, he studied theology under Simon Sulzer (1508-1585), a broad-minded divine of Lutheran sympathies, whose aim was to reconcile the churches of the Helvetic and Wittenberg confessions. In 1581 he went back to Ballenstedt, but was soon recalled to active life by his appointment to the pastorate at Badeborn in 1583. After some time his Lutheran tendencies exposed him to the anger of the authorities, who were of the Reformed Church. Consequently, in 1590 he was deposed for refusing to remove the pictures from his church and discontinue the use of exorcism in baptism. He found an asylum in Quedlinburg (1590), and afterwards was transferred to St Martin's church at Brunswick (1599). Arndt's fame rests on his writings. These were mainly of a mystical and devotional kind, and were inspired by St Bernard, J. Tauler and Thomas a Kempis. His principal work, _Wahres Christentum_ (1606-1609), which has been translated into most European languages, has served as the foundation of many books of devotion, both Roman Catholic and Protestant. Arndt here dwells upon the mystical union between the believer and Christ, and endeavours, by drawing attention to Christ's life _in_ His people, to correct the purely forensic side of the Reformation theology, which paid almost exclusive attention to Christ's death _for_ His people. Like Luther, Arndt was very fond of the little anonymous book, _Deutsche Theologie_. He published an edition of it and called attention to its merits in a special preface. After _Wahres Christentum_, his best-known work is _Paradiesgartlein aller christlichen Tugenden_, which was published in 1612. Both these books have been translated into English; _Paradiesgartlein_ with the title the _Garden of Paradise_. Several of his sermons are published in R. Nesselmann's _Buch der Predigten_ (1858). Arndt has always been held in very high repute by the German Pietists. The founder of Pietism, Philipp Jacob Spener, repeatedly called attention to him and his writings, and even went so far as to compare him with Plato (cf. Karl Scheele, _Plato und Johann Arndt, Ein Vortrag, &c._, 1857).

A collected edition of his works was published in Leipzig and Gorlitz
in 1734. A valuable account of Arndt is to be found in C. Aschmann's
_Essai sur la vie, &c., de J. Arndt_. See further, Herzog-Hauck,
_Realencyklopadie_.

ARNE, THOMAS AUGUSTINE (1710-1778), English musical composer, was born in London on the 12th of March 1710, his father being an upholsterer. Intended for the legal profession, he was educated at Eton, and afterwards apprenticed to an attorney for three years. His natural inclination for music, however, proved irresistible, and his father, finding from his performance at an amateur musical party that he was already a skilful violinist, furnished him with the means of educating himself in his favourite art. On the 7th of March 1733 he produced his first work at Lincoln's Inn Fields theatre, a setting of Addison's _Rosamond_, the heroine's part being performed by his sister, Susanna Maria, who afterwards became celebrated as Mrs Gibber. This proving a success was immediately followed by a burletta, entitled _The Opera of Operas_, based on Fielding's _Tragedy of Tragedies_. The part of Tom Thumb was played by Arne's young brother, and the opera was produced at the Haymarket theatre. On the 19th of December 1733 Arne produced at the same theatre the masque _Dido and Aeneas_, a subject of which the musical conception had been immortalized for Englishmen more than half a century earlier by Henry Purcell. Arne's individuality of style first distinctly asserted itself in the music to Dr Dalton's adaptation of Milton's _Comus_, which was performed at Drury Lane in 1738, and speedily established his reputation. In 1740 he wrote the music for Thomson and Mallet's _Masque of Alfred_, which is noteworthy as containing the most popular of all his airs--"Rule, Britannia!" In 1740 he also wrote his beautiful settings of the songs, "Under the greenwood tree," "Blow, blow, thou winter wind" and "When daisies pied," for a performance of Shakespeare's _As You Like It_. Four years before this, in 1736, he had married Cecilia, the eldest daughter of Charles Young, organist of All Hallows Barking. She was considered the finest English singer of the day and was frequently engaged by Handel in the performance of his music. In 1742 Arne went with his wife to Dublin, where he remained two years and produced his oratorio _Abel_, containing the beautiful melody known as the Hymn of Eve, the operas _Britannia, Eliza_ and _Comus_, and where he also gave a number of successful concerts. On his return to London he was engaged as leader of the band at Drury Lane theatre (1744), and as composer at Vauxhall (1745). In this latter year he composed his successful pastoral dialogue, _Colin and Phoebe_, and in 1746 the song, "Where the bee sucks." In 1759 he received the degree of doctor of music from Oxford. In 1760 he transferred his services to Covent Garden theatre, where on the 28th of November he produced his _Thomas and Sally_. Here, too, on the 2nd of February 1762 he produced his _Artaxerxes_, an opera in the Italian style with recitative instead of spoken dialogue, the popularity of which is attested by the fact that it continued to be performed at intervals for upwards of eighty years. The libretto, by Arne himself, was a very poor translation of Metastasio's _Artaserse_. In 1762 also was produced the ballad-opera _Love in a Cottage_. His oratorio _Judith_, of which the first performance was on the 27th of February 1761 at Drury Lane, was revived at the chapel of the Lock hospital, Pimlico, on the 29th of February 1764, in which year was also performed his setting of Metastasio's _Olimpiade_ in the original language at the King's theatre in the Haymarket. At a later performance of _Judith_ at Covent Garden theatre on the 26th of February 1773 Arne for the first time introduced female voices into oratorio choruses. In 1769 he wrote the musical parts for Garrick's ode for the Shakespeare jubilee at Stratford-on-Avon, and in 1770 he gave a mutilated version of Purcell's _King Arthur_. One of his last dramatic works was the music to Mason's _Caractacus_, published in 1775. Though inferior to Purcell in intensity of feeling, Arne has not been surpassed as a composer of graceful and attractive melody. There is true genius in such airs as "Rule, Britannia!" and "Where the bee sucks," which still retain their original freshness and popularity. As a writer of glees he does not take such high rank, though he deserves notice as the leader in the revival of that peculiarly English form of composition. He was author as well as composer of _The Guardian outwitted_, _The Rose_, _The Contest of Beauty and Virtue_, and _Phoebe at Court_. Dr Arne died on the 5th of March 1778, and was buried at St Paul's, Covent Garden.

See also the article in _Grove's Dictionary_ (new ed.); and two
interesting papers in the _Musical Times_, November and December 1901.

ARNETH, ALFRED, RITTER VON (1819-1897), Austrian historian, born at Vienna on the both of July 1819, was the son of Joseph Calasanza von Arneth (1791-1863), a well-known historian and archaeologist, who wrote a history of the Austrian empire (Vienna, 1827) and several works on numismatics. Alfred Arneth studied law, and became an official of the Austrian state archives, of which in 1868 he was appointed keeper. He was a moderate liberal in politics and a supporter of the ideal of German unity. As such he was elected to the Frankfort parliament in 1848. In 1861 he became a member of the Lower Austrian diet and in 1869 was nominated to the Upper House of the Austrian Reichsrath. In 1879 he was appointed president of the _Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften_ (Academy of Sciences) at Vienna, and in 1896 succeeded von Sybel as chairman of the historical commission at Munich. He died on the 30th of July 1897.

Arneth was an indefatigable worker, and, as director of the archives, his broad-minded willingness to listen to the advice of experts, as well as his own sound sense, did much to promote the more scientific treatment and use of public records in most of the archives of Europe. His scientific temper and the special facilities which he enjoyed for drawing from original sources give to his numerous historical works a very special value.

Among his publications may be mentioned: _Leben des Feld-marschalls
Grafen Guido Starhemberg_ (Vienna, 1863); _Prinz Eueen von Savoyen_ (3
vols., _ib_. 1864); _Gesch. der Maria Theresa_ (10 vols., _ib_.
1863-1879); _Maria Theresa u. Marie Antoinette, ihr Briefwechsel_
(_ib_. 1866); _Marie Antoinette, Joseph II. und Leopold II., ihr
Briefwechsel_ (1866); _Maria Theresa und Joseph II., ihre
Korrespondenz samt Briefen Josephs an seinen Bruder Leopold_ (3 vols.,
1867); _Beaumarchais und Sonnenfels_ (1868); _Joseph II. und Katharina
von Russland, ihr Briefwechsel_ (1869); _Johann Christian Barthenstein
und seine Zeit_ (1871); _Joseph II. und Leopold von Toskana, ihr
Briefwechsel_ (2 vols., 1872); _Briefe der Kaiserin Maria Theresa an
ihre Kinder und Freunde_ (4 vols., 1881); _Marie Antoinette:
Correspondance secrete entre Marie-Therese et le comte de
Mercy-Argenteau_ (3 vols., Paris, 1875), in collaboration with Auguste
Geffroy; _Graf Philipp Cobenzl und seine Memoiren_ (1885);
_Correspondance secrete du comte de Mercy-Argenteau avec l'empereur
Joseph II. et Kaunitz_ (2 vols., 1889-1891), in collaboration with
Jules Flammermont; _Anton Ritter von Schmerling. Episoden aus seinem
Leben 1835, 1848-1849_ (1895); _Johann Freiherr von Wessenberg, ein
osterreichischer Staatsmann des 19. Jahrh._ (2 vols., 1898). Arneth
also published in 1893 two volumes of early reminiscences under the
title of _Aus meinem Leben_.

ARNHEM, or ARNHEIM, the capital of the province of Gelderland, Holland, on the right bank of the Rhine (here crossed by a pontoon bridge), and a junction station 35 m. by rail E.S.E. of Utrecht. Pop. (1900) 57,240. It is connected by tramway with Zutphen and Utrecht, and there is a regular service of steamers to Cologne, Amsterdam, Nijmwegen, Tiel, 's Hertogenbosch and Rotterdam. Arnhem is a gay and fashionable town prettily situated at the foot of the Veluwe hills, and enjoys a special reputation for beauty on account of its wooded and hilly surroundings, which have attracted many wealthy people to its neighbourhood. The Groote Kerk of St Eusebius, built in the third quarter of the 15th century, contains the marble monument to Charles (d. 1538), the last duke of Gelderland of the Egmont dynasty. High up against the wall is an effigy of the same duke in his armour. The fine lofty tower contains a chime of forty-five bells. The Roman Catholic church of St Walburgis is of earlier date, and a new Roman Catholic church dates from 1894. The town hall was built as a palace by Maarten van Rossum, Duke Charles's general, at the end of the 15th century, and was only converted to its present use in 1830. Its grotesque external ornamentation earned for it the name of Duivelshuis, or devil's house. The provincial government house occupies the site of the former palace of the dukes of Gelderland. Other buildings are the court-house, a public library containing many old works, a theatre, a large concert-hall, a museum of antiquities (as well as a separate collection of Spanish antiquities), a gymnasium, a teachers' and art school, a building (1880) to contain the provincial archives, a hospital (1889) and barracks. On account of its proximity to the fertile Betuwe district and its situation near the confluence of the Rhine and Ysel, the markets and shipping of Arnhem are in a flourishing condition. A wharf for building and repairing iron steamers was constructed in 1889. The manufactures include woollen and cotton goods, paper, earthenware, soap, carriages, furniture and tobacco, which is cultivated in the neighbourhood. Wool-combing and dyeing are also carried on, and there are oil and timber mills.

The environs of Arnhem are much admired. Following either the Zutphen or the Utrecht road, numerous pleasing views of the Rhine valley present themselves, and country houses and villas appear among the woods on every side. At Bronbeek, a short distance east of the town, is a hospital endowed by King William III. for soldiers of the colonial army. Beyond is the popular summer resort of Velp, with the castle of Biljoen built by Charles, duke of Gelderland, in 1530, and the beautiful park of the ancient castle of Rozendaal in the vicinity. The origin of the castle of Rozendaal is unknown. The first account of it is in connexion with a tournament given there by Reinald I., count of Gelderland, in the beginning of the 14th century, and it ever after remained the favourite residence of the counts and dukes of Gelderland. About the beginning of the 18th century fountains and lanes in the style of those at Versailles were laid out in the park, and soon after the castle itself, of which only the round tower remained (and is still standing), was rebuilt. The park is open to the public, and is famous for the beauty of the beech avenues and fir woods. Beyond this is De Steeg, another popular resort, whence stretches the famous Middachten Allee of beech trees to Dieren. On the Apeldoorn road is Sonsbeek, with a wooded park and small lakes, formerly a private seat and now belonging to the municipality. On the west of Arnhem is another pleasure ground, called the Reeberg, with a casino, and the woods of Heienoord. Close by is the ancient and well-preserved castle of Doornwerth with its own chapel. It was the seat of an independent lordship until 1402, after which time it was held in fief from the dukes of Gelderland. Beyond Doornwerth, at Renkum, is the royal country seat called Oranje-Nassau's Oord, which was bought by the crown in 1881.

_History._--Arnhem, called _Arnoldi Villa_ in the middle ages, is, according to some, the _Arenacum_ of the Romans, and is first mentioned in a document in 893. In 1233 Otto II., count of Gelderland, chose this spot as his residence, conferred municipal rights on the town, and fortified it. At a later period it entered the Hanseatic League. In 1473 it was captured by Charles the Bold of Burgundy. In 1505 it received the right of coining from Philip, son of the emperor Maximilian I. In 1514 Charles of Egmont, duke of Gelderland, took it from the Spaniards; but in 1543 it fell to the emperor Charles V., who made it the seat of the council of Gelderland. It joined the union of Utrecht in 1579, and came finally under the effective government of the states-general in 1585, all the later attacks of the Spaniards being repulsed. In 1586 Sir Philip Sidney died in the town from the effects of his wound received before Zutphen. The French took the town in 1672, but left it dismantled in 1674. It was refortified by the celebrated Dutch general of engineers, Coehoorn, in the beginning of the 18th century. In 1795 it was again stormed by the French, and in 1813 it was taken from them by the Prussians under Bullow. Gardens and promenades have now taken the place of the old ramparts, the last of which was levelled in 1853.

ARNICA, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Compositae, and containing 18 species, mostly north-west American. The most important species is _Arnicamontana_ (mountain tobacco), a perennial herb found in upland meadows in northern and central Europe (but not extending to Britain), and on the mountains of western and central Europe. A closely allied species (_A. angustifolia_), with very narrow leaves, is met with in Arctic Asia and America. The heads of flowers are large, 2 to 2-1/2 in. across, orange-yellow in colour, and borne on the summit of the stem or branches; the outer ray-flowers are an inch in length. The achenes (fruits) are brown and hairy, and are crowned by a tuft of stiffish hairs (pappus). The root-stock of _A. montana_ is tough, slender, of a dark brown colour and an inch or two in length. It gives off numerous simple roots from its under side, and shows on its upper side the remains of rosettes of leaves. It yields an essential oil in small quantity, and a resinous matter called arnicin, C12H22O2, a yellow crystalline substance with an acrid taste. The tincture prepared from it is an old remedy which has a popular reputation in the treatment of bruises and sprains. The plant was introduced into English gardens about the middle of the 18th century, but is not often grown; it is a handsome plant for a rockery.

ARNIM, ELISABETH (BETTINA) VON (1785-1859), German authoress, sister of Klemens Brentano, was born at Frankfort-On-Main on the 4th of April 1785. After being educated at a convent school in Fritzlar, she lived for a while with her grandmother, the novelist, Sophie Laroche (1731-1807), at Offenbach, and from 1803 to 1806 with her brother-in-law, Friedrich von Savigny, the famous jurist, at Marburg. In 1807 she made at Weimar the acquaintance of Goethe, for whom she entertained a violent passion, which the poet, although entering into correspondence with her, did not requite, but only regarded as a harmless fancy. Their friendship came to an abrupt end in 1811, owing to "Bettina's" insolent behaviour to Goethe's wife. In this year she married Ludwig Achim von Arnim (q.v.), by whom she had seven children. After her husband's death in 1831, her passion for Goethe revived, and in 1835 she published her remarkable book, _Goethes Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde_, which purported to be a correspondence between herself and the poet. Regarded at first as genuine, it was afterwards for many years looked upon as wholly fictitious, until the publication in 1879 of G. von Loeper's _Briefe Goethes an Sophie Laroche und Bettina Brentano, nebst dichterischen Beilagen_, which proved it to be based on authentic material, though treated with the greatest poetical licence. Equally fantastic is her correspondence _Die Gunderode_ (1840), with her unhappy friend, the poet, Karoline von Gunderode (1780-1806), who committed suicide, and that with her brother Klemens Brentano, under the title _Klemens Brentanos Fruhlingskranz_ (1844). She also published _Dies Buck gehort dem Konig_ (1843), in which she advocated the emancipation of the Jews, and the abolition of capital punishment. Among her other works may be mentioned _Ilius Pamphilius und die Ambrosia_ (1848), also a supposititious correspondence. In all her writings she showed real poetical genius, combined with evidence of an unbalanced mind and a mannerism which becomes tiresome. She died at Berlin on the 20th of January 1859. Part of a design by her for a colossal statue of Goethe, executed in marble by the sculptor Karl Steinhauser (1813-1878), is in the museum at Weimar.

Her collected works (_Samtliche Schriften_) were published in Berlin
in 11 vols., 1853. Goethe's _Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde_ has been
edited by H. Grimm (4th ed., Berlin, 1890). See also C. Alberti, _B.
von Arnim_ (Leipzig, 1885); Moritz Carriere, _Bettina von Arnim_
(Breslau, 1887), and the literature cited under Ludwig von Arnim.

ARNIM, HARRY KARL KURT EDUARD VON, COUNT (1824-1881), German diplomatist, was a member of one of the most numerous and most widely spread families of the Prussian nobility. He was born in Pomerania on the 3rd of October 1824, and brought up by his uncle Heinrich von Arnim, who was Prussian ambassador at Paris and foreign minister from March to June 1848, while Count Arnim-Boytzenburg, whose daughter Harry von Arnim afterwards married, was minister-president. It is noticeable that the uncle was brought before a court of justice and fined for publishing a pamphlet directed against the ministry of Manteuffel. After holding other posts in the diplomatic service Arnim was in 1864 appointed Prussian envoy (and in 1867 envoy of the North German Confederation) at the papal court. In 1869 he proposed that the governments should appoint representatives to be present at the Vatican council, a suggestion which was rejected by Bismarck, and foretold that the promulgation of papal infallibility would bring serious political difficulties. After the recall of the French troops from Rome he attempted unsuccessfully to mediate between the pope and the Italian government. He was appointed in 1871 German commissioner to arrange the final treaty with France, a task which he carried out with such success that in 1871 he was appointed German envoy at Paris, and in 1872 received his definite appointment as ambassador, a post of the greatest difficulty and responsibility. Differences soon arose between him and Bismarck; he wished to support the monarchical party which was trying to overthrow Thiers, while Bismarck ordered him to stand aloof from all French parties; he did not give that implicit obedience to his instructions which Bismarck required. Bismarck, however, was unable to recall him because of the great influence which he enjoyed at court and the confidence which the emperor placed in him. He was looked upon by the Conservative party, who were trying to overthrow Bismarck, as his successor, and it is said that he was closely connected with the court intrigues against the chancellor. In the beginning of 1874 he was recalled and appointed to the embassy at Constantinople, but this appointment was immediately revoked. A Vienna newspaper published some correspondence on the Vatican council, including confidential despatches of Arnim's, with the object of showing that he had shown greater foresight than Bismarck. It was then found that a considerable number of papers were missing from the Paris embassy, and on the 4th of October Arnim was arrested on the charge of embezzling state papers. This recourse to the criminal law against a man of his rank, who had held one of the most important diplomatic posts, caused great astonishment. His defence was that the papers were not official, and he was acquitted on the charge of embezzlement, but convicted of undue delay in restoring official papers and condemned to three months' imprisonment. On appeal the sentence was increased to nine months. Arnim avoided imprisonment by leaving the country, and in 1875 published anonymously at Zurich a pamphlet entitled "Pro nihilo," in which he attempted to show that the attack on him was caused by Bismarck's personal jealousy. For this he was accused of treason, insult to the emperor, and libelling Bismarck, and in his absence condemned to five years' penal servitude. From his exile in Austria he published two more pamphlets on the ecclesiastical policy of Prussia, "Der Nunzius kommt!" (Vienna, 1878), and "Quid faciamus nos?" (_ib._ 1879). He made repeated attempts, which were supported by his family, to be allowed to return to Germany in order to take his trial afresh on the charge of treason; his request had just been granted when he died on the 19th of May 1881.

In 1876 Bismarck carried an amendment to the criminal code making it an offence punishable with imprisonment or a fine up to L250 for an official of the foreign office to communicate to others official documents, or for an envoy to act contrary to his instructions. These clauses are commonly spoken of in Germany as the "Arnim paragraphs." (J. W. He.)

ARNIM, LUDWIG ACHIM (JOACHIM) VON (1781-1831), German poet and novelist, was born at Berlin on the 26th of January 1781. He studied natural science at Halle and Gottingen, and published one or two essays on scientific subjects; but his bent was from the first towards literature. From the earlier writings of Goethe and Herder he learned to appreciate the beauties of German traditional legends and folk-songs; and, forming a collection of these, published the result (1806-1808), in collaboration with Klemens Brentano (q.v.) under the title _Des Knaben Wunderhorn._ From 1810 onward he lived with his wife Bettina, Brentano's sister, alternately at Berlin and on his estate at Wiepersdorf, near Dahme in Brandenburg, where he died on the 21st of January 1831. Arnim was a prolific and versatile writer, gifted with a sense of humour and a refined imagination--qualities shown in the best-known of his works, _Des Knaben Wunderhorn_, deficient as this is in the philological accuracy and faithfulness to original sources which would now be expected of such a compilation. In general, however, his writings, full as they are of the exaggerated sentiment and affectations of the romantic school, make but little appeal to modern taste. There are possible exceptions, such as the short stories _Furst Ganzgott und Sanger Halbgott_ and _Der tolle Invalide auf dem Fort Ratonneau_ and the unfinished romance _Die Kronenwachter_ (1817), which promised to develop into one of the finest historical romances of the 19th century. Among Arnim's other works may be mentioned _Hollins Liebesleben_ (1802), _Der Wintergarten_ (1809), a collection of tales; _Armut, Reichtum Schuld, und Busse der Grafin Dolores_ (1810), a novel; _Halle und Jerusalem_ (1811), a dramatic romance; and one or two smaller novels, such as _Isabella von Agypten_ (1812).

Arnim's _Samtliche Werke_ were edited by his widow and published in
Berlin in 1839-1840; second edition in 22 vols., 1853-1856. Selections
have been edited by J. Dohmke (1892); M. Koch, _Arnim, Klemens und
Bettina Brentano, Gorres_ (1893). _Des Knaben Wunderhorn_ has been
frequently republished, the best edition being that of A. Birlinger
and W. Crecelius (2 vols., 1872-1876). See R. Steig, _Achim von Arnim
und Klemens Brentano_ (1894).

ARNIM-BOYTZENBURG, HANS GEORG VON (1581-1641), German general and diplomatist, was born in 1581 at Boytzenburg in Brandenburg. From 1613 to 1617 he served in the Swedish army under Gustavus Adolphus, took part in the Russian War, and afterwards fought against the Turks in the service of the king of Poland. In 1626, though a Protestant, he was induced by Wallenstein to join the new imperial army, in which he quickly rose to the rank of field marshal, and won the esteem of his soldiers as well as that of his commander, whose close friend and faithful ally he became. This attachment to Wallenstein, and a spirit of religious toleration, were the leading motives of a strange career of military and political inconstancy. Thus the dismissal of Wallenstein and the perilous condition of German Protestantism after the edict of Restitution combined to induce Arnim to quit the imperial service for that of the elector of Saxony. He had served under Gustavus many years before, and later he had defeated him in the field, when in command of a Polish army; the fortune of war now placed Arnim at the head of the Saxon army which fought by the side of the Swedes at Breitenfeld (1631), and indeed the alliance of these two Protestant powers in the cause of their common religion was largely his work. The reappearances of Wallenstein, however, caused him to hesitate and open negotiations, though he did not attempt to conceal his proceedings from the elector and Gustavus. During the Lutzen campaign, Arnim was operating with success at the head of an allied army in Silesia. In the following year he was under the hard necessity of opposing his old friend in the field, but little was done by either; the complicated political situation which followed the death of Gustavus at Lutzen led him into a renewal of the private negotiations of the previous year, though he did nothing actually treasonable in his relations with Wallenstein. In 1634 Wallenstein was assassinated, and Arnim began at once more active operations. He won an important victory at Liegnitz in May 1634, but from this time he became more and more estranged from the Swedes. The peace of Prague followed, in which Arnim's part, though considerable, was not all-important (1635). Soon after this event he refused an offer of high command in the French army and retired from active life. From 1637 to 1638 he was imprisoned in Stockholm, having been seized at Boytzenburg by the Swedes on suspicion of being concerned in various intrigues. He made his escape ultimately, and returned to Saxony. Arnim died suddenly at Dresden in 1641, whilst engaged in raising an army to free German soil from foreign armies of all kinds. (See THIRTY YEARS' WAR.)

See K.G. Helbig, "Wallenstein und Arnim" (1850) and "Der Prager
Friede," in Raumer's _Historisches Taschenbuch_ (1858); also E.D.M.
Kirchner, _Das Schloss Boytzenburg, &c._ (1860) and _Archiv fur die
sachsische Geschichte_, vol. viii. (1870).

ARNO, ARN or AQUILA (c. 750-821), bishop and afterwards archbishop of Salzburg, entered the church at an early age, and after passing some time at Freising became abbot of Elnon, or St Amand as it was afterwards called, where he made the acquaintance of Alcuin. In 785 he was made bishop of Salzburg and in 787 was employed by Tassilo III., duke of the Bavarians, as an envoy to Charlemagne at Rome. He appears to have attracted the notice of the Frankish king, through whose influence in 798 Salzburg was made the seat of an archbishopric; and Arno, as the first holder of this office, became metropolitan of Bavaria and received the pallium from Pope Leo III. The area of his authority was extended to the east by the conquests of Charlemagne over the Avars, and he began to take a prominent part in the government of Bavaria. He acted as one of the _missi dominici_, and spent some time at the court of Charlemagne, where he was known by the assembled scholars as Aquila, and his name appears as one of the signatories to the emperor's will. He established a library at Salzburg, furthered in other ways the interests of learning, and presided over several synods called to improve the condition of the church in Bavaria. Soon after the death of Charlemagne in 814, Arno appears to have withdrawn from active life, although he retained his archbishopric until his death on the 24th of January 821. Aided by a deacon named Benedict, Arno drew up about 788 a catalogue of lands and proprietary rights belonging to the church in Bavaria, under the title of _Indiculus_ or _Congestum Arnonis_. An edition of this work, which is of considerable value to historical students, was published at Munich in 1869 with notes by F. Keinz. Many other works were produced under the protection of Arno, among them a Salzburg consuetudinary, an edition of which appears in _Quellen und Erorterungen zur bayrischen und deutschen Geschichte_, Band vii., edited by L. Rockinger (Munich, 1856). It has been suggested by W. von Giesebrecht that Arno was the author of an early section of _Annales Laurissenses majores_, which deals with the history of the Frankish kings from 741 to 829, and of which an edition appears in _Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores_, Band i. pp. 128-131, edited by G.H. Pertz (Hanover, 1826). If this supposition be correct, Arno was the first extant writer to apply the name _Deutsch_ (_theodisca_) to the German language.

ARNO (anc. _Arnus_), a river of Italy which rises from the Monte Falterona, about 25 m. E.N.E. of Florence, 4265 ft. above the sea. It first runs S.S.E. through a beautiful valley, the Casentino; near Arezzo it turns W., and at Montevarchi N.N.W.; 10 m. below it forces its way through the limestone rock at Incisa and 10 m. farther on, at Pontassieve, it is joined by the Sieve. Thence it runs westward to Florence and through the gorge of Golfolina onwards to Empoli and Pisa, receiving various tributaries in its course, and falls into the sea 7-1/2 m. west of Pisa, after a total course of 155 m. In prehistoric times the river ran straight on along the valley of the Chiana and joined the Tiber near Orvieto; and there was a great lake, the north end of which was at Incisa and the south at the lake of Chiusi. The distance from Pisa to the mouth in the time of Strabo was only 2-1/2 m. The Serchio (anc. _Auser_), which joined the Arno at Pisa in ancient times, now flows into the sea independently. The Arno is navigable for barges as far as Florence; but it is liable to sudden floods, and brings down with it large quantities of earth and stones, so that it requires careful regulation. The most remarkable inundations were those of 1537 and 1740; in the former year the water rose to 8 ft. in the streets of Florence. The valley between Incisa and Arezzo contains accumulations of fossil bones of the deer, elephant, rhinoceros, mastodon, hippopotamus, bear, tiger, &c.

ARNOBIUS (called _Afer_, and sometimes "the Elder"), early Christian writer, was a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca Venerea in proconsular Africa during the reign of Diocletian. His conversion to Christianity is said by Jerome to have been occasioned by a dream; and the same writer adds that the bishop to whom Arnobius applied distrusted his professions, and asked some proof of them, and that the treatise _Adversus Gentes_ was composed for this purpose. But this story seems rather improbable; for Arnobius speaks contemptuously of dreams, and besides, his work bears no traces of having been written in a short time, or of having been revised by a Christian bishop. From internal evidence (bk. iv. 36) the time of composition may be fixed at about A.D. 303. Nothing further is known of the life of Arnobius. He is said to have been the author of a work on rhetoric, which, however, has not been preserved. His great treatise, in seven books, _Adversus Gentes_ (or _Nationes_), on account of which he takes rank as a Christian apologist, appears to have been occasioned by a desire to answer the complaint then brought against the Christians, that the prevalent calamities and disasters were due to their impiety and had come upon men since the establishment of their religion. In the first book Arnobius carefully discusses this complaint; he shows that the allegation of greater calamities having come upon men since the Christian era is false; and that, even if it were true, it could by no means be attributed to the Christians. He skilfully contends that Christians who worship the self-existent God cannot justly be called less religious than those who worship subordinate deities, and concludes by vindicating the Godhead of Christ. In the second book Arnobius digresses into a long discussion on the soul, which he does not think is of divine origin, and which he scarcely believes to be immortal. He even says that a belief in the soul's immortality would tend to remove moral restraint, and have a prejudicial effect on human life. In the concluding chapters he answers the objections drawn from the recent origin of Christianity. Books iii., iv. and v. contain a violent attack on the heathen mythology, in which he narrates with powerful sarcasm the scandalous chronicles of the gods, and contrasts with their grossness and immorality the pure and holy worship of the Christian. These books are valuable as a repertory of mythological stories. Books vi. and vii. ably handle the questions of sacrifices and worship of images. The confusion of the final chapter points to some interruption. The work of Arnobius appears to have been written when he was a recent convert, for he does not possess a very extensive knowledge of Scripture. He knows nothing of the Old Testament, and only the life of Christ in the New, while he does not quote directly from the Gospels. He is also at fault in regard to the Jewish sects. He was much influenced by Lucretius and had read Plato. His statements concerning Greek and Roman mythology are based respectively on the _Protrepticus_ of Clement of Alexandria, and on Antistius Labeo, who belonged to the preceding generation and attempted to restore Neoplatonism. There are some pleasing passages in Arnobius, but on the whole he is a tumid and a tedious author.

EDITIONS.--Migne, _Patr. Lat._ iv. 349; A. Reifferscheich in the
_Vienna Corpus Script. Eccles. Lat._ (1875).

TRANSLATIONS.--A.H. Bryce and H. Campbell in _Ante-Nicene Fathers_,
vi.

LITERATURE.--H.C.G. Moule in _Dict. Chr. Biog._ i.; Herzog-Hauck,
_Realencyklopadie_; and G. Kruger, _Early Chr. Lit._ p. 304 (where
full bibliographies are given).

ARNOBIUS ("the younger"), Christian priest or bishop in Gaul, flourished about 460. He is the author of a mystical and allegorical commentary on the Psalms, first published by Erasmus in 1522, and by him attributed to the elder Arnobius. It has been frequently reprinted, and in the edition of De la Barre, 1580, is accompanied by some notes on the Gospels by the same author. To him has sometimes been ascribed the anonymous treatise, _Arnobii catholici et Serapionis conflictus de Deo trino et uno ... de gratiae liberi arbitrii concordia_, which was probably written by a follower of Augustine. The opinions of Arnobius, as appears from the commentary, are semi-Pelagian.