Chapter I: Front Matter (1)

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.

(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

Article CARTESIANISM: "Admitting that intelligence is under a law
of necessity, he claimed for the Will a certain latitude or liberty
of indifference ..." 'Admitting' amended from 'Admiting'.

Article CASTE: "The great Sanskrit scholar, Rudolf von Roth
(1821-1895), in his Brahma und die Brahmanan[13] held that the
Vedic people advanced from their home in the Punjab ..."
'Sanskrit' amended from 'Sanscrit'.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME V, SLICE IV

Carnegie to Casus Belli

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

CARNEGIE, ANDREW CASAMARI
CARNEGIE CASANOVA DE SEINGALT, GIOVANNI JACOPO
CARNELIAN CASAS GRANDES
CARNESECCHI, PIETRO CASAUBON, FLORENCE ESTIENNE MERIC
CARNIOLA CASAUBON, ISAAC
CARNIVAL CASCADE MOUNTAINS
CARNIVORA CASE, JOHN
CARNOT, LAZARE HIPPOLYTE CASE
CARNOT, LAZARE MARGUERITE CASEMATE
CARNOT, MARIE FRANCOIS SADI CASEMENT
CARNOT, SADI NICOLAS LEONHARD CASERTA
CARNOUSTIE CASE-SHOT
CARNUNTUM CASH
CARNUTES CASHEL
CARO, ANNIBALE CASHEW NUT
CARO, ELME MARIE CASHIBO
CAROL CASHIER
CAROLINE CASH REGISTER
CAROLINE AMELIA AUGUSTA CASILINUM
CAROLINE ISLANDS CASIMIR III
CAROLINGIANS CASIMIR IV
CAROLUS-DURAN CASIMIR-PERIER, JEAN PAUL PIERRE
CARORA CASINO
CARP CASINUM
CARPACCIO, VITTORIO CASIRI, MIGUEL
CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS CASKET
CARPATHUS CASKET LETTERS
CARPEAUX, JEAN BAPTISTE CASLON
CARPENTARIA, GULF OF CASPARI, KARL PAUL
CARPENTER, LANT CASPIAN SEA
CARPENTER, MARY CASS, LEWIS
CARPENTER, WILLIAM BENJAMIN CASSABA
CARPENTRAS CASSAGNAC, BERNARD ADOLPHE GRANIER DE
CARPENTRY CASSANA, NICCOLO
CARPET CASSANDER
CARPET-BAGGER CASSANDER, GEORGE
CARPET-KNIGHT CASSANDRA
CARPI, GIROLAMO DA CASSANO ALL' IONIO
CARPI, UGO DA CASSAVA
CARPI (Dacian tribe) CASSEL (town of France)
CARPI (town of Italy) CASSEL (city of Germany)
CARPINI, JOANNES DE PLANO CASSELL, JOHN
CARPOCRATES CASSIA
CARPZOV CASSIA, VIA
CARRANZA, BARTOLOME CASSIANUS, JOANNES EREMITA
CARRARA (family of Longobard) CASSINI
CARRARA (town of Tuscany, Italy) CASSIODORUS
CARREL, JEAN BAPTISTE ARMAND CASSIOPEIA
CARRERA, JOSE MIGUEL CASSITERIDES
CARRIAGE CASSITERITE
CARRICKFERGUS CASSIUS (ancient Roman family)
CARRICKMACROSS CASSIUS, AVIDIUS
CARRICK-ON-SHANNON CASSIUS, GAIUS
CARRICK-ON-SUIR CASSIVELAUNUS
CARRIER, JEAN BAPTISTE CASSOCK
CARRIER CASSONE
CARRIERE, MORITZ CASSOWARY
CARRINGTON, WYNN-CARINGTON CAST
CARRINGTON, RICHARD CHRISTOPHER CASTAGNO, ANDREA DEL
CARROCCIO CASTALIA
CARRODUS, JOHN TIPLADY CASTANETS
CARROLL, CHARLES CASTE
CARROLL, JOHN CASTEL, LOUIS BERTRAND
CARRONADE CASTELAR Y RIPOLL, EMILIO
CARROT CASTELFRANCO NELL' EMILIA
CARRYING OVER CASTELFRANCO VENETO
CARSIOLI CASTELL, EDMUND
CARSON, CHRISTOPHER CASTELLAMMARE DI STABIA
CARSON CITY CASTELLESI, ADRIANO
CARSTARES, WILLIAM CASTELLI, IGNAZ FRANZ
CARSTENS, ARMUS JACOB CASTELLO, BERNARDO
CARSULAE CASTELLO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA
CART CASTELLO, VALERIO
CARTAGENA (city of Colombia) CASTELLO BRANCO, CAMILLO
CARTAGENA (seaport of Spain) CASTELLO BRANCO
CARTAGO CASTELLON DE LA PLANA
CARTE, THOMAS CASTELLON DE LA PLANA
CARTER, ELIZABETH CASTELNAU, MICHEL DE
CARTERET, SIR GEORGE CASTELNAUDARY
CARTESIANISM CASTELSARRASIN
CARTHAGE (ancient city) CASTI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA
CARTHAGE (city of U.S.A.) CASTIGLIONE, BALDASSARE
CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF CASTIGLIONE, CARLO OTTAVIO
CARTHUSIANS CASTIGLIONE, GIOVANNI BENEDETTO
CARTIER, SIR GEORGES ETIENNE CASTIGLIONE DELLE STIVIERE
CARTIER, JACQUES CASTIGLIONE OLONA
CARTILAGE CASTILE
CARTOON CASTILHO, ANTONIO FELICIANO DE
CARTOUCHE CASTILLEJO, CRISTOBAL DE
CARTRIDGE CASTILLO SOLORZANO, ALONSO DE
CARTWRIGHT, EDMUND CASTLE
CARTWRIGHT, JOHN CASTLEBAR
CARTWRIGHT, PETER CASTLECONNELL
CARTWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD JOHN CASTLE DONINGTON
CARTWRIGHT, THOMAS CASTLE DOUGLAS
CARTWRIGHT, WILLIAM CASTLEFORD
CARUCATE CASTLE-GUARD
CARUPANO CASTLEMAINE
CARUS, KARL GUSTAV CASTLE RISING
CARUS, MARCUS AURELIUS CASTLETON
CARVACROL CASTLETOWN
CARVAJAL, ANTONIO FERNANDEZ CASTOR and POLLUX
CARVAJAL, LUISA DE CASTOR OIL
CARVER, JOHN CASTREN, MATTHIAS ALEXANDER
CARVER, JONATHAN CASTRENSIS, PAULUS
CARVING CASTRES
CARVING AND GILDING CASTRO, INEZ DE
CARY, ALICE, and PHOEBE CASTRO, JOAO DE
CARY, ANNIE LOUISE CASTROGIOVANNI
CARY, HENRY FRANCIS CASTRO URDIALES
CARYATIDES CASTRO Y BELLVIS, GUILLEN DE
CARYL, JOSEPH CASTRUCCIO DEGLI ANTELMINELLI
CARYOPHYLLACEAE CASTRUM MINERVAE
CASABIANCA, RAPHAEL CASUARINA
CASABLANCA CASUISTRY
CASALE MONFERRATO CASUS BELLI

CARNEGIE, ANDREW (1837- ), American "captain of industry" and benefactor, was born in humble circumstances in Dunfermline, Scotland, on the 25th of November 1837. In 1848 his father, who had been a Chartist, emigrated to America, settling in Allegheny City, Pennsylvania. The raw Scots lad started work at an early age as a bobbin-boy in a cotton factory, and a few years later was engaged as a telegraph clerk and operator. His capacity was perceived by Mr T.A. Scott of the Pennsylvania railway, who employed him as a secretary; and in 1859, when Scott became vice-president of the company, he made Carnegie superintendent of the western division of the line. In this post he was responsible for several improvements in the service; and when the Civil War opened he accompanied Scott, then assistant secretary of war, to the front. The first sources of the enormous wealth he subsequently attained were his introduction of sleeping-cars for railways, and his purchase (1864) of Storey Farm on Oil Creek, where a large profit was secured from the oil-wells. But this was only a preliminary to the success attending his development of the iron and steel industries at Pittsburg. Foreseeing the extent to which the demand would grow in America for iron and steel, he started the Keystone Bridge works, built the Edgar Thomson steel-rail mill, bought out the rival Homestead steel works, and by 1888 had under his control an extensive plant served by tributary coal and iron fields, a railway 425 m. long, and a line of lake steamships. As years went by, the various Carnegie companies represented in this industry prospered to such an extent that in 1901, when they were incorporated in the United States Steel Corporation, a trust organized by Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, and Mr Carnegie himself retired from business, he was bought out at a figure equivalent to a capital of approximately L100,000,000.

From this time forward public attention was turned from the shrewd business capacity which had enabled him to accumulate such a fortune to the public-spirited way in which he devoted himself to utilizing it on philanthropic objects. His views on social subjects, and the responsibilities which great wealth involved, were already known in a book entitled _Triumphant Democracy_, published in 1886, and in his _Gospel of Wealth_ (1900). He acquired Skibo Castle, in Sutherlandshire, Scotland, and made his home partly there and partly in New York; and he devoted his life to the work of providing the capital for purposes of public interest, and social and educational advancement. Among these the provision of public libraries in the United States and United Kingdom (and similarly in other English-speaking countries) was especially prominent, and "Carnegie libraries" gradually sprang up on all sides, his method being to build and equip, but only on condition that the local authority provided site and maintenance, and thus to secure local interest and responsibility. By the end of 1908 he had distributed over L10,000,000 for founding libraries alone. He gave L2,000,000 in 1901 to start the Carnegie Institute at Pittsburg, and the same amount (1902) to found the Carnegie Institution at Washington, and in both of these, and other, cases he added later to the original endowment. In Scotland he gave L2,000,000 in 1901 to establish a trust for providing funds for assisting education at the Scottish universities, a benefaction which resulted in his being elected lord rector of St Andrews University. He was a large benefactor of the Tuskegee Institute under Booker Washington for negro education. He also established large pension funds--in 1901 for his former employes at Homestead, and in 1905 for American college professors. His benefactions in the shape of buildings and endowments for education and research are too numerous for detailed enumeration, and are noted in this work under the headings of the various localities. But mention must also be made of his founding of Carnegie Hero Fund commissions, in America (1904) and in the United Kingdom (1908), for the recognition of deeds of heroism; his contribution of L500,000 in 1903 for the erection of a Temple of Peace at The Hague, and of L150,000 for a Pan-American Palace in Washington as a home for the International Bureau of American republics. In all his ideas he was dominated by an intense belief in the future and influence of the English-speaking people, in their democratic government and alliance for the purpose of peace and the abolition of war, and in the progress of education on unsectarian lines. He was a powerful supporter of the movement for spelling reform, as a means of promoting the spread of the English language. Mr Carnegie married in 1887 and had one daughter. Among other publications by him were _An American Four-in-hand in Britain_ (1883), _Round the World_ (1884), _The Empire of Business_ (1902), a _Life of James Watt_ (1905) and _Problems of To-day_ (1908).

CARNEGIE, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 6 m. S.W. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1900) 7330 (1816 being foreign-born); (1910) 10,009. It is served by the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Pittsburg, Chartiers & Youghiogheny, and the Wabash Pittsburg Terminal railways, and the Pittsburg street railway. Carnegie is situated in the beautiful valley of Chartiers Creek, and is in one of the coal and natural gas districts of the state. In the borough are a Carnegie library and St Paul's orphan asylum. Among the borough's manufactures are steel, lead, glass, ploughs and enamel- and tin-ware. There are alkaline and lithia mineral springs here. In 1894 Carnegie, named in honour of Andrew Carnegie, was formed by the union of the boroughs Chartiers and Mansfield.

CARNELIAN, a red variety of chalcedony, much used as an ornamental stone, especially for seals. The old name was cornelian, said to have been given in reference either to the horny appearance of the stone (Lat. _cornu_, "horn") or to its resemblance in colour to the berry of the cornel; but the original word was corrupted to carnelian, probably in allusion to its reddish colour (_carneus_, "flesh-coloured"). Some carnelian, however, is brown, yellow or even white. Certain kinds of brown and bright red chalcedony, much resembling carnelian, pass under the name of sard (q.v.). The Hebrew _odem_ was probably a red stone, either carnelian, sard or jasper. All carnelian is translucent and is thus distinguished from jasper of similar colour, which is always opaque. The red colour of typical carnelian is due to the presence of ferric oxide. This is often developed artificially by exposure to sunshine, or to artificial heat, whereby any ferric hydrate in the stone becomes more or less dehydrated; or the stone is treated with a solution of an iron salt, like ferrous sulphate, and then heated, when ferric oxide is formed in the pores of the stone. An opaque white surface is sometimes produced artificially on a red carnelian: this is said to be done by coating the stone with carbonate of soda and then placing it on a red-hot iron; or by using a mixture of potash, white lead and certain vegetable juices, and heating it on charcoal. Inscriptions and figures in white on red carnelian ("burnt carnelian") are well known from the East. Much carnelian comes from India, being mostly derived from agate-gravels, resulting from the disintegration of the Deccan traps, in the neighbourhood of Ratanpur, near Broach. A good deal of the carnelian now sold, however, is Brazilian agate, artificially stained. (See AGATE.)

CARNESECCHI, PIETRO (1508-1567), Italian humanist, was the son of a Florentine merchant, who under the patronage of the Medici, and especially of Giovanni de' Medici as Pope Clement VII., rapidly rose to high office at the papal court. He came into touch with the new learning at the house of his maternal uncle, Cardinal Bernardo Dovizzi, in Rome. At the age of twenty-five he held several rich livings, had been notary and protonotary to the Curia, and was first secretary to the pope, in which capacity he conducted the correspondence with the nuncios (among them Pier Paolo Bergerio in Germany) and a host of other duties. By his conduct at the conference with Francis I. at Marseilles he won the favour of Catherine de' Medici and other influential personages at the French court, who in later days befriended him. He made the acquaintance of the Spanish reformer Juan de Valdes at Rome, and got to know him as a theologian at Naples, being especially drawn to him through the appreciation expressed by Bernardino Ochino, and through their mutual friendship with the Lady Julia Gonzaga, whose spiritual adviser he became after the death of Valdes. He became a leading spirit in the literary and religious circle that gathered round Valdes in Naples, and that aimed at effecting from within the spiritual reformation of the church. Under Valdes' influence he whole-heartedly accepted Luther's doctrine of justification by faith, though he repudiated a policy of schism. When the movement of suppression began, Carnesecchi was implicated. For a time he found shelter with his friends in Paris, and from 1552 he was in Venice leading the party of reform in that city. In 1557 he was cited (for the second time) before the tribunal in Rome, but refused to appear. The death of Paul IV. and the accession of Pius IV. in 1559 made his position easier, and he came to live in Rome. With the accession of Pius V. (Michael Ghislieri) in 1565 the Inquisition renewed its activities with fiercer zeal than ever. Carnesecchi was in Venice when the news reached him, and betook himself to Florence, where, thinking himself safe, he was betrayed by Cosimo, the duke, who wished to curry favour with the pope. From July 1566 he lay in prison over a year. On the 21st of September 1567 sentence of degradation and death was passed on him and sixteen others, ambassadors from Florence vainly kneeling to the pope for some mitigation, and on the 1st of October he was publicly beheaded and then burned.

CARNIOLA (Ger. _Krain_), a duchy and crown-land of Austria, bounded N. by Carinthia, N.E. by Styria, S.E. and S. by Croatia, and W. by Gorz and Gradisca, Trieste and Istria. It has an area of 3856 sq. m. Carniola is for the most part a mountainous region, occupied in the N. by the Alps, and in the S. by the Karst (q.v.) or Carso Mountains. It is traversed by the Julian Alps, the Karawankas and the Steiner Alps, which belong all to the southern zone of the Eastern Alps. The highest point in the Julian Alps is formed by the three sugar-loaf peaks of the Triglav or Terglou (9394 ft.), which offers one of the finest views in the whole of the Alps, and which bears on its northern declivity the only glacier in the province. The Triglav is the dividing range between the Alps and the Karst Mountains, and its huge mass also forms the barrier between three races: the German, the Slavonic and the Italian. Other high peaks are the Mangart (8784 ft.) and the Jaluz (8708 ft.). The Karawankas, which form the boundary between Carinthia and Carniola, have as their highest peak the Stou or Stuhlberg (7344 ft.), and are traversed by the Loibl Pass (4492 ft.). They are continued by the Steiner or Santhaler Alps, which have as their highest peak the Grintouz or Grintovc (8393 ft.). This peak is situated on the threefold boundary of Carinthia, Carniola and Styria, and affords a magnificent view of the whole Alpine neighbouring region. The southern part of Carniola is occupied by the following divisions of the northern ramifications of the Karst Mountains: the Birnbaumer Wald with the highest peak, the Nanos (4275 ft.), and the Krainer Schneeberg (5890 ft.); the Hornwald with the highest peak, the Hornbuchl (3608 ft.), and the Uskokengebirge (3874 ft.). The portion of Carniola belonging to the Karst region presents a great number of caves, subterranean streams, funnels and similar phenomena. Amongst the best-known are the grottos of Adelsberg, the larger ones of Planina and the Kreuzberghohle near Laas.

With the exception of the Idria and the Wippach, which as tributaries of the Isonzo belong to the basin of the Adriatic, Carniola belongs to the watershed of the Save. The Save or Sau rises within the duchy, and is formed by the junction at Radmannsdorf of its two head-streams the Wurzener Save and the Wocheiner Save. Its principal affluents are the Kanker and the Steiner Feistritz on the left, and the Zeyer or Sora, the Laibach and the Gurk on the right. The most remarkable of these rivers is the Laibach, which rises in the Karst region under the name of Poik, takes afterwards a subterranean course and traverses the Adelsberg grotto, and appears again on the surface near Planina under the name of Unz. Shortly after this it takes for the second time a subterranean course, to appear finally on the surface near Oberlaibach. The small torrent of Rothwein, which flows into the Wurzener Save, forms near Veldes the splendid series of cascades known as the Rothwein Fall. Amongst the principal lakes are the Wochein, the Weissenfels, the Veldes, and the seven small lakes of the Triglav; while in the Karst region lies the famous periodical lake of Zirknitz, known to the Romans as _Lacus Lugens_ or _Lugea Palus._

The climate is rather severe, and the southern part is exposed to the cold north-eastern wind, known as the Bora. The mean annual temperature at Laibach is 48.4 deg. F., and the rainfall amounts to 72 ins. Of the total area only 14.8% is under cultivation, and the crops do not suffice for the needs of the province; forests occupy 44.4%, 17.2% are meadows, 15.7% are pastures, and 1.17% of the soil is covered by vineyards. Large quantities of flax are grown, while the timber trade is of considerable importance. Fish and game are plentiful, and the silkworm is bred in the warmer districts. The principal mining product is mercury, extracted at Idria, while iron and copper ore, zinc and coal are also found. The industry is not well developed, but the weaving of linen and lace is pursued as a household industry.

Carniola had in 1900 a population of 508,348, which corresponds to 132 inhabitants per sq. m. Nearly 95% were Slovenes and 5% Germans, while 99% of the population belonged to the Roman Catholic Church. The local diet, of which the bishop of Laibach is a member _ex officio_, is composed of thirty-seven members, and Carniola sends eleven deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes the province is divided into eleven districts and one autonomous municipality, Laibach (pop. 36,547), the capital. Other important places are Oberlaibach (5882), Idria (5772), Gurkfeld (5294), Zirknitz (5266), Adelsberg (3636), Neumarktl (2626), Krainburg (2484) and Gottschee (2421).

Carniola derives its modern name from the Slavonic word _Krajina_ (frontier). During the Roman Empire it formed part of Noricum and Pannonia. The Slavonic population settled here during the end of the 6th and the beginning of the 7th century. Conquered by Charlemagne, the most of the district was bestowed on the duke of Friuli; but in the 10th century the title of margrave of Carniola began to be borne by a family resident in the castle of Kieselberg near Krainburg. Various parts of the present territory were, however, held by other lords, such as the duke of Carinthia and the bishop of Freising. Towards the close of the 14th century all the separate portions had come by inheritance or bequest into the hands of Rudolph IV. of Austria, who took the title of duke of Carniola; and since then the duchy has remained a part of the Austrian possessions, except during the short period from 1809 to 1813, when it was incorporated with the French Illyrian Provinces. In 1849 it became a separate crown-land.

See Dimitz, _Geschichte Krains von der altesten Zeit his 1813_ (4
vols., Laibach, 1874-1876).

CARNIVAL (Med. Lat. _carnelevarium_, from _caro, carnis_, flesh, and _levare_, to lighten or put aside; the derivation from _valere_, to say farewell, is unsupported), the last three days preceding Lent, which in Roman Catholic countries are given up to feasting and merry-making. Anciently the carnival was held to begin on twelfth night (6th January) and last till midnight of Shrove Tuesday. There is little doubt that this period of licence represents a compromise which the church always inclined to make with the pagan festivals and that the carnival really represents the Roman Saturnalia. Rome has ever been the headquarters of carnival, and though some popes, notably Clement IX. and XI. and Benedict XIII., made efforts to stem the tide of Bacchanalian revelry, many of the popes were great patrons and promoters of carnival keeping. Paul II. was notable in this respect. In his time the Jews of Rome were compelled to pay yearly a sum of 1130 golden florins (the thirty being added as a special memorial of Judas and the thirty pieces of silver), which was expended on the carnival. A decree of Paul II., minutely providing for the diversions, orders that four rings of silver gilt should be provided, two in the Piazza Navona and two at the Monte Testaccio--one at each place for the burghers and the other for the retainers of the nobles to practise riding at the ring. The pope also orders a great variety of races, the expenses of which are to be paid from the papal exchequer--one to be run by the Jews, another for Christian children, another for Christian young men, another for sexagenarians, a fifth for asses, and a sixth for buffaloes. Under Julius III. we have long accounts of bull-hunts--or rather bull-baits--in the Forum, with gorgeous descriptions of the magnificence of the dresses, and enormous suppers in the palace of the Conservatori in the capitol, where seven cardinals, together with the duke Orazio Farnese, supped at one table, and all the ladies by themselves at another. After the supper the whole party went into the courtyard of the palace, which was turned into the semblance of a theatre, "to see a most charming comedy which was admirably played, and lasted so long that it was not over till ten o'clock!" Even the austere and rigid Paul IV. (_ob_. 1559) used to keep carnival by inviting all the Sacred College to dine with him. Sixtus V., who was elected in 1585, set himself to the keeping of carnival after a different fashion. Determined to repress the lawlessness and crime incident to the period, he set up gibbets in conspicuous places, as well as whipping-posts, the former as a hint to robbers and cut-throats, the latter in store for minor offenders. We find, further, from the provisions made at the time, that Sixtus reformed the evil custom of throwing dirt and dust and flour at passengers, permitting only flowers or sweetmeats to be thrown.

The later popes for the most part restricted the public festivities of the carnival to the last six or seven days immediately preceding Ash Wednesday. The municipal authorities of the city, on whom the regulation of such matters now depends, allow ten days. The carnival sports at Rome anciently consisted of three divisions: (1) the races in the Corso (formerly called the Via Lata, and taking its present name from them), which appear to have been from time immemorial a part of the festivity; (2) the spectacular pageant of the Agona; (3) that of the Testaccio.

Of other Italian cities, Venice used in old times to be the principal home, after Rome, of carnival. To-day Turin, Milan, Florence, Naples, all put forth competing programmes. In old times Florence was conspicuous for the licentiousness of its carnival; and the _Canti Carnascialeschi_, or carnival songs, of Lorenzo de' Medici show to what extent the licence was carried. The carnival in Spain lasts four days, including Ash Wednesday. In France the merry-making is restricted almost entirely to Shrove Tuesday, or _mardi gras_. In Russia, where no Ash Wednesday is observed, carnival gaieties last a week from Sunday to Sunday.

CARNIVORA, the zoological order typified by the larger carnivorous placental land mammals of the present day, such as lions, tigers and wolves, but also including species like bears whose diet is largely vegetable, as well as a number of smaller flesh-eating species, together with the seals and their relatives, and an extinct Tertiary group. Apart from this distinct group (see CREODONTA), the Carnivora are characterized by the following features. They are unguiculate, or clawed mammals, with never less than four toes to each foot, of which the first is never opposable to the rest; the claws, or nails, being more or less pointed although occasionally rudimentary. The teeth comprise a deciduous and a permanent series, all being rooted, and the latter divisible into the usual four series. In front there is a series of small pointed incisors, usually three in number, on each side of both jaws, of which the first is always the smallest and the third the largest, the difference being most marked in the upper jaw; these are followed by strong conical, pointed, recurved canines; the premolars and molars are variable, but generally, especially in the anterior part of the series, more or less compressed, pointed and trenchant; if the crowns are flat and tuberculated, they are never complex or divided into lobes by deep inflexions of enamel. The condyle of the lower jaw is a transversely placed half-cylinder working in a deep glenoid fossa of corresponding form. The brain varies much in size and form, but the hemispheres are never destitute of convolutions. The stomach is always simple and pyriform; the caecum is either absent or short and simple; and the colon is not sacculated or much wider than the small intestine. Vesiculae seminales are never developed, but Cowper's glands may be present or absent. The uterus is two-horned, and the teats are abdominal and variable in number; while the placenta is deciduate, and almost always zonary. The clavicle is often absent, and when present never complete. The radius and ulna are distinct; the scaphoid and lunar of the tarsus are united; there is never an os centrale in the adult; and the fibula is distinct.

The large majority of the species subsist chiefly on animal food, though many are omnivorous, and a few chiefly vegetable-eaters. The more typical forms live altogether on recently-killed warm-blooded animals, and their whole organization is thoroughly adapted to a predaceous mode of life. In conformity with this manner of obtaining their subsistence, they are generally bold and savage in disposition, though some are capable of being domesticated, and when placed under favourable circumstances exhibit a high degree of intelligence.

I. FISSIPEDIA

The typical section of the group, the Carnivora Vera, Fissipedia or Carnassidentia, includes all the existing terrestrial members of the order, together with the otters and sea-otters. In this section the fore-limbs never have the first digit, or the hind-limbs the first and fifth digits, longer than the others; and the incisors are 3/3 on each side, with very rare exceptions. The cerebral hemispheres are more or less elongated; always with three or four convolutions on the outer surface forming arches above each other, the lowest surrounding the Sylvian fissure. In the cheek-series there is one specially modified tooth in each jaw, to which the name of "sectorial" or "carnassial" is applied. The teeth in front of this are more or less sharp-pointed and compressed; the teeth behind broad and tuberculated. The characters of the sectorial teeth deserve special attention, as, though fundamentally the same throughout the group, they are greatly modified in different genera. The upper sectorial is the most posterior of the teeth which have predecessors, and is therefore reckoned as the last premolar (p. 4 of the typical dentition). It consists of a more or less compressed blade supported on two roots and an inner lobe supported by a distinct root (see fig. 1). The blade when fully developed has three cusps (i, 2 and 3), but the anterior is always small, and often absent. The middle cusp is conical, high and pointed; and the posterior cusp has a compressed, straight, knife-like edge. The inner cusp. (4) varies in extent, but is generally placed near the anterior end of the blade, though sometimes median in position. In the _Ursidae_ alone both the inner cusp and its root are wanting, and there is often a small internal and posterior cusp (5) without root. In this family also the sectorial is relatively to the other teeth much smaller than in other Carnivora. The lower sectorial (fig. 2) is the most anterior of the teeth without predecessors in the milk-series, and is therefore reckoned the first molar. It has two roots supporting a crown, consisting when fully developed of a compressed bilobed blade (1 and 2), a heel (4), and an inner tubercle (3). The cusps of the blade, of which the hinder (2) is the larger, are separated by a notch, generally prolonged into a linear fissure. In the specialized _Felidae_ (I) the blade alone is developed, both heel and inner tubercle being absent or rudimentary. In _Meles_ (V) and _Ursus_ (VI) the heel is greatly developed, broad and tuberculated. The blade in these cases is generally placed obliquely, its flat or convex (outer) side looking forwards, so that the two lobes or cusps are almost side by side, instead of anterior and posterior. The inner tubercle (3) is generally a conical pointed cusp, placed to the inner side of the hinder lobe of the blade. The special characters of these teeth are more disguised in the sea-otter than in any other species, but even here they can be traced.

The toes are nearly always armed with large, strong, curved and sharp claws, ensheathing the terminal phalanges and held firmly in place by broad plates of bone reflected over their attached ends from the bases of the phalanges. In the _Felidae_ these claws are "retractile"; the terminal phalange with the claw attached, folding back in the fore-foot into a sheath by the outer or ulnar side of the middle phalange of the digit, and retained in this position when at rest by a strong elastic ligament. In the hind-foot the terminal joint or phalange is retracted on to the top, and not the side of the middle phalange. By the action of the deep flexor muscles the terminal phalanges are straightened, the claws protruded from their sheath, and the soft "velvety" paw becomes suddenly converted into a formidable weapon of offence. The habitual retraction of the claws preserves their points from wear.

The land Carnivora are best divided into two subgroups or sections--(A) the Aeluroidea, or Herpestoidea, and (B) the Arctoidea; the recognition of a third section, Cynoidea, being rendered untenable by the evidence of extinct forms.

(A) _Aeluroidea_.--In this section, which comprises the cats (_Felidae_), civets (_Viverridae_), and hyenas (_Hyaenidae_), the tympanic bone is more or less ring-like, and forms only a part of the outer wall of the tympanic cavity; an inflated alisphenoid bulla is developed; and the external auditory meatus is short. In the nasal chamber the maxillo-turbinal is small and doubly folded, and does not cut off the naso-turbinal and adjacent bones from the nasal aperture. The carotid canal in the skull is short or absent. Cowper's glands are present, as is a prostate gland and a caecum, as well as a duodenal-jejunal flexure in the intestine, but an os penis is either wanting or small.

Cat tribe.

The members of the cat tribe, or _Felidae_, are collectively
characterized by the following features. An alisphenoid is lacking on
the lower aspect of the skull. In existing forms the usual dental
formula is i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 3/2, m. 1/1; the upper molar being
rudimentary and placed on the inner side of the carnassial, but the
first premolar may be absent, while, as an abnormality, there may be a
small second lower molar, which is constantly present in some of the
extinct forms. The auditory bulla and the tympanic are divided by an
internal partition. The paroccipital process is separate from, or only
extends to a slight degree upon the auditory bulla. The thoracic
vertebrae number 13; the feet are digitigrade, with five front and
four hind toes, of which the claws are retractile; and the metatarsus
is haired all round. Anal glands are present.

As regards the teeth, when considered in more detail, the incisors are
small, and the canines large, strong, slightly recurved, with
trenchant edges and sharp points, and placed wide apart. The premolars
are compressed and sharp-pointed; the most posterior in the upper jaw
(the sectorial) being a large tooth, consisting of a compressed blade,
divided into three unequal cusps supported by two roots, with a small
inner lobe placed near the front and supported by a distinct root
(fig. 1, I). The upper molar is a small tubercular tooth placed more
or less transversely at the inner side of the hinder end of the last.
In the lower jaw the molar (sectorial) is reduced to the blade, which
is large, trenchant, compressed and divided into two subequal lobes
(fig. 2, I). Occasionally it has a rudimentary heel, but never an
inner tubercle. The skull generally is short and rounded, though
proportionally more elongated in the larger forms; with the facial
portion short and broad, and the zygomatic arches wide and strong. The
auditory bullae are large, rounded and smooth. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13,
L. 7, S. 3, Ca. 13-29. Clavicles better developed than in other
Carnivora, but not articulating with either the shoulder-bones or
sternum. Of the five front toes, the third and fourth are nearly equal
and longest, the second slightly, and the fifth considerably shorter.
The first is still shorter, not reaching the metacarpophalangeal
articulation of the second. In the hind-feet the third and fourth toes
are the longest, the second and fifth somewhat shorter and nearly
equal, while the first is represented only by the rudimentary
metatarsal bone. The claws are large, strongly curved, compressed,
very sharp, and exhibit the retractile condition in the highest
degree. The tail varies greatly in length, being in some species a
mere stump, in others nearly as long as the body. The ears are of
moderate size, more or less triangular and pointed; and the eyes
rather large, with the iris mobile, and with a pupillary aperture
which contracts under the influence of light in some species to a
narrow vertical slit, in others to an oval, and in some to a circular
aperture. The tongue is thickly covered with sharp, pointed, recurved
horny papillae; and the caecum is small and simple.

As in structure so in habits, the cat may be considered the most
specialized of all Carnivora, although they exhibit many features
connecting them with extinct types. All the members of the group feed
almost exclusively on warm-blooded animals which they have themselves
killed, but one Indian species, _Felis viverrina_, is said to prey on
fish, and even fresh-water molluscs. Unlike dogs, they never associate
in packs, and rarely hunt their prey on open ground, but from some
place of concealment wait until the unsuspecting victim comes within
reach, or with noiseless and stealthy tread, crouching close to the
ground for concealment, approach near enough to make the fatal spring.
In this manner they frequently attack and kill animals considerably
exceeding their own size. They are mostly nocturnal, and the greater
number, especially the smaller species, more or less arboreal. None
are aquatic, and all take to the water with reluctance, though some
may habitually haunt the banks of rivers or pools, because they more
easily obtain their prey in such situations. The numerous species are
widely diffused over the greater part of the habitable world, though
most abundant in the warm latitudes of both hemispheres. None are,
however, found in the Australian region, or in Madagascar. Although
the Old World and New World cats (except perhaps the northern lynx)
are all specifically distinct, no common structural character has been
pointed out by which the former can be separated from the latter. On
the contrary, most of the groups into which the family may be divided
have representatives in both hemispheres.

Notwithstanding the considerable diversity in external appearance and
size between different members of this extensive family, the
structural differences are but slight. The principal differences are
to be found in the form of the cranium, especially of the nasal and
adjoining bones, the completeness of the bony orbit posteriorly, the
development of the first upper premolar and of the inner lobe of the
upper sectorial, the length of the tail, the form of the pupil, and
the condition and coloration of the fur, especially the presence or
absence of tufts or pencils of hair on the external ears.

In the typical genus _Felis_, which includes the great majority of the
species, and has a distribution coextensive with that of the family,
the upper sectorial tooth has a distinct inner cusp, the claws are
completely contractile, the tail is long or moderate, and the ears do
not carry distinct tufts of hair. As regards the larger species, the
lion (_F. leo_), tiger (_F. tigris_), leopard (_F. pardus_), ounce or
snow-leopard (_F. uncia_) and clouded leopard (_F. nebulosa_) are
described in separate articles. Of other Old World species it must
suffice to mention that the Tibetan Fontanier's cat (_F. tristis_),
and the Indian marbled cat (_F. marmorata_), an ally of the
above-mentioned clouded leopard, appear to be the Asiatic
representatives of the American ocelots. The Tibetan Pallas's cat (_F.
manul_) has been made the type of a distinct genus, _Trichaelurus_, in
allusion to its long coat. One of the largest of the smaller species
is the African serval, q.v. (_F. serval_), which is yellow with solid
black spots, has long limbs, and a relatively short tail. Numerous
"tiger-cats" and "leopard-cats," such as the spotted _F. bengalensis_
and the uniformly chestnut _F. badia_, inhabit tropical Asia; while
representative species occur in Africa. The jungle-cat (_F. chaus_),
which in its slightly tufted ears and shorter tail foreshadows the
lynxes, is common to both continents. Another African species (_F.
ocreata_) appears to have been the chief progenitor of the European
domestic cat, which has, however, apparently been crossed to some
extent with the ordinary wild cat (_F. catus_). Of the New World
species, _F. concolor_, the puma or couguar, commonly called "panther"
in the United States, is about the size of a leopard, but of a uniform
brown colour, spotted only when young, and is extensively distributed
in both North and South America, ranging between the parallels of 60
deg. N. and 50 deg. S., where it is represented by numerous local
races, varying in size and colour. _F. onca_, the jaguar, is a larger
and more powerful animal than the last, and more resembles the leopard
in its colours; it is also found in both North and South America,
although with a less extensive range, reaching northwards only as far
as Texas, and southwards nearly to Patagonia (see JAGUAR). _F.
pardalis_ and several allied smaller, elegantly-spotted species
inhabiting the intratropical regions of America, are commonly
confounded under the name of ocelot or tiger-cat. _F. yaguarondi_,
rather larger than the domestic cat, with an elongated head and body,
and of a uniform brownish-grey colour, ranges from northern Mexico to
Paraguay; while the allied _F. eyra_ is a small cat, weasel-like in
form, having an elongated head, body and tail, and short limbs, and is
of a uniform light reddish-brown colour. It is a native of South
America and Mexico. _F. pajeros_ is the Pampas cat.

The typical lynxes, as represented by _Lynx borealis_ (_L. lynx_), the
southern _L. pardina_, and the American _L. rufa_, are a northern
group common to both hemispheres, and characterized by their tufted
ears, short tail, and the presence of a rudimentary heel to the lower
carnassial tooth. As a rule, they are more or less spotted in winter,
but tend to become uniformly-coloured in summer. They are connected
with the more typical cats by the long-tailed and uniformly red
caracal, _Lynx (Caracal) caracal_, of India, Persia and Africa, and
the propriety of separating them from _Felis_ may be open to doubt
(see LYNX and CARACAL).

However this may be, there can be no doubt of the right of the
hunting-leopard or chita (cheeta), as, in common with the leopard, it
is called in India, to distinction from all the other cats as a
distinct genus, under the name of _Cynaelurus jubatus_. From all the
other _Felidae_ this animal, which is common to Asia and Africa, is
distinguished by the inner lobe of the upper sectorial tooth, though
supported by a distinct root, having no salient cusp upon it, by the
tubercular molar being more in a line with the other teeth, and by the
claws being smaller, less curved and less completely retractile, owing
to the feebler development of the elastic ligaments. The skull is
short and high, with the frontal region broad and elevated in
consequence of the large development of air-sinuses. The head is small
and round, the body light, the limbs and tail long, and the colour
pale yellowish-brown with small solid black spots (see CHEETA).

Civet tribe.

The family _Viverridae_, which includes the civet-cats, genets and
mongooses, is nearly allied to the _Felidae_, but its members have a
fuller dentition, and exhibit certain other structural differences
from the cats, to the largest of which they make no approach in the
matter of bodily size. As a rule, there is an alisphenoid canal; the
cheek-dentition is p. (3 or 4)/(3 or 4), m. (1 or 2)/(1 or 2). The
bulla is small and the tympanic large, with a low division between
them; and the paroccipital process is leaf-like and spread over the
bulla. The number of dorsal vertebrae, except in the aberrant
_Proteles_, is 13 or 14; the claws may be either completely or
partially retractile or non-retractile; generally each foot has five
toes, but there may be four in front and five behind, the reverse of
this, or only four on each foot; the gait may be either digitigrade or
partially plantigrade; and the metatarsus may be either hairy or naked
inferiorly. Anal, and in some cases also perineal, glands are
developed. The family is limited to the warmer parts of the Old World.

Considerable difference of opinion prevails with regard to the serial
position of the fossa, or foussa (_Cryptoprocta ferox_), of
Madagascar, some writers considering that its affinities are so close
to the _Felidae_ that it ought not to be included in the present
family at all. Others, on the contrary, see no reason to separate it
from the _Viverrinae_ or more typical representatives of the
civet-tribe. As a medium course, it may be regarded as the sole
representative of a special subfamily--_Cryptoproctinae_--of the
_Viverridae_. The subfamily and genus are characterized by possessing
a total of 36 teeth, arranged as i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. 1/1. The
teeth generally closely resemble those of the _Felidae_, the first
premolar of both jaws being very minute and early deciduous; the upper
sectorial has a small inner lobe, quite at the anterior part; the
molar is small and placed transversely; and the lower sectorial has a
large trenchant bilobed blade, and a minute heel, but no inner
tubercle. The skull is generally like that of _Felis_, but
proportionally longer and narrower, with the orbit widely open behind.
Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 7, S. 3, Ca. 29. Body elongated. Limbs
moderate in size. Feet subplantigrade, with five well-developed toes
on each, carrying sharp, compressed, retractile claws. Ears moderate.
Tail long and cylindrical. The foussa is a sandy-coloured animal with
an exceedingly long tail (see FOUSSA).

The more typical members of the group, constituting the subfamily
_Viverrinae_, are characterized by their sharp, curved and largely
retractile claws, the presence of five toes to each foot, and of
perineal and one pair of anal glands, and a tympanic bone which
retains to a great extent the primitive ring-like form, so that the
external auditory meatus has scarcely any inferior lip, its orifice
being close to the tympanic ring. The first representatives of the
subfamily are the civet-cats, or civets (_Viverra_ and _Viverricula_),
and the genets (_Genetta_), in all of which the dentition is _i. 3/3,
c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. 2/2_; total 40. The skull is elongated, with the
facial portion small and compressed, and the orbits well-defined but
incomplete behind. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 7 (or D. 14, L. 6), S.
3, Ca. 22-30. Body elongated and compressed. Head pointed in front;
ears rather small. Extremities short. Feet small and rounded. Toes
short, the first on fore and hind feet much shorter than the others.
Palms and soles covered with hair, except the pads of the feet and
toes, and in some species a narrow central line on the under side of
the sole, extending backwards nearly to the heel. Tail moderate or
long. The pair of large glands situated on the perineum (in both
sexes) secretes an oily substance of a peculiarly penetrating odour.
In the true civets, which include the largest members of the group,
the teeth are stouter and less compressed than in the other genera;
the second upper molar being especially large, and the auditory bulla
smaller and more pointed in front; the body is shorter and stouter;
the limbs are longer; the tail shorter and tapering. The under side of
the tarsus is completely covered with hair, and the claws are longer
and less retractile. Fur rather long and loose, and in the middle line
of the neck and back especially elongated so as to form a sort of
crest or mane. Pupil circular when contracted. Perineal glands greatly
developed. These characters apply especially to _V. civetta_, the
African civet, or civet-cat, as it is commonly called, an animal
rather larger than a fox, and an inhabitant of intratropical Africa.
_V. zibetta_, the Indian civet, of about equal size, approaches in
many respects, especially in the characters of the teeth and feet and
absence of the crest of elongated hair on the back, to the next
section. It inhabits Bengal, China, the Malay Peninsula and adjoining
islands. _V. tangalunga_ is a smaller but nearly allied animal from
the same part of the world. From these three species and the next the
civet of commerce, once so much admired as a perfume in England, and
still largely used in the East, is obtained. The animals are kept in
cages, and the odoriferous secretion collected by scraping the
interior of the perineal follicles with a spoon or spatula. The single
representative of the genus _Viverricula_ resembles in many respects
the genets, but agrees with the civets in having the whole of the
under side of the tarsus hairy; the alisphenoid canal is generally
absent. _V. malaccensis_, the rasse, inhabiting India, China, Java and
Sumatra, is an elegant little animal which affords a favourite perfume
to the Javanese. The genets (_Genetta_) are smaller animals, with more
elongated and slender bodies, and shorter limbs than the civets. The
skull is elongated and narrow; and the auditory bulla large, elongated
and rounded at both ends. The teeth are compressed and sharp-pointed,
with a lobe on the inner side of the third, upper premolar not present
in the previous genera. Pupil contracting to a linear aperture. Tail
long, slender, ringed. Fur short and soft, spotted or cloudy. Under
side of the metatarsus with a narrow longitudinal bald streak.
_Genetta vulgaris_, or _G. genetta_, the common genet, is found in
France south of the river Loire, Spain, south-western Asia and North
Africa. _G. felina, senegalensis, tigrina, victoriae_ and _pardalis_
are other named species, all African in habitat.

The Malagasy fossane (_Fossa daubentoni_), which has but little
markings on the fur of the adult, differs by the absence of a
scent-pouch and the presence of a couple of bare spots on the under
surface of the metatarsus. The beautiful linsangs (_Linsanga_ or
_Prionodon_), ranging from the eastern Himalaya to Java and Borneo,
are represented by two or three species, easily recognizable by the
broad transverse bands of blackish brown and yellow with which the
body and tail are marked. They are specially distinguished by having
only one pair of upper molars, thereby resembling the cats, with
which, in correlation with their arboreal habits, they agree in their
highly retractile claws, and the hairy surface of the under side of
the metatarsus. About 15 in. is the length of the type species. In
West Africa the linsangs are represented by _Poiana richardsoni_, a
small species with a spotted genet-like coat, and also with a narrow
naked stripe on the under surface of the metatarsus, as in genets.

Here may be placed the two African spotted palm-civets of the genus
_Nandinia_, namely _N. binotata_ from the west and _N. gerrardi_ from
the east forest-region. In common with the true palm-civets, they have
a dentition numerically identical with that of _Viverra_ and
_Genetta_, but the cusps of the hinder premolars and molars are much
less sharp and pointed. They are peculiar in that the wall of the
inner chamber of the auditory bulla never ossifies, while the
paroccipital process is not flattened out and spread over the bulla.
In this respect they resemble the Miocene European genus _Amphictis_,
as they do in the form of their teeth, so that they may be regarded as
nearly related to the ancestral _Viverridae_, and forming in some
degree a connecting link between the present and the next subfamily.
_Nandinia_ is also peculiar in possessing a kind of rudimentary
marsupial pouch. Apparently _Eupleres goudoti_, of Madagascar, which
has been generally classed in the _Herpestinae_, is a nearly related
animal, characterized by the reduction of its dentition, due to
insectivorous habits (fig. 3); the canines being small, the anterior
premolars canine-like, and the hinder premolars molariform. It is a
uniformly-coloured creature of medium size.

The palm-civets, or paradoxures, constituting the Asiatic genus
_Paradoxurus_, have, as already stated, the following dental formula,
viz. i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. 2/2, total 40; the cusps of the molars
being low and blunted, and these teeth in the upper jaw much broader
than in the civets. The head is pointed in front, with small rounded
ears; the limbs are of medium length, with the soles of the feet
almost completely naked, and fully retractile claws; while the long
tail is not prehensile and clothed with hair of moderate length. Spots
are the chief type of marking. The vertebrae number C. 7, D. 13, L. 7,
S. 3, Ca. 29-36. Numerous relatively large species ranging from India
to Borneo, Sumatra and Celebes, with one in Tibet, represent the
genus. Nearly allied are _Arctogale leucotis_, with a wide
distribution, and _A. trivirgata_, of Java, both longitudinally
striped species, with small and slightly separated molars, and a
prolonged bony palate (see PALM-CIVET).

The binturong (_Arctictis binturong_) has typically the same dental
formula as the last, but the posterior upper molar and the first lower
premolar are often absent. Molars small and rounded, with a distinct
interval between every two, but formed generally on the same pattern
as _Paradoxurus_. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 14, L. 5, S. 3, Ca. 34. Body
elongated; head broad behind, with a small pointed face, long and
numerous whiskers, and small ears, rounded, but clothed with a pencil
of long hairs. Eyes small. Limbs short, with the soles of the feet
broad and entirely naked. Tail very long and prehensile. Fur long and
harsh. Caecum extremely small. The binturong inhabits southern Asia
from Nepal through the Malay Peninsula to the islands of Sumatra and
Java. Although structurally agreeing closely with the paradoxures, its
tufted ears, long, coarse and dark hair, and prehensile tail give it a
very different external appearance. It is slow and cautious in its
movements, chiefly if not entirely arboreal, and appears to feed on
vegetables as well as animal substances (see BINTURONG).

_Hemigale_ is another modification of the paradoxure type, represented
by _H. hardwickei_ of Borneo, an elegant-looking animal, smaller and
more slender than the paradoxures, of light grey colour, with
transverse broad dark bands across the back and loins.

_Cynogale_ also contains one Bornean species, _C. bennetti_, a curious
otter-like modification of the viverrine type, having semi-aquatic
habits, both swimming in the water and climbing trees, living upon
fish, crustaceans, small mammals, birds and fruits. The number and
general arrangement of the teeth are as in _Paradoxurus_, but the
premolars are peculiarly elongated, compressed, pointed and recurved,
though the molars are tuberculated. The head is elongated, with the
muzzle broad and depressed, the whiskers are very long and abundant,
and the ears small and rounded. Toes short and slightly webbed at the
base. Tail short, cylindrical, covered with short hair. Fur very dense
and soft, of a dark-brown colour, mixed with black and grey.

In the mongoose group, or _Herpestinae_, the tympanic or anterior
portion of the auditory bulla is produced into an ossified external
auditory meatus of considerable length; while the paroccipital process
never projects below the bulla, on the hinder surface of which, in
adult animals, it is spread out and completely lost. The toes are
straight, with long, unsheathed, non-retractile claws.