Chapter IV: Front Matter (4)

CAROLINE ISLANDS, a widely-scattered archipelago in the Pacific Ocean, E. of the Philippines and N. of New Guinea, included in Micronesia, between 5 deg. and 10 deg. N., and 135 deg. and 165 deg. E., belonging to Germany. They fall into three main groups, the Western, Central and Eastern Carolines, the central being the most numerous, while the western include the Pelew group. The total land area is about 380 sq. m., and out of this, 307 sq. m. is covered by the four main islands, Ponape and Kusaie in the eastern group, Truk or Hogolu in the central, and Yap in the western. These islands are of considerable elevation (the highest point of Ponape approaches 3000 ft.), but the rest are generally low coral islets. The climate is equable and moist, but healthy; but the islands are subject to heavy storms. The total population is estimated at 36,000. The natives, who are Micronesian hybrids of finer physique than their kinsmen of the Pelew Islands, have a comparatively high mental standard, being careful agriculturists, and peculiarly clever boatbuilders and navigators. The Germans divide the whole archipelago into two administrative districts, eastern and western, having the seats of government at Ponape and Yap respectively. The principal article of export is copra. The islands were discovered (at least in part) by the Portuguese Diego da Rocha in 1527, and called by him the Sequeira Islands. In 1686 Admiral Francesco Lazeano, who made further explorations, renamed them the Carolines in honour of Charles II. of Spain. The islands were subsequently visited by a few travellers; but the natives have only in modern times been reconciled to the presence of foreigners; an early visit of missionaries (1731) resulted in one of several murderous attacks on white men which darken the history of the islands; and it was only in 1875 that Spain, claiming the group, made some attempt to assert her rights. These were contested by Germany, whose flag was hoisted on Yap, and the matter was referred to the arbitration of Pope Leo XIII. in 1885. He decided in favour of Spain, but gave Germany free trading rights; and in 1899 Germany took over the administration of the islands from Spain, paying 25,000,000 pesetas (nearly L1,000,000 sterling).

_Ancient Stone Buildings._--In Ponape and Kusaie, massive stone structures, similar to those which occur in several other parts of the Pacific Ocean, have long been known to exist. They have been closely explored by Herr Kubary, Mr F.J. Moss, and later Mr F.W. Christian. None of the colossal structures hitherto described appears to have been erected by the present Melanesian or Polynesian peoples, while their wide diffusion, extending as far as Easter Island, within 400 m. of the New World, points to the occupation of the Pacific lands by a prehistoric race which had made some advance in general culture. The Funafuti borings (1897) show almost beyond doubt that Polynesia is an area of comparatively recent subsidence. Hence the land connexions must have formerly been much easier and far more continuous than at present. The dolmen-builders of the New Stone Age are now known to have long occupied both Korea and Japan, from which advanced Asiatic lands they may have found little difficulty in spreading over the Polynesian world, just as in the extreme west they were able to range over Scandinavia, Great Britain and Ireland. To Neolithic man, still perhaps represented by some of the more light-coloured and more regular-featured Polynesian groups, may therefore not unreasonably be attributed these astonishing remains, which assume so many different forms according to the nature of the locality, but seem generally so out of proportion with the present restricted areas on which they stand. With the gradual subsidence of these areas their culture would necessarily degenerate, although echoes of sublime theogonies and philosophies are still heard in the oral traditions and folklore of many Polynesian groups. In the islet of Lele, close to Kusaie, at the eastern extremity of Micronesia, the ruins present the appearance of a citadel with cyclopean ramparts built of large basaltic blocks. There are also numerous canals, and what look like artificial harbours constructed amid the shallow lagoons.

In Ponape the remains are of a somewhat similar character, but on a much larger scale, and with this difference, that while those of Lele all stand on the land, those of Ponape are built in the water. The whole island is strewn with natural basaltic prisms, some of great size: and of this material, brought by boats or rafts from a distance of 30 m. and put together without any mortar, but sustained by their own weight, are built all the massive walls and other structures on the east side of the island. The walls of the main building near the entrance of Metalanim harbour form a massive quadrangle 200 ft. on all sides, with inner courts, vault and raised platform with walls 20 to 40 ft. high and from 8 to 18 ft. thick. Some of the blocks are 25 ft. long and 8 ft. in circumference, and many of them weigh from 3 to 4 tons. There are also numerous canals from 30 to 100 ft. wide, while a large number of islets, mainly artificial, covering an area of 9 sq. m., have all been built up out of the shallow waters of the lagoon round about the entrance of the harbour, with high sea-walls composed of the same huge basaltic prisms. In, some places the walls of this "Pacific Venice" are now submerged to some depth, as if the land had subsided since the construction of these extensive works. Elsewhere huge breakwaters had been constructed, the fragments of which may still be seen stretching away for a distance of from 2 to 3 m. Most observers, such as Admiral Sir Cyprian Bridge and Mr. Le Hunte, agree that these structures could not possibly be the work of any of the present Polynesian peoples, and attribute them to a now extinct prehistoric race, the men of the New Stone Age from the Asiatic mainland.

_Stone Money._--The inhabitants of Yap are noted for possessing the most extraordinary currency, if it can be so called, in the whole world. Besides the ordinary shell money, there is a sort of stone coinage, consisting of huge calcite or limestone discs or wheels from 6 in. to 12 ft. in diameter, and weighing up to nearly 5 tons. These are all quarried in the Pelew Islands, 200 m. to the south, and are now brought to Yap in European vessels. But some were in the island long before the arrival of the whites, and must consequently have been brought by native vessels or on rafts. The stones, which are rather tokens than money, do not circulate, but are piled up round about the chief's treasure-house, and appear to be regarded as public property, although it is hard to say what particular use they can serve. They appear to be kept rather for show and ornament than for use.

See F.W. Christian, _The Caroline Islands_ (London, 1899); G. Volkens,
"Uber die Karolinen Insel Yap," in _Verhandlungen Gesellschaft
Erdkunde Berlin_., xxviii. (1901); J.S. Kubary, _Ethnographische
Beitrage zur Kentniss des Karolinen-Archipel_ (Leiden, 1889-1892); De
Abrade, _Historia del conflicto de las Carolinas, &c._ (Madrid, 1886).

CAROLINGIANS, the name of a family (so called from Charlemagne, its most illustrious member) which gained the throne of France A.D. 751. It appeared in history in 613, its origin being traced to Arnulf (Arnoul), bishop of Metz, and Pippin, long called Pippin of Landen, but more correctly Pippin the Old or Pippin I. Albeit of illustrious descent, the genealogies which represent Arnulf as an Aquitanian noble, and his family as connected--by more or less complicated devices--with the saints honoured in Aquitaine, are worthless, dating from the time of Louis the Pious in the 9th century. Arnulf was one of the Austrasian nobles who appealed to Clotaire II., king of Neustria, against Brunhilda, and it was in reward for his services that he received from Clotaire the bishopric of Metz (613). Pippin, also an Austrasian noble, had taken a prominent part in the revolution of 613. These two men Clotaire took as his counsellors; and when he decided in 623 to confer the kingdom of Austrasia upon his son Dagobert, they were appointed mentors to the Austrasian king, Pippin with the title of mayor of the palace. Before receiving his bishopric, Arnulf had had a son Adalgiselus, afterwards called Anchis; Pippin's daughter, called Begga in later documents, was married to Arnulf's son, and of this union was born Pippin II. Towards the end of the 7th century Pippin II., called incorrectly Pippin of Heristal, secured a preponderant authority in Austrasia, marched at the head of the Austrasians against Neustria, and gained a decisive victory at Tertry, near St Quentin (687). From that date he may be said to have been sole master of the Frankish kingdom, which he governed till his death (714). In Neustria Pippin gave the mayoralty of the palace to his son Grimoald, and afterwards to Grimoald's son Theodebald; the mayoralty in Austrasia he gave to his son Drogo, and subsequently to Drogo's children, Arnulf and Hugh. Charles Martel, however, a son of Pippin by a concubine Chalpaida, seized the mayoralty in both kingdoms, and he it was who continued the Carolingian dynasty. Charles Martel governed from 714 to 741, and in 751 his son Pippin III. took the title of king. The Carolingian dynasty reigned in France from 751 to 987, when it was ousted by the Capetian dynasty. In Germany descendants of Pippin reigned till the death of Louis the Child in 911; in Italy the Carolingians maintained their position until the deposition of Charles the Fat in 887. Charles, duke of Lower Lorraine, who was thrown into prison by Hugh Capet in 991, left two sons, the last male descendants of the Carolingians, Otto, who was also duke of Lower Lorraine and died without issue, and Louis, who after the year 1000 vanishes from history.

See P.A.F. Gerard and L.A. Warnkonig, _Histoire des Carolingiens_
(Brussels, 1862); H.E. Bonnell, _Anfange des Karoling. Hauses_
(Berlin, 1866); J.F. Bohmer and E. Muhlbacher, _Regesten d.
Kaiserreichs unter d. Karolingern_ (Innsbruck, 1889 seq.); E.
Muhlbacher, _Deutsche Gesch. unter d. Karolingern_ (Stuttgart, 1896);
F. Lot, _Les Derniers Carolingiens_ (Paris, 1891). (C. Pf.)

CAROLUS-DURAN, the name adopted by the French painter Charles Auguste Emile Durand (1837- ), who was born at Lille on the 4th of July 1837. He studied at the Lille Academy and then went to Paris, and in 1861 to Italy and Spain for further study, especially devoting himself to the pictures of Velasquez. His subject picture "Murdered," or "The Assassination" (1866), was one of his first successes, and is now in the Lille museum, but he became best known afterwards as a portrait-painter, and as the head of one of the principal ateliers in Paris, where some of the most brilliant artists of a later generation were his pupils. His "Lady with the Glove" (1869), a portrait of his own wife, was bought for the Luxembourg. In 1889 he was made a commander of the Legion of Honour. He became a member of the Academie des Beaux-arts in 1904, and in the next year was appointed director of the French academy at Rome in succession to Eugene Guillaume.

CARORA, an inland town of the state of Lara, Venezuela, on the Carora, a branch of the Tocuyo river, about 54 m. W. by S. of the city of Barquisimeto, and 1128 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1908 estimate) 6000. The town is comparatively well-built and possesses a fine parish church, and a Franciscan convent and hermitage. It was founded in 1754, and its colonial history shows considerable prosperity, its population at that time numbering 9000 to 10,000. The neighbouring country is devoted principally to raising horses, mules and cattle; and in addition to hides and leather, it exports rubber and other forest products.

CARP, the typical fish of a large family (_Cyprimdae_) of Ostariophysi, as they have been called by M. Sagemehl, in which the air-bladder is connected with the ear by a chain of small bones (so-called Weberian ossicles). The mouth is usually more or less protractile and always toothless; the lower pharyngeal bones, which are large and falciform, subparallel to the branchial arches, are provided with teeth, often large and highly specialized, in one, two or three series (pharyngeal teeth), usually working against a horny plate attached to a vertical process of the basioccipital bone produced under the anterior vertebrae, mastication being performed in the gullet. These teeth, adapted to various requirements, vary according to the genus, being conical, hooked, spoon-shaped, molariform, &c.

The species are extremely numerous, about 1400 being known, nearly entirely confined to fresh water, and feeding on vegetable substances or small animals. They are dispersed over the whole world with the exception of South America, Madagascar, Papuasia, and Australasia. Remains of several of the existing genera have been found in Oligocene and later beds of Europe, Sumatra and North America. One member of the _Cyprinidae_ is at present known to be viviparous, but no observations have as yet been made on its habits. It is a small barbel discovered in Natal by Max Weber, and described by him under the name _Barbus viviparus_.

The _Cyprinidae_[1] are divided into four subfamilies:--_Catostominae_ (mostly from North America, with a few species from China and eastern Siberia), in which the maxillary bones take a share in the border of the mouth, and the pharyngeal teeth are very numerous and form a single, comb-like series; _Cyprininae_, the great bulk of the family, more or less conforming to the type of the carp; _Cobitinae_, or loaches (Europe, Asia, Abyssinia), which are dealt with in a separate article (see LOACH); and the _Homalopterinae_ (China and south-eastern Asia), mountain forms allied to the loaches, with a quite rudimentary air-bladder.

For descriptions of other Cyprinids than the carp, see GOLDFISH, BARBEL, GUDGEON, RUDD, ROACH, CHUB, DACE, MINNOW, TENCH, BREAM, BLEAK, BITTERLING, MAHSEER.

The carp itself, _Cyprinus carpio_, has a very wide distribution, having spread, through the agency of man, over nearly the whole of Europe and a part of North America, where it lives in lakes, ponds, canals, and slow-running rivers with plenty of vegetation. The carp appears to be a native of temperate Asia and perhaps also of south-eastern Europe, and to have been introduced into other parts in the 12th and 13th century; it was first mentioned in England in 1496. The acclimatization of the carp in America has been a great success, especially in the northern waters, where, the growth continuing throughout the entire year, the fish soon attains a remarkable size. The presence of carp in Indo-China and the Malay Archipelago is probably also to be ascribed to human agency. In the British Isles the carp seldom reaches a length of 2-1/2 ft., and a weight of 20 lb., whilst examples of that size are quite frequent on the continent, and others measuring 4-1/2 ft. and weighing 60 lb or more are on record. The fish is characterized by its large scales (34 to 40 in the lateral line), its long dorsal fin, the first ray of which is stiff and serrated, and the presence of two small barbels on each side of the mouth. But it varies much in form and scaling, and some most aberrant varieties have been fixed by artificial selection, the principal being the king-carp or mirror-carp, in which the scales are enlarged and reduced in number, forming more or less regular longitudinal series on the sides, and the leather-carp, in which the scales have all but disappeared, the fish being covered with a thick, leathery skin. Deformed examples are not of rare occurrence.

Although partly feeding on worms and other small forms of animal life, the carp is principally a vegetarian, and the great development of its pharyngeal apparatus renders it particularly adapted to a graminivorous regime. The longevity of the fish has probably been much exaggerated, and the statements of carp of 200 years living in the ponds of Pont-Chartrain and other places in France and elsewhere do not rest on satisfactory evidence.

A close ally of the carp is the Crucian carp, _Cyprinus carassius_, chiefly distinguished by the absence of barbels. It inhabits Europe and northern and temperate Asia, and is doubtfully indigenous to Great Britain. It is a small fish, rarely exceeding a length of 8 or 9 in. It has many varieties. One of these, remarkable for its very short, thick head and deep body, is the so-called Prussian carp, _C. gibelio_, often imported into English ponds, whilst the best known is the goldfish (q.v.), _C. auralus_, first produced in China. (G. A. B.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The name of the fishes of the genus _Cyprinus_ is derived from
the island of Cyprus, the ancient sanctuary of Venus; this name is
supposed to have arisen from observations of the fecundity and
vivacity of carp during the spawning period.

CARPACCIO, VITTORIO, or VITTORE (c. 1465-c. 1522), Italian painter, was born in Venice, cf an old Venetian family. The facts of his life are obscure, but his principal works were executed between 1490 and 1519; and he ranks as one of the finest precursors of the great Venetian masters. The date of his birth is conjectural. He is first mentioned in 1472 in a will of his uncle Fra Ilario, and Dr Ludwig infers from this that he was born c. 1455, on the ground that no one could enter into an inheritance under the age of fifteen; but the inference ignores the possibility of a testator making his will in prospect of the beneficiary attaining his legal age. Consideration of the youthful style of his earliest dated pictures ("St Ursula" series, Venice, 1490) makes it improbable that at that time he had reached so mature an age as thirty-five; and the date of his birth is more probably to be guessed from his being about twenty-five in 1490. What is certain is that he was a pupil (not, as sometimes thought, the master) of Lazzaro Bastiani, who, like the Bellini and Vivarini, was the head of a large _atelier_ in Venice, and whose own work is seen in such pictures as the "S. Veneranda" at Vienna, and the "Doge Mocenigo kneeling before the Virgin" and "Madonna and Child" (formerly attributed to Carpaccio) in the National Gallery, London. In later years Carpaccio appears to have been influenced by Cima da Conegliano (e.g. in the "Death of the Virgin," 1508, at Ferrara). Apart from the "St Ursula" series, his scattered series of the "Life of the Virgin" and "Life of St Stephen," and a "Dead Christ" at Berlin, may be specially mentioned.

For an authoritative and detailed account, see the _Life and Works of
Vittorio Carpaccio_, by Pompeo Molmenti and Gustav Ludwig, Eng. trans,
by R.H. Cust (1907); and the criticism by Roger Fry, "A Genre Painter
and his Critics," in the _Quarterly Review_ (London, April 1908).

CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS[1] (Lat. _Monies Sarmatici_; Med. Lat. _Montes Nivium_), the eastern wing of the great central mountain system of Europe. With the exception of the extreme southern and south-eastern ramifications, which belong to Rumania, the Carpathians lie entirely within Austrian and Hungarian territory. They begin on the Danube near Pressburg, surround Hungary and Transylvania in a large semicircle, the concavity of which is towards the south-west, and end on the Danube near Orsova. The total length of the Carpathians is over 800 m., and their width varies between 7 and 230 m., the greatest width of the Carpathians corresponding with its highest altitude. Thus the system attains its greatest breadth in the Transylvanian plateau, and in the meridian of the Tatra group. It covers an area of 72,600 sq. m., and after the Alps is the most extensive mountain system of Europe. The Carpathians do not form an uninterrupted chain of mountains, but consist of several orographically and geologically distinctive groups; in fact they present as great a structural variety as the Alps; but as regards magnificence of scenery they cannot compare with the Alps. The Carpathians, which only in a few places attain an altitude of over 8000 ft., lack the bold peaks, the extensive snow-fields, the large glaciers, the high waterfalls and the numerous large lakes which are found in the Alps. They are nowhere covered by perpetual snow, and glaciers do not exist, so that the Carpathians, even in their highest altitude, recall the middle region of the Alps, with which, however, they have many points in common as regards appearance, structure and flora. The Danube separates the Carpathians from the Alps, which they meet only in two points, namely, the Leitha Mountains at Pressburg, and the Bakony Mountains at Vacz (Waitzen), while the same river separates them from the Balkan Mountains at Orsova. The valley of the March and Oder separates the Carpathians from the Silesian and Moravian chains, which belong to the middle wing of the great central mountain system of Europe. The Carpathians separate Hungary and Transylvania from Lower Austria, Moravia, Silesia, Galicia, Bukovina and Rumania, while its ramifications fill the whole northern part of Hungary, and form the quadrangular mass of the Transylvanian plateau. Unlike the other wings of the great central system of Europe, the Carpathians, which form the watershed between the northern seas and the Black Sea, are surrounded on all sides by plains, namely the great Hungarian plain on the south-west, the plain of the Lower Danube (Rumania) on the south, and the Galician plain on the north-east.

The Carpathian system can be divided into two groups: the Carpathians proper, and the mountains of Transylvania. The Carpathians proper consist of an outer wall, which forms the frontier between Hungary and the adjacent provinces of Austria, and of an inner wall which fills the whole of Upper Hungary, and forms the central group. The outer wall is a complex, roughly circular mass of about 600 m. extending from Pressburg to the valley of the Viso, and the Golden Bistritza, and is divided by the Poprad into two parts, the western Carpathians and the eastern or wooded Carpathians. Orographically, therefore, the proper Carpathians are divided into: (a) the western Carpathians, (b) the eastern or wooded Carpathians, and (c) the central groups.

Ranges.

(a) The western Carpathians, which begin at the _Porta Hungarica_ on
the Danube, just opposite the Leitha Mountains, and extend to the
Poprad river, are composed of four principal groups: the Little
Carpathians (also called the Pressburg group) with the highest peak
Bradlo (2670 ft.); the White Carpathians or Miava group, with the
highest peak Javornik (3325 ft.), and the Zemerka (3445 ft.); the
Beskid proper or western Beskid group, which extends from a little
west of the Jablunka pass to the river Poprad, with the highest peaks,
Beskid (3115 ft.), Smrk (4395 ft.), Lissa Hora (4350 ft.) and Ossus
(5106 ft.); and the Magura or Arva Magura group, which extends to the
south of Beskid Mountains, and contains the Babia Gora (5650 ft.), the
highest peak in the whole western Carpathians.

(b) The eastern or wooded Carpathians extend from the river Poprad to
the sources of the river Viso and the Golden Bistritza, whence the
Transylvanian Mountains begin, and form the link between these
mountains and the central groups or High Carpathians. They are a
monotonous sandstone range, covered with extensive forests, which up
to the sources of the rivers Ung and San are also called the eastern
Beskids, and are formed of small parallel ranges. The northern
two-thirds of this range has a mean altitude of 3250 ft., and only in
its southern portion it attains a mean altitude of 5000 ft. The
principal peaks are Rusky Put (4264 ft.), Popadje (5690 ft.), Bistra
(5936 ft.), Pop Ivan (6214 ft.), Tomnatik (5035 ft.), Giumaleu (6077
ft.) and Cserna Gora (6505 ft.), the culminating peak of the whole
range. To the eastern Carpathians belongs also the range of mountains
extending between the Laborcza and the Upper Theiss, called Vihorlat,
which attains in the peak of the same name an altitude of 3495 ft. As
indicated by its name, which means "burnt," it is of volcanic origin,
and plays an important part in the folklore and in the superstitious
legends of the Hungarian people.

(c) The central groups or the High Carpathians extend from the
confluence of the rivers Arva and Waag to the river Poprad, and
include the highest group of the Carpathian system. They consist of
the High Tatra group (see TATRA MOUNTAINS), where is found the
Gerlsdorfer or Franz Josef peak (Hung. _Gerlachfalvi-Csucs_), with an
altitude of 8737 ft., the highest peak in the whole Carpathian
Mountains. On its west are the Liptauer Magura, with the highest peak
the Biela Szkala (6900 ft.), and on its east are the Zipser Magura,
which have a mean altitude of 3000 ft. South of the central groups
lies a widely extending mountain region, which fills the whole of
northern Hungary, and is known as the Hungarian highland. It is
composed of several groups, which are intersected by the valleys of
numerous rivers, and which descend in sloping terraces towards the
Danube and the Hungarian plain. The principal groups are: the Neutra
or Galgoc Mountains (4400 ft.), between the rivers Waag and Neutra;
the Low or Nizna Tatra, which extends to the south of the High Tatra,
and has its highest peaks, the Djumbir (6700 ft.) and the Kralova Hola
(6400 ft.); this group is continued towards the east up to the
confluence of the Gollnitz with the Hernad, by the so-called
Carpathian foot-hills, with the highest peak the Zelesznik (2675 ft.).
West of the Low Tatra extend the Fatra group, with the highest peak,
the Great Fatra (5825 ft.), to the south and east of which lie the
Schemnitz group, the Ostrowsky group, and several other groups, all of
which are also called the Hungarian Ore Mountains, on account of their
richness in valuable ores. South-east of the Low Tatra extend the
Zips--Gomor Ore Mountains, while the most eastern group is the
Hegyalja Mountains, between the Topla, Tarcza and Hernad rivers, which
run southward from Eperjes to Tokaj. In their northern portion, they
are also called Sovar Mountains, and reach in their highest peak,
Simonka, an altitude of 3350 ft., while their southern portion, which
ends with the renowned Tokaj Hill (1650 ft.), is also called Tokaj
Mountains. The smaller groups of the Hungarian highland are: on the
south-west the Neograd Mountains (2850), whose offshoots reach the
Danube; to the east of them extends the Matra group, with the highest
peak the Sasko (3285 ft.). The Matra group is of volcanic origin,
rising abruptly in the great Hungarian plain, and constitutes one of
the most beautiful groups of the Carpathians; lastly, to its east
extend the thickly-wooded Bukk Mountains (3100 ft.).

Lakes.

Throughout the whole of the Carpathian system there are numerous
mountain lakes, but they cannot compare with the Alpine lakes either
in extension or beauty. The largest and most numerous are found in the
Tatra Mountains. These lakes are called by the people "eyes of the
sea," through their belief that they are in subterranean communication
with the sea.

Passes.

The western and central Carpathians are much more accessible than the
eastern Carpathians and the Transylvanian Mountains. The principal
passes in the western Carpathians are: Strany, Hrozinkau, Wlara, Lissa
and the Jablunka pass (1970 ft.), the principal route between Silesia
and Hungary, crossed by the Breslau-Budapest railway; and the Jordanow
pass. In the central Carpathians are: the road from Neumarkt to
Kesmark through the High Tatra, the Telgart pass over the Kralova Hola
from the Poprad to the Gran, and the Tylicz pass from Bartfeld to
Tarnow. In the eastern Carpathians are: the Dukla pass, the
Mezo-Laborcz pass crossed by the railway from Tokaj to Przemysl; the
Uszok pass, crossed by the road from Ungvar to Sambor; the Vereczke
pass, crossed by the railway from Lemberg to Munkacs; the Delatyn or
Korosmezo pass (3300 ft.), also called the Magyar route, crossed by
the railway from Kolomea to Debreczen; and the Stiol pass in Bukovina.

Geology.

The Carpathians consist of an outer zone of newer beds and an inner
zone of older rocks. Between the two zones lies a row of _Klippen_,
while towards the Hungarian plain the inner zone is bordered by a
fringe of volcanic eruptions of Tertiary age. The _outer zone_ is
continuous throughout the whole extent of the chain, and is remarkably
uniform both in composition and structure. It is formed almost
entirely of a succession of sandstones and shales of Cretaceous and
Tertiary age--the so-called Carpathian Sandstone--and these are thrown
into a series of isoclinal folds dipping constantly to the south. The
folding of this zone took place during the Miocene period. The _inner
zone_ is not continuous, and is much more complex in structure. It is
visible only in the west and in the east, while in the central
Carpathians, between the Hernad and the headwaters of the Theiss, it
is lost beneath the modern deposits of the Hungarian plain. In the
western Carpathians the inner zone consists of a foundation of
Carboniferous and older rocks, which were folded and denuded before
the deposition of the succeeding strata. In the outer portion of the
zone the Permian and Mesozoic beds are crushed and folded against the
core of ancient rocks; in the inner portion of the zone they rest upon
the old foundation with but little subsequent disturbance. In the
eastern Carpathians also, the Permian and Mesozoic beds are not much
folded except near the outer margin of the zone. The _Klippen_ are
isolated hills, chiefly of Jurassic limestone, rising up in the midst
of the later and softer deposits on the inner border of the sandstone
zone. Their relations to the surrounding beds are still obscure. They
may be "rootless" masses brought upon the top of the later beds by
thrustplanes. They may be the pinched-up summits of sharp anticlinals,
which in the process of folding have been forced through the softer
rocks which lay upon them. Or, finally, they may have been islands
rising above the waters, in which were deposited the later beds which
now surround them. The so-called _Klippen_ of the Swiss Alps are now
usually supposed to rest upon thrustplanes, but they are not strictly
analogous, either in structure or in position, with those of the
Carpathians. Of all the peculiar features of the Carpathian chain,
perhaps the most remarkable is the fringe of volcanic rocks which lies
along its inner margin. The outbursts began in the later part of the
Eocene period, and continued into the Pliocene, outlasting the period
of folding. They appear to be associated with faulting upon the inner
margin of the chain. Trachytes, rhyolites, andesites and basalts
occur, and a definite order of succession has been made out in several
areas; but this order is not the same throughout the chain.

Climate, Flora, Fauna.

The Carpathians, like the Alps, form a protective wall to the regions
south of them, which enjoy a much milder climate than those situated
to the north. The vegetation of these regions is naturally subjected
to the different climateric conditions. The mountains themselves are
mostly covered with forests, and their vegetation presents four zones:
that of the beech extends to an altitude of 4000 ft.; that of the
Scottish fir to 1000 ft. higher. Above this grows a species of pine,
which becomes dwarfed and disappears at an altitude of about 6000 ft.,
beyond which is a zone of lichen and moss covered or almost bare rock.
The highest parts in the High Tatra and in the Transylvanian Mountains
have a flora similar to that of the Alps, more specially that of the
middle region. Remarkable is the sea-shore flora, which is found in
the numerous salt-impregnated lakes, ponds and marshes in
Transylvania. As regards the fauna, the Carpathians still contain
numerous bears, wolves and lynxes, as well as birds of prey. It
presents a characteristic feature in its mollusc fauna, which contains
many species not found in the neighbouring regions, and only found in
the Alpine region. Cattle and sheep are pastured in great numbers on
its slopes.

Minerals.

The Carpathian system is richer in metallic ores than any other
mountain system of Europe, and contains large quantities of gold,
silver, copper, iron, lead, coal, petroleum, salt, zinc, &c., besides
a great variety of useful mineral. A great number of mineral springs
and thermal waters are found in the Carpathians, many of which have
become frequented watering-places.

History.

The systematic and scientific exploration of the Carpathians dates
only from the beginning of the 19th century. The first ascension of
the Lomnitzer peak in the High Tatra was made by one David or Johann
Frohlich in 1615. The first account of the Tatra Mountains was written
by Georg Buchholz, a resident of Kesmark in 1664. The English
naturalist, Robert Townson, explored the Tatra in 1793 and 1794, and
was the first to make a few reliable measurements. The results of his
exploration appeared in his book, _Travels in Hungary_, published in
1797. But the first real important work was undertaken by the Swedish
naturalist, Georg Wablenberg (1780-1851), who in 1813 explored the
central Carpathians as a botanist, but afterwards also made
topographical and geological studies of the system. The results of all
the former explorations were embodied by A. von Sydow in an extensive
work published in 1827. During the 19th century the measurements of
the various parts of the Carpathians was undertaken by the ordnance
survey of the Austrian army, which published their first map of the
central Carpathians in 1870. A great stimulus to the study of this
mountain system was given by the foundation of the Hungarian
Carpathian Society in 1873, and a great deal of information has been
added to our knowledge since. In 1880 two new Carpathian societies
were formed: a Galician and a Transylvanian.

AUTHORITIES.--F.W. Hildebrandt, _Karpathenbilder_ (Glogau, 1863); E.
Sagorski and G. Schneider, _Flora Carpatorum Centralium_ (2 vols.,
Leipzig, 1891); Muriel Dowie, _A Girl in the Carpathians_ (London,
1891); _Orohydrographisches Tableau der Karpathen_ (Vienna, 1886), in
six maps of scale 1:750,000; V. Uhlig, "Bau und Bild der Karpaten," in
_Bau und Bild Osterreichs_ (Vienna, 1903). (O. Br.; P. La.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The name is derived from the Slavonic word _Chrb_, which means
mountain-range. As _Chrawat_, it was first applied to the inhabitants
of the region, whence it passed in the form _Krapat_ or _Karpa_ as
the name of mountain system. In official Hungarian documents of the
13th and 14th centuries the Carpathians are named Thorchal or
Tarczal, and also _Montes Nivium_.

CARPATHUS (Ital. _Scarpanto_), an island about 30 m. south-west of Rhodes, in that part of the Mediterranean which was called, after it, the Carpathian Sea (_Carpathium Mare_). It was both in ancient and medieval times closely connected with Rhodes; it was held by noble families under Venetian suzerainty, notably the Cornari from 1306 to 1540, when it finally passed into the possession of the Turks. From its remote position Carpathus has preserved many peculiarities of dress, customs and dialect, the last resembling those of Rhodes and Cyprus.

See L. Ross, _Reisen auf den gr. Inseln_ (Halle, 1840-1845); T. Bent,
_Journal of Hellenic Studies_, vi. (1885), p. 235; R.M. Dawkins,
_Annual of British School at Athens_, ix. and x.

CARPEAUX, JEAN BAPTISTE (1827-1875), French sculptor, was born at Valenciennes, France, on the 11th of May 1827. He was the son of a mason, and passed his early life in extreme poverty. In 1842 he came to Paris, and after working for two years in a drawing-school, was admitted to the Ecole des Beaux-Arts on the 9th of September 1854. The Grand Prix de Rome was awarded to his statue of "Hector bearing in his arms his son Astyanax." His first work exhibited at the Salon, in 1853, did not show the spirit of an innovator, and was very unlike the work of his master Rude. At Rome he was fascinated by Donatello, and yet more influenced by Michelangelo, to whom he owes his feeling for vehement and passionate action. He sent from Rome a bust, "La Palombella," 1856; and a "Neapolitan Fisherman," 1858. This work was again exhibited in the Salon of 1859, and took a second-class medal; but it was not executed in marble till 1863. In his last year in Rome he sent home a dramatic group, "Ugolino and his Sons," and exhibited at the same time a "Bust of Princess Mathilde." This gained him a second-class medal and the favour of the Imperial family. In 1864 he executed the "Girl with a Shell," the companion figure to the young fisherman; and although in 1865 he did not exhibit at the Salon, busts of "Mme. A.E. Andre," of "Giraud" the painter, and of "Mlle. Benedetti" showed that he was not idle. He was working at the same time on the decorations of the Pavilion de Flore, of which the pediment alone was seen at the Salon, though the bas-relief below is an even better example of his style. After producing a statue of the prince imperial, Carpeaux was made chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1866. Two years later he received an important commission to execute one of the four groups for the facade of the new opera house. His group, representing "Dancing," 1869, was greeted with indignant protests; it is nevertheless a sound work, full of movement, with no fault but that of exceeding the limitations prescribed. In 1869 he exhibited a "Bust of M. Gamier," and followed this up with two pieces intended for his native city: a statue of Watteau, and a bas-relief, "Valenciennes repelling Invasion." During the Commune he came to England, and made a "Bust of Gounod" in 1871. His last important work was a fountain, the "Four Quarters of the World," in which the globe is sustained by four female figures personifying Europe, Asia, Africa and America. This fountain is now in the Avenue de l'Observatoire in Paris. Carpeaux, though exhausted by illness, continued designing indefatigably, till he died at the Chateau de Becon, near Courbevoie, on the 12th of October 1875, after being promoted to the higher grade of the Legion of Honour. Many of his best drawings have been presented by Prince Stirbey to the city of Valenciennes.

See Ernest Chesneau, _Carpeaux, sa vie et son oeuvre_ (Paris, 1880);
Paul Foucart, _Catalogue du Musee Carpeaux, Valenciennes_ (Paris,
1882); Jules Claretie, _J. Carpeaux_ (1882); Francois Bournand, _J.B.
Carpeaux_ (1893).

CARPENTARIA, GULF OF, an extensive arm of the sea deeply indenting the north coast of Australia, between 10 deg. 40' and 17 deg. 40' S., and 135 deg. 30' and 142 deg. E. Its length is 480 m. and its extreme breadth (E. to W.) 420 m. It is bounded E. by Cape York Peninsula, and W. by the Northern Territory of South Australia. Near its southern extremity is situated a group of islands called Wellesley; and towards the western side are the Sir Edward Pellew Islands, the Groote Eylandt and others. A large number of rivers find their way to the gulf, and some are of considerable size. On the eastern side there is the Mitchell river; at the south-east corner the Gilbert, the Norman, the Flinders, the Leichhardt and the Gregory; and on the west the Roper river. Jan Carstensz, who undertook a voyage of discovery in this part of the globe in 1623, gave the name of Carpentier to a small river near Cape Duyfhen in honour of Pieter Carpentier, at that time governor-general of the Dutch East Indies; and after the second voyage of Abel Tasman in 1644, the gulf, which he had successfully explored, began to appear on the charts under its present designation.

CARPENTER, LANT (1780-1840), English Unitarian minister, was born at Kidderminster on the 2nd of September 1780, the son of a carpet manufacturer. After some months at a non-conformist academy at Northampton, he proceeded to Glasgow University, and then joined the ministry. After a short time as assistant master at a Unitarian school near Birmingham, he was in 1802 appointed librarian at the Liverpool Athenaeum. In 1805 he became pastor of a church in Exeter, removing in 1817 to Bristol. At both Bristol and Exeter he was also engaged in school work, among his Bristol pupils being Harriet and James Martineau. Carpenter did much to broaden the spirit of English Unitarianism. The rite of baptism seemed to him a superstition, and he substituted for it a form of infant dedication. His health, undermined by his constant labours, broke down in 1839, and he was ordered to travel. He was drowned on the night of the 5th of April 1840, having been washed overboard from the steamer in which he was travelling from Leghorn to Marseilles.

CARPENTER, MARY (1807-1877), English educational and social reformer, was born on the 3rd of April 1807 at Exeter, where her father, Dr Lant Carpenter, was Unitarian minister. In 1817 the family removed to Bristol, where Dr Carpenter was called to the ministry of Lewin's Mead Meeting. As a child Mary Carpenter was unusually earnest, with a deep religious vein and a remarkable thoroughness in everything she undertook. She was educated in her father's school for boys, learning Latin, Greek and mathematics, and other subjects at that time not generally taught to girls. She early showed an aptitude for teaching, taking a class in the Sunday school, and afterwards helping her father with his pupils. When Dr Carpenter gave up his school in 1829, his daughters opened a school for girls under Mrs Carpenter's superintendence. In 1833 the raja Rammohun Roy visited Bristol, and inspired Miss Carpenter with a warm interest in India; and Dr Joseph Tuckerman of Boston about the same time aroused her sympathies for the condition of destitute children. Her life-work began with her taking part in organizing, in 1835, a "Working and Visiting Society," of which she was secretary for twenty years. In 1843 her interest in negro emancipation was aroused by a visit from Dr S.G. Howe. Her interest in general educational work was also growing. A bill introduced in this year "to make provision for the better education of children in manufacturing districts," as a first instalment of a scheme of national education, failed to pass, largely owing to Nonconformist opposition, and private effort became doubly necessary. So-called "Ragged Schools" sprang up in many places, and Miss Carpenter conceived the plan of starting one in Lewin's Mead. To this was added a night-school for adults. In spite of many difficulties this was rendered a success, chiefly owing to Miss Carpenter's unwearied enthusiasm and remarkable organizing power. In 1848 the closing of their own private school gave Miss Carpenter more leisure for philanthropic and literary work. She published a memoir of Dr Tuckerman, and a series of articles on ragged schools, which appeared in the _Inquirer_ and were afterwards collected in book form. This was followed in 1851 by _Reformatory Schools for the Children of the Perishing and Dangerous Classes, and for Juvenile Offenders_. She sketched out three classes of schools as urgently needed:--(1) good free day-schools; (2) feeding industrial schools; (3) reformatory schools. This book drew public attention to her work, and from that time onwards she was drawn into personal intercourse with leading thinkers and workers. She was consulted in the drafting of educational bills, and invited to give evidence before House of Commons committees. To test the practical value of her theories, she herself started a reformatory school at Bristol, and in 1852 she published _Juvenile Delinquents, their Condition and Treatment_, which largely helped on the passing of the Juvenile Offenders Act in 1854. Now that the principle of reformatory schools was established, Miss Carpenter returned to her plea for free day-schools, contending that the ragged schools were entitled to pecuniary aid from the annual parliamentary grant. At the Oxford meeting of the British Association (1860) she read a paper on this subject, and, mainly owing to her instigation, a conference on ragged schools in relation to government grants for education was held at Birmingham (1861). In 1866 Miss Carpenter was at last able to carry out a long-cherished plan of visiting India, where she found herself an honoured guest. She visited Calcutta, Madras and Bombay, inaugurated the Bengal Social Science Association, and drew up a memorial to the governor-general dealing with female education, reformatory schools and the state of gaols. This visit was followed by others in 1868 and 1869. Her attempt to found a female normal school was unsuccessful at the time, owing to the inadequate previous education of the women, but afterwards such colleges were founded by government. A start, however, was made with a model Hindu girls' school, and here she had the co-operation of native gentlemen. Her last visit to India took place in 1875, two years before her death, when she had the satisfaction of seeing many of her schemes successfully established. At the meeting of the prison congress in 1872 she read a paper on "Women's Work in the Reformation of Women Convicts." Her work now began to attract attention abroad. Princess Alice of Hesse summoned her to Darmstadt to organize a Women's Congress. Thence she went to Neuchatel to study the prison system of Dr Guillaume, and in 1873 to America, where she was enthusiastically received. Miss Carpenter watched with interest the increased activity of women during the busy 'seventies. She warmly supported the movement for their higher education, and herself signed the memorial to the university of London in favour of admitting them to medical degrees. She died at Bristol on the 14th of June 1877, having lived to see the accomplishment of nearly all the reforms for which she had worked and hoped. (A. Z.)

CARPENTER, WILLIAM BENJAMIN (1813-1885), English physiologist and naturalist, was born at Exeter on the 29th of October 1813. He was the eldest son of Dr Lant Carpenter. He attended medical classes at University College, London, and then went to Edinburgh, where he took the degree of M.D. in 1839. The subject of his graduation thesis, "The Physiological Inferences to be Deduced from the Structure of the Nervous System of Invertebrated Animals," indicates a line of research which had fruition in his _Principles of General and Comparative Physiology_. His work in comparative neurology was recognized in 1844 by his election to the Royal Society, which awarded him a Royal medal in 1861; and his appointment as Fullerian professor of physiology in the Royal Institution in 1845 enabled him to exhibit his powers as a teacher and lecturer, his gift of ready speech and luminous interpretation placing him in the front rank of exponents, at a time when the popularization of science was in its infancy. His manifold labours as investigator, author, editor, demonstrator and lecturer knew no cessation through life; but in assessing the value of his work, prominence should be given to his researches in marine zoology, notably in the lower organisms, as Foraminifera and Crinoids. These researches gave an impetus to deep-sea exploration, an outcome of which was in 1868 the "Lightning," and later the more famous "Challenger," expedition. He took a keen and laborious interest in the evidence adduced by Canadian geologists as to the organic nature of the so-called _Eozoon Canadense_, discovered in the Laurentian strata, and at the time of his death had nearly finished a monograph on the subject, defending the now discredited theory of its animal origin. He was an adept in the use of the microscope, and his popular treatise on _The Microscope and its Revelations_ (1856) has stimulated a host of observers to the use of the "added sense" with which it has endowed man. In 1856 Carpenter became registrar of the university of London, and held the office for twenty-three years; on his resignation in 1879 he was made a C.B. in recognition of his services to education generally. Biologist as he was, Carpenter nevertheless made reservations as to the extension of the doctrine of evolution to man's intellectual and spiritual nature. In his _Principles of Mental Physiology_ he asserted both the freedom of the will and the existence of the "Ego," and one of his last public engagements was the reading of a paper in support of miracles. He died in London, from injuries occasioned by the accidental upsetting of a spirit-lamp, on the 19th of November 1885.

CARPENTRAS, a town of south-eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Vaucluse 16 m. N.E. of Avignon by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 7775; commune, 10,721. The town stands on the left bank of the Auzon on an eminence, the summit of which is occupied by the church of St Siffrein, formerly a cathedral, and the adjoining law-court. St Siffrein, in its existing state, dates from the 15th and 16th centuries and is Gothic in style, but it preserves remains of a previous church of Romanesque architecture. The rich sculpture of the southern portal and the relics and works of art in the interior are of some interest. The law-court, built in 1640 as the bishop's palace, contains in its courtyard a small but well-preserved triumphal arch of the Gallo-Roman period. Other important buildings are the hospital, an imposing structure of the 18th century, opposite which is a statue of its founder, Malachie d'Inguimbert, bishop of Carpentras; and the former palace of the papal legate, which dates from 1640. Of the old fortifications the only survival is the Porte d'Orange, a gateway surmounted by a fine machicolated tower. Their site is now occupied by wide boulevards shaded by plane-trees. Water is brought to the town by an aqueduct of forty-eight arches, completed in 1734.

Carpentras is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first instance, communal college for girls and boys, a large library and a museum. Felt hats, confectionery, preserved fruits and nails are its industrial products, and there are silk-works, tanneries and dye-works. There is trade in silk, wool, fruit, oil, &c. The irrigation-canal named after the town flows to the east of it (see VAUCLUSE).

Carpentras is identified with _Carpentoracte_, a town of Gallia Narbonensis mentioned by Pliny, which appears to have been of some importance during the Roman period. Its medieval history is full of vicissitudes; it was captured and plundered by Vandal, Lombard and Saracen. In later times, as capital of the Comtat Venaissin, it was frequently the residence of the popes of Avignon, to whom that province belonged from 1228 till the Revolution. Carpentras was the seat of a bishopric from the 5th century till 1805.

CARPENTRY, the art and work of a carpenter (from Lat. _carpentum_, a carriage), a workman in wood, especially for building purposes. The labour of the sawyer is applied to the division of large pieces of timber or logs into forms and sizes to suit the purposes of the carpenter and joiner. His working-place is called a sawpit, and his most important tool is a pit-saw. A cross-cut saw, axes, dogs, files, compasses, lines, lampblack, blacklead, chalk and a rule may also be regarded as necessary to him. But this method of sawing timber is now only used in remote country places, and in modern practice logs, &c., are converted into planks and small pieces at saw-mills, which are equipped with modern machinery to drive all kinds of circular saws by electricity, steam or gas.

Carpentry or carpenters' work has been divided into three principal branches--descriptive, constructive and mechanical. The first shows the lines or method for forming every species of work by the rules of geometry; the second comprises the practice of reducing the timber into particular forms, and joining the forms so produced in such a way as to make a complete whole according to the intention or design; and the third displays the relative strength of the timbers and the strains to which they are subjected by their disposition. Here we have merely to describe the practical details of the carpenter's work in the operations of building. He is distinguished from the joiner by his operations being directed to the mere carcass of a building, to things which have reference to structure only. Almost everything the carpenter does to a building is absolutely necessary to its stability and efficiency, whereas the joiner does not begin his operations until the carcass is complete, and every article of joiners' work might at any time be removed from a building without undermining it or affecting its most important qualities. Certainly in the practice of building a few things do occur regarding which it is difficult to determine to whose immediate province they belong, but the distinction is sufficiently broad for general purposes.

The carpenter frames or combines separate pieces of timber by scarfing, notching, cogging, tenoning, pinning and wedging, &c. The tools he uses are the rule, axe, adze, saws, mallet, hammers, chisels, gouges, augers, pincers, set squares, bevel, compasses, gauges, level, plumb rule, jack, trying and smoothing planes, rebate and moulding planes, and gimlets and wedges. The carpenter has little labour to put on to the stuff; his chief work consists in fixing and cutting the ends of timbers, the labour in preparing the timber being done by machinery.

_Joints._--The joints in carpentry are various, and each is designed according to the thrust or strain put upon it. Those principally used are the following: lap, fished, scarf, notching, cogging, dovetailing, housing, halving, mortice and tenon, stub tenon, dovetailed tenon, tusk tenon, joggle, bridle, foxtail wedging, mitre, birdsmouth, built-up, dowel. Illustrations are given of the most useful joints in general use, and these, together with the descriptions, will enable a good idea to be formed of their respective merits and methods of application.