Chapter XX: Letter II: later, in an indictment to be read to the commission sitting (2)

CASSIA, VIA, an ancient high-road of Italy, leading from Rome through Etruria to Florentia (Florence); at the 11th mile the Via Clodia (see CLODIA, VIA) diverged north-north-west, while the Via Cassia ran to the east of the Lacus Sabatinus and then through the place now called Sette Vene, where a road, probably the Via Annia, branched off to Falerii, through Sutrium (where the Via Ciminia, running along the east edge of the Lacus Ciminius, diverged from it, to rejoin it at Aquae Passeris, north of the modern Viterbo[1]), Forum Cassii, Volsinii, Clusium and Arretium, its line being closely followed by the modern highroad from Rome to Florence. The date of its construction is uncertain: it cannot have been earlier than 187 B.C.,[2] when the consul C. Flaminius constructed a road from Bononia to Arretium (which must have coincided with the portion of the later Via Cassia). It is not, it is true, mentioned by any ancient authorities before the time of Cicero, who in 45 B.C. speaks of the existence of three roads from Rome to Mutina, the Flaminia, the Aurelia and the Cassia. A milestone of A.D. 124 mentions repairs to the road made by Hadrian from the boundary of the territory of Clusium to Florence, a distance of 86 m.

See Ch. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, iii. 1669.
(T. As.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The Via Traiana Nova, or the (_viae_) tres Traianae, mentioned in
inscriptions with the Cassia and Clodia as under the same _curator_,
are not certainly identifiable.

[2] Having regard to the military importance of Arretium during the
Punic wars, it is difficult to believe that no direct road existed to
this point before 187 B.C.

CASSIANUS, JOANNES EREMITA, or JOANNES MASSILIENSIS (?360-?435), a celebrated recluse, one of the first founders of monastic institutions in western Europe, was probably born in Provence about 360, but he spent the early part of his life in the monastery of Bethlehem with his friend Germanus, and his affinities were always Eastern rather than Western. In company with Germanus he visited Egypt, and dwelt for several years among the ascetics of the desert near the banks of the Nile. In 403 he repaired to Constantinople, where he received ordination as deacon at the hands of Chrysostom. At Marseilles (after 410) he founded two religious societies--a convent for nuns, and the abbey of St Victor, which during his time is said to have contained 5000 inmates. In later times his regulations enjoyed a high reputation, and were adopted by the monks and nuns of Port Royal. He was eventually canonized; and a festival in his honour long continued to be celebrated at Marseilles on the 25th of July. Cassianus was one of the first and most prominent of the Semi-Pelagians, maintaining that while man is by nature sinful, he yet has some good remaining in him, and that, while the immediate gift of God's grace is necessary to salvation, conversion may also be begun by the exercise of man's will. He further asserted that God is always willing to bestow his grace on all who seek it, though, at the same time, it is true that he sometimes bestows it without its being sought. These views have been held by a very large part of the church from his time, and embrace much of the essence of Arminianism. The style of Cassianus is slovenly, and shows no literary polish, but its direct simplicity is far superior to the rhetorical affectations which disfigure most of the writings of that age. At the request of Castor, bishop of Apt, he wrote two monumental and influential treatises on the monastic life. The _De Institutione Coenobiorum_ (twelve books) describes the dress, the food, the devotional exercises, the discipline and the special spiritual dangers of monastic life in the East (gluttony, unchastity, avarice, anger, gloom, apathy, vanity and pride). The _Collationes Patrum_, a series of dialogues with the pious fathers of Egypt, deal with the way in which these dangers (and others, e.g. demons) may be avoided or overcome. At the desire of Leo (then archdeacon of Rome) he wrote against Nestorius his _De Incarnatione Domini_ in seven books.

EDITIONS.--Douay (1616) by Alardus Gazaus, with excellent notes;
Migne's _Patrol. Lat._ vols. xlix. and l.; M. Petschenig in the Vienna
_Corpus Script. Eccles. Lat._ (2 vols., 1886-1888). See A. Harnack,
_History of Dogma_, v. 246 ff., 253 ff.; A. Hoch, _Die Lehre d. Joh.
Cassian von Natur und Gnade_ (Freiburg, 1895); W. Moeller, _History of
the Chr. Church_, i. 368-370.

CASSINI, the name of an Italian family of astronomers, four generations of whom succeeded each other in official charge of the observatory at Paris.

GIOVANNI DOMENICO CASSINI (1625-1712), the first of these, was born at Perinaldo near Nice on the 8th of June 1625. Educated by the Jesuits at Genoa, he was nominated in 1650 professor of astronomy in the university of Bologna; he observed and wrote a treatise on the comet of 1652; was employed by the senate of Bologna as hydraulic engineer; and appointed by Pope Alexander VII. inspector of fortifications in 1657, and subsequently director of waterways in the papal states. His determinations of the rotation-periods of Jupiter, Mars and Venus in 1665-1667 enhanced his fame; and Louis XIV. applied for his services in 1669 at the stately observatory then in course of erection at Paris. The pope (Clement IX.) reluctantly assented, on the understanding that the appointment was to be temporary; but it proved to be irrevocable. Cassini was naturalized as a French subject in 1673, having begun work at the observatory in September 1671. Between 1671 and 1684 he discovered four Saturnian satellites, and in 1675 the division in Saturn's ring (see SATURN); made the earliest sustained observations of the zodiacal light, and published, in _Les Elements de l'astronomie verifies_ (1684), an account of Jean Richer's (1630-1696) geodetical operations in Cayenne. Certain oval curves which he proposed to substitute for Kepler's ellipses as the paths of the planets were named after him "Cassinians." He died at the Paris observatory on the 11th of September 1712.

A partial autobiography left by Giovanni Domenico Cassini was
published by his great-grandson, Count Cassini, in his _Memoires pour
servir a l'histoire des sciences_ (1810). See also C. Wolf, _Histoire
de l'observatoire de Paris_ (1902); Max. Marie, _Histoire des
sciences_, t. iv. p. 234; R. Wolf, _Geschichte der Astronomie_, p.
450, &c.

JACQUES CASSINI (1677-1756), son of Domenico Cassini, was born at the Paris observatory on the 8th of February 1677. Admitted at the age of seventeen to membership of the French Academy of Sciences, he was elected in 1696 a fellow of the Royal Society of London, and became _maitre des comptes_ in 1706. Having succeeded to his father's position at the observatory in 1712, he measured in 1713 the arc of the meridian from Dunkirk to Perpignan, and published the results in a volume entitled _De la grandeur et de la figure de la terre_ (1720) (see GEODESY). He wrote besides _Elemens d'astronomie_ (1740), and died on the 18th of April 1756 at Thury, near Clermont. The first tables of the satellites of Saturn were supplied by him in 1716.

See C. Wolf, _Histoire de l'observatoire de Paris_; Max. Marie,
_Histoire des sciences_, vii. 214; R. Wolf, _Geschichte der
Astronomie_, p. 451; J.C. Houzeau, _Bibl. astronomique_; J. Delambre,
_Histoire de l'astronomie au XVIII'e siecle_, pp. 250-275 (unfairly
depreciatory); J.F. Montucla, _Hist. des mathematiques_, iv. 145, 248.

CESAR FRANCOIS CASSINI, or CASSINI DE THURY (1714-1784), son of Jacques Cassini, was born at the observatory of Paris on the 17th of June 1714. He succeeded to his father's official employments, continued the hereditary surveying operations, and began in 1744 the construction of a great topographical map of France. The post of director of the Paris observatory was created for his benefit in 1771, when the establishment ceased to be a dependency of the Academy of Sciences. Cassini de Thury died at Thury on the 4th of September 1784. His chief works are:--_Meridienne de l'observatoire de Paris_ (1744), _Description geometrique de la terre_ (1775), and _Description geometrique de la France_ (1784).

See C. Wolf, _Histoire de l'observatoire de Paris_, p. 287; Max.
Marie, _Histoire des sciences_, viii. 158; J. Delambre, _Histoire de
I'astronomie au XVIII'e siecle_, pp. 275-309; R. Wolf, _Geschichte der
Astronomie_, p. 451; J.J. de Lalande, _Bibliographic astronomique_.

JACQUES DOMINIQUE CASSINI, Count (1748-1845), son of Cesar Francois Cassini, was born at the observatory of Paris on the 30th of June 1748. He succeeded in 1784 to the directorate of the observatory; but his plans for its restoration and re-equipment were wrecked in 1793 by the animosity of the National Assembly. His position having become intolerable, he resigned on the 6th of September, and was thrown into prison in 1794, but released after seven months. He then withdrew to Thury, where he died, aged ninety-seven, on the 18th of October 1845. He published in 1770 an account of a voyage to America in 1768, undertaken as the commissary of the Academy of Sciences with a view to testing Pierre Leroy's watches at sea. A memoir in which he described the operations superintended by him in 1787 for connecting the observatories of Paris and Greenwich by longitude-determinations appeared in 1791. He visited England for the purposes of the work, and saw William Herschel at Slough. He completed his father's map of France, which was published by the Academy of Sciences in 1793. It served as the basis for the _Atlas National_ (1791), showing France in departments. Count Cassini's _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de l'observatoire de Paris_ (1810) embodied portions of an extensive work, the prospectus of which he had submitted to the Academy of Sciences in 1774. The volume included his _Eloges_ of several academicians, and the autobiography of his great-grandfather, the first Cassini.

See J.F.S. Devic, _Histoire de la vie et des travaux de J.D. Cassini_
(1851); J. Delambre, _Histoire de l'astronomie au XVIII'e siecle_, pp.
309-313; _Phil. Mag._ 3rd series, vol. xxviii. p. 412; C. Wolf,
_Histoire de l'observatoire de Paris_ (1902), p. 234 et passim.
(A. M. C.)

CASSIODORUS (not _Cassiodorius_), the name of a Syrian family settled at Scyllacium (Squillace) in Bruttii, where it held an influential position in the 5th century A.D. Its most important member was FLAVIUS MAGNUS AURELIUS CASSIODORUS SENATOR (c. 490-585), historian, statesman, and monk. "Senator" (not a title) is the name used by himself in his official correspondence. His father held the offices of _comes privatarum_ and _sacrarum largitionum_ (controller of the emperor's private revenue and the public exchequer) under Odoacer, and subsequently attached himself to Theodoric, by whom he was appointed _corrector_ (governor) of Bruttii and Lucania, and _praefectus praetorio_. The son at an early age became _consiliarius_ (legal assessor) to his father, and (probably in 507) _quaestor_, an official whose chief duty at that time consisted in acting as the mouthpiece of the ruler, and drafting his despatches. In 514 he was ordinary consul, and at a later date possibly _corrector_ of his native province. At the death of Theodoric (526) he held the office of _magister officiorum_ (chief of the civil service). Under Athalaric he was _praefectus praetorio_, a post which he retained till about 540, after the triumphal entry of Belisarius into Ravenna, when he retired from public life. With the object of providing for the transmission of divine and human knowledge to later ages, and of securing it against the tide of barbarism which threatened to sweep it away, he founded two monasteries--Vivarium and Castellum--in his ancestral domains at Squillace (others identify the two monasteries). The special duty which he enjoined upon the inmates was the acquisition of knowledge, both sacred and profane, the latter, however, being subordinated to the former. He also collected and emended valuable MSS., which his monks were instructed to copy, and superintended the translation of various Greek works into Latin. He further amused himself with making scientific toys, such as sun-dials and water-clocks. As he is stated to have written one of his treatises at the age of ninety-three, he must have lived till after 580. Whether he belonged to the Benedictine order is uncertain.

The writings of Cassiodorus evince great erudition, ingenuity and labour, but are disfigured by incorrectness and an affected artificiality, and his Latin partakes much of the corruptions of the age. His works are (1) historical and political, (2) theological and grammatical.

1. (a) _Variae_, the most important of all his writings, in twelve
books, published in 537. They contain the decrees of Theodoric and his
successors Amalasuntha, Theodahad and Witigis; the regulations of the
chief offices of state; the edicts published by Cassiodorus himself
when _praefectus praetorio_. It is the best source of our knowledge of
the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy (ed. T. Mommsen in _Monumenta
Germaniae Historica: Auctores Antiquissimi_, xii., 1894; condensed
English translation by T. Hodgkin, 1886).

(b) _Chronica_, written at the request of Theodoric's son-in-law
Eutharic, during whose consulship (519) it was published. It is a dry
and inaccurate compilation from various sources, unduly partial to the
Goths (ed. T. Mommsen in _Mon. Germ. Hist.: Auct. Ant._ xi. pt. i.,
1893).

(c) Panegyrics on Gothic kings and queens (fragments ed. L. Traube in
_Mon. Germ. Hist.: Auct. Ant._ xii.).

2. (a) _De Anima_, a discussion on the nature of the soul, at the
conclusion of which the author deplores the quarrel between two such
great peoples as the Goths and Romans. It seems to have been published
with the last part of the _Variae_.

(b) _Institutiones divinarun et humanarunt litterarum_, an
encyclopaedia of sacred and profane literature for the monks, and a
sketch of the seven liberal arts. It further contains instructions for
using the library, and precepts for daily life.

(c) A commentary on the Psalms and short notes (_complexiones_) on the
Pauline epistles, the Acts, and the Apocalypse.

(d) _De Orthographia_, a compilation made by the author in his
ninety-third year from the works of twelve grammarians, ending with
his contemporary Priscian (ed. H. Keil, _Grammatici Latini_, vii.).

The Latin translations of the _Antiquities_ of Josephus and of the
ecclesiastical histories of Theodoret, Sozomen and Socrates, under the
title of _Historia Tripartita_ (embracing the years 306-439), were
carried out under his supervision.

Of his lost works the most important was the _Historia Gothorum_,
written with the object of glorifying the Gothic royal house and
proving that the Goths and Romans had long been connected by ties of
friendship. It was published during the reign of Athalaric, and
appears to have brought the history down to the death of Theodoric.
His chief authority for Gothic history and legend was Ablavius
(Ablabius). The work is only known to us in the meagre abridgment of
Jordanes (ed. T. Mommsen, 1882).

COMPLETE WORKS.--_Editio princeps_, by G. Fornerius (Paris, 1579); J.
Garet (Rouen, 1679; Venice, 1729), reprinted in J.P. Migne,
_Patrologia Latina_, lxix., lxx. On Cassiodorus generally, see
_Anecdoton Holderi_, excerpts from a treatise of Cassiodorus, edited
by H. Usener (Bonn, 1877), which throws light on questions connected
with his biography; T. Mommsen, preface to his edition of the
_Variae_; monographs by A. Thorbecke (Heidelberg, 1867) and A. Franz
(Breslau, 1872); T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_, iii. p. 280,
iv. p. 348; A. Ebert, _Allgemeine Geschichte der Litteratur des
Mittelalters_ i.; Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_ (Eng
trans.), S 483; G.A. Simcox, _Hist. of Latin Literature_ (1884); W.
Ramsay in Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography_ J.B.
Bury's edition of Gibbon's _Decline and Fall_, iv. 180, 522; R.W.
Church in the _Church Quarterly Review_, x. (1880); J.E. Sandys in
_Hist. of Classical Scholarship_ (2nd ed., 1906); A. Olleris,
_Cassiodore, conservateur des livres de l'antiquite latine_ (Paris,
1891); G. Minasi, _M.A. Cassiodoro ... ricerche storico-critiche_
(Naples, 1895); and C. Cipolla in _Memorie della r. Accademia delle
scienze di Torino_ (2nd ser. xliii. pt. 2, 1893); L.M. Hartmann in
Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iii. pt. 2 (1899), with note on
the musical section of Cassiodorus' _Institutions_ by C. von Jan.

CASSIOPEIA, in Greek mythology, the wife of Cepheus, and mother of Andromeda; in astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.). Ptolemy catalogued 13 stars in this constellation, Tycho Brahe 46, and Hevelius 37. Its most interesting stars are:--_Nova Cassiopeiae_, a "new" star, which burst out with extraordinary brilliancy in 1572, when it was observed by Tycho Brahe, but gradually diminished in brightness, ultimately vanishing in about eighteen months; _[alpha]-Cassiopeiae_ and _R-Cassiopeiae_ are variable stars, the former irregular, the latter having a long period; _[eta]-Cassiopeiae_, a binary star, having components of magnitudes 3-1/2 and 7-1/2; _[sigma]-Cassiopeiae_, a double star, one being white and of magnitude 5, the other blue and of magnitude 7-1/2.

CASSITERIDES (from the Gr. [Greek: kassiteros], tin, i.e. "Tin-islands"), in ancient geography the name of islands regarded as being situated somewhere near the west coasts of Europe. Herodotus (430 B.C.) had dimly heard of them. Later writers, Posidonius, Diodorus, Strabo and others, call them smallish islands off (Strabo says, some way off) the north-west coast of Spain, which contained tin mines, or, as Strabo says, tin and lead mines--though a passage in Diodorus derives the name rather from their nearness to the tin districts of north-west Spain. While geographical knowledge of the west was still scanty and the secrets of the tin-trade were still successfully guarded by the seamen of Gades and others who dealt in the metal, the Greeks knew only that tin came to them by sea from the far west, and the idea of tin-producing islands easily arose. Later, when the west was better explored, it was found that tin actually came from two regions, north-west Spain and Cornwall. Neither of these could be called "small islands" or described as off the north-west coast of Spain, and so the Cassiterides were not identified with either by the Greek and Roman geographers. Instead, they became a third, ill-understood source of tin, conceived of as distinct from Spain or Britain. Modern writers have perpetuated the error that the Cassiterides were definite spots, and have made many attempts to identify them. Small islands off the coast of north-west Spain, the headlands of that same coast, the Scillies, Cornwall, the British Isles as a whole, have all in turn been suggested. But none suits the conditions. Neither the Spanish islands nor the Scillies contain tin, at least in serious quantities. Neither Britain nor Spain can be called "small islands off the north-west of Spain." It seems most probable, therefore, that the name Cassiterides represents the first vague knowledge of the Greeks that tin was found overseas somewhere in or off western Europe.

AUTHORITIES.--Herodotus iii. 115; Diodorus v. 21, 22, 38; Strabo ii.
5, iii. 2, 5, v. 11; Pliny, _Nat. Hist_, iv. 119, vii. 197, xxxiv.
156-158, are the chief references in ancient literature. T.R. Holmes,
_Ancient Britain_ (1907), appendix, identifies the Cassiterides with
the British Isles. (F. J. H.)

CASSITERITE (from the Gr. [Greek: kassiteros], tin), the mineralogical name for tin-stone, the common ore of tin. It consists of tin dioxide, or stannic oxide (SnO2), and crystallizes in the tetragonal system. The crystals are usually 4-sided or 8-sided prisms, striated vertically, and terminated by pyramids (fig. 1). Twins, with characteristic re-entrant angles, such as figs. 2 and 3, are common. Certain slender prismatic crystals, with an acute 8-sided pyramid, are known in Cornwall as "sparable tin," in allusion to their resemblance to sparable nails, whilst very slender crystals are termed needle-tin. Occasionally the mineral occurs in fibrous forms, which pass under the name of "wood-tin," and these, though not unknown in the matrix, are generally found as rolled pebbles. By the disintegration of tin-bearing rocks and vein-stones, the cassiterite passes into the beds of streams as rolled fragments and grains, or even sand, and is then known as stream tin or alluvial tin. This detrital tin-ore was probably used as a source of the metal before the primitive miners had learnt to attack the solid tin-bearing rocks.

Pure cassiterite may be colourless, or white, as seen in certain specimens from the Malay Peninsula; but usually the mineral is brown or even black, the colour being referred to the presence of ferric oxide or other impurity. Occasionally the tin-stone is red. In microscopic sections the colour is often seen to be disposed in zones, following the contour of the crystal. A brown variety, with rather resinous lustre, is termed "rosin tin." The usual lustre of crystals of cassiterite is remarkably splendent, even adamantine. The mineral has a high refractive index, and strong bi-refringence. Certain transparent yellow and brown specimens, cut as gem-stones, exhibit considerable brilliancy. The hardness of cassiterite is 6.5, so that it cannot be scratched with a knife, and is nearly as hard as quartz. Its specific gravity is about 7; and in consequence of this high density, the tin-stone is readily separated during the process of dressing, from all the associated minerals, except wolframite, which may, however, be removed by magnetic separators.

Cassiterite usually occurs as veins or impregnations in granitic rocks, and is especially associated with the quartz-mica rock called greisen. The usual associates of the tin-stone are quartz, tourmaline, apatite, topaz, beryl, fluorite, lithia-mica, wolframite, chalcopyrite, &c. The presence of fluorine in many of these minerals has led to the opinion that the tin has been derived in many cases from an acid or granitic magma by the action of fluorine-bearing vapours, and that cassiterite may have been formed by the interaction of tin fluoride and water vapour. Cassiterite occurs as a pseudomorph after orthoclase felspar in some of the altered granite of Cornwall, and it has occasionally been found as a cementing material in certain brecciated lodes.

Among the localities yielding cassiterite may be mentioned Cornwall, Saxony, Bohemia, Brittany, Galicia in Spain; the Malay peninsula, and the islands of Banca and Billiton; New South Wales, Queensland and Tasmania. Fine examples of wood-tin, occurring with topaz, are found in Durango in Mexico. Deposits of cassiterite under rather exceptional conditions are worked on a large scale in Bolivia; and it is notable that cassiterite is found in Liassic limestone near Campiglia Marittima in Tuscany. Cassiterite has been worked in the York region, Alaska. (F. W. R.*)

CASSIUS, the name of a distinguished ancient Roman family, originally patrician. Its most important members are the following.

1. SPURIUS CASSIUS, surnamed _Vecellinus_ (_Vicellinus, Viscellinus_), Roman soldier and statesman, three times consul, and author of the first agrarian law. In his first consulate (502 B.C.) he defeated the Sabines; in his second (493) he renewed the league with the Latins, and dedicated the temple of Ceres in the Circus; in his third (486) he made a treaty with the conquered Hernici. The account of his agrarian law is confused and contradictory; it is clear, however, that it was intended to benefit the needy plebeians (see AGRARIAN LAWS). As such it was violently opposed both by the patricians and by the wealthy plebeians. Cassius was condemned by the people as aiming at kingly power, and hurled from the Tarpeian rock. Another account says he was tried by the family council and put to death by his own father, who considered his proposal prejudicial to the patrician interest. According to Livy, his proposal to bestow a share of the land upon the Latins was regarded with great suspicion. According to Mommsen (_Romische Forschungen_, ii.), the whole story is an invention of a later age, founded upon the proposals of the Gracchi and M. Livius Drusus, to which period belongs the idea of sharing public land with the Latins.

See Livy ii. 33, 41; Dion Halic. v. 49, viii. 69-80; Cicero, _Pro
Balbo_, 23 (53), _De Republica_, ii. 27 (49), 35 (60); Val. Max. v. 8.
2.

The following Cassii are all plebeians. It is suggested that the sons of Spurius Cassius either were expelled from, or voluntarily left, the patrician order, in consequence of their father's execution.

2. GAIUS CASSIUS LONGINUS, consul 73 B.C. With his colleague, Terentius Varro Lucullus, he passed a law (_lex Terentia Cassia_), the object of which was to give authority for the purchase of corn at the public expense, to be retailed at a fixed price at Rome. It is doubtful whether this Cassius (who is often called by the additional name Varus) is identical with the Varus who was proscribed by the triumvirs, and put to death at Minturnae (43). According to Orosius he was killed at the battle of Mutina.

See Cicero, _In Verrem_, iii. 70, 75, v. 21; Livy, _Epit._ 96; Appian,
_Bell. Civ._ iv. 28; Orosius v. 24.

3. GAIUS CASSIUS LONGINUS, prime mover in the conspiracy against Julius Caesar. Little is known of his early life. In 53 B.C. he served in the Parthian campaign under M. Licinius Crassus, saved the remnants of the army after the defeat at Carrhae, and for two years successfully repelled the enemy. In 49 B.C. he became tribune of the plebs. The outbreak of the civil war saved him from being brought to trial for extortion in Syria. He at first sided with Pompey, and as commander of part of his fleet rendered considerable service in the Mediterranean. After Pharsalus he became reconciled to Caesar, who made him one of his legates. In 44 B.C. he became _praetor peregrinus_ with the promise of the Syrian province for the ensuing year. The appointment of his junior, M. Junius Brutus, as _praetor urbanus_ deeply offended him, and he was one of the busiest conspirators against Caesar, taking an active part in the actual assassination. He then left Italy for Syria, raised a considerable army, and defeated P. Cornelius Dolabella, to whom the province had been assigned by the senate. On the formation of the triumvirate, Brutus and he, with their combined armies, crossed the Hellespont, marched through Thrace, and encamped near Philippi in Macedonia. Their intention was to starve out the enemy, but they were forced into an engagement. Brutus was successful against Octavian, but Cassius, defeated by M. Antonius (Mark Antony), gave up all for lost, and ordered his freedman to slay him. He was lamented by Brutus as "the last of the Romans," and buried at Thasos. A man of considerable ability, he was a good soldier, and took an interest in literature, but in politics he was actuated by vanity and ambition. His portrait in Shakespeare's _Julius Caesar_, though vivid, is scarcely historical.

See Plutarch, _Brutus_, passim, _Crassus_, 27, 29, _Caesar_, 62, 69;
Dio Cassius xl. 28, xlii. 13, xliv. 14, xlvii. 20; Vell. Pat. ii. 46,
56, 58, 69, 70, 87; Cicero, _Philippics_, xi. 13, 14, _ad Att._ v. 21,
xiv. 21, _ad Fam._ xi. 3, 15, 16; Appian, _Bell. Civ._ ii. 111, 113,
iii. 2, 8, iv. 60-62, 87, 90, 111-113, 132; Caesar, _Bell. Civ._ iii.
101.

4. QUINTUS CASSIUS LONGINUS, the brother or cousin of the murderer of Caesar, quaestor of Pompey in Further Spain in 54 B.C. In 49, as tribune of the people, he strongly supported the cause of Caesar, by whom he was made governor of Further Spain. He treated the provincials with great cruelty, and his appointment (48) to take the field against Juba, king of Numidia, gave him an excuse for fresh oppression. The result was an unsuccessful insurrection at Corduba. Cassius punished the leaders with merciless severity, and made the lot of the provincials harder than ever. At last some of his troops revolted under the quaestor M. Marcellus, who was proclaimed governor of the province. Cassius was surrounded by Marcellus in Ulia. Bogud, king of Mauretania, and M. Lepidus, proconsul of Hither Spain, to whom Cassius had applied for assistance, negotiated an arrangement with Marcellus whereby Cassius was to be allowed to go free with the legions that remained loyal to him. Cassius sent his troops into winter quarters, hastened on board ship at Malaca with his ill-gotten gains, but was wrecked in a storm at the mouth of the Iberus (Ebro). His tyrannical government of Spain had greatly injured the cause of Caesar.

See Dio Cassius xli. 15, 24, xlii. 15, 16, xliii. 29; Livy, _Epit._
III; Appian, _B.C._ ii. 33, 43; _Bellum Alexandrinum_, 48-64.

5. GAIUS CASSIUS LONGINUS (1st century A.D.), Roman jurist, consul in 30, proconsul of Asia 40-41, and governor of Syria under Claudius 45-50. On his return to Rome his wealth and high character secured him considerable influence. He was banished by Nero (65) to Sardinia, because among the images of his ancestors he had preserved that of the murderer of Caesar. He was recalled by Vespasian, and died at an advanced age. As he was consul in 30, he must have been born at the latest in the year 3 B.C. Cassius was a pupil of Masurius Sabinus, with whom he founded a legal school, the followers of which were called Cassiani. His chief work was the _Libri Juris Civilis_ in ten books, which was used by the compilers of the _Digest_ of Justinian.

See Tacitus, _Annals_, xvi. 7-9; Suetonius, _Nero_, 37; Dio Cassius
lix. 29; Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_, S 298, 3.

CASSIUS, AVIDIUS (d. A.D. 175), Roman general, a Syrian by birth, lived during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. He especially distinguished himself during the Parthian War (A.D. 162-165), at the conclusion of which he was apparently appointed military governor of Asia, though the actual extent of his jurisdiction is doubtful. In 172 he was sent to Egypt, where he put down a dangerous rising of the Bucolici, the robber herdsmen of the delta of the Nile, after which he returned to Syria. In 175 the emperor Aurelius fell ill, and his wife Faustina, to secure her position in case of his death, offered her hand and the throne to the successful general. A rumour of Aurelius's death having reached Syria, Cassius, without waiting for confirmation, proclaimed himself emperor; when the report proved false, it was too late for him to draw back, and he accordingly prepared for war. The senate declared him a public enemy, although Aurelius even then expressed the hope that he might have the opportunity of pardoning him. Deploring the necessity for taking up arms against his trusted officer, Aurelius set out for the east. While in Illyria, he received the news that Cassius had been slain by his own officers. The murderers offered his head to Aurelius, who refused to admit them, and ordered its immediate burial.

See Dio Cassius lxxi. 2-4, 17, 22-28, 30, 31; Fronto, _Letters_, i. 6;
Lives of Marcus Aurelius, Verus and Commodus in the _Scriptores
Historiae Augustae_, and the special biography of Avidius Cassius in
the same by Vulcacius Gallicanus. The various letters and documents in
the last-named are generally considered spurious, and the portions of
the narrative founded on them consequently untrustworthy. See also
article in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, ii. pt. 2 (1896).

CASSIUS, GAIUS, Latin poet, general and politician, called Parmensis from his birthplace Parma, was one of the murderers of Julius Caesar, and after his death joined the party of Brutus and his namesake Cassius the conspirator. In 43 B.C. he was in command of the fleet on the coast of Asia, but after the battle of Philippi joined Sextus Pompeius in Sicily. When Pompeius, having been defeated in a naval engagement at Naulochus by the fleet of Octavian under Agrippa, fled to Asia, Cassius went over to Antony, and took part in the battle of Actium (31). He afterwards fled to Athens, where he was soon put to death by Octavian, whom he had offended by writing an abusive letter (Suetonius, _Augustus_, 4). Cassius is credited with satires, elegies, epigrams and tragedies. Some hexameters with the title _Cassii Orpheus_ are by Antonius Thylesius, an Italian of the 17th century. Horace appears to have thought well of Cassius as a poet, for he asks Tibullus whether he intends to compete with the _opuscula_ (probably the elegies) of Cassius (_Epistles_, i. 4. 3). The story in the Horace scholia, that L. Varius Rufus published his famous tragedy _Thyestes_ from an MS. which he found amongst the papers of Cassius after his death, is due to a confusion of Cassius's murderer, Q. Attius Varus, with the tragedian (Appian, _B.C._ v. 2, 139; Cicero, _ad Fam._ xii. 13; Veil. Pat. ii. 87; Orosius, vi. 19; see also the diffuse treatise of A. Weichert, _De L. Varii et Cassii Parmensis Vita et Carminibus_, 1836). Cassius Parmensis must not be confused with Cassius Etruscus (Horace, _Satires_, i. 10. 60), an improviser, who is said to have used enough paper to furnish his funeral pyre.

CASSIVELAUNUS, or CASSIVELLAUNUS, a British chieftain, ruler of the country north of the Thames, who led the native tribes against Julius Caesar on his second expedition (54 B.C.) (see BRITAIN). After several indecisive engagements, Caesar took the camp of Cassivelaunus, who was obliged to make peace on condition of paying tribute and giving hostages. But these promises were not meant to be kept, and it appears certain that the tribute was never paid. According to Bede (_Hist. Eccles._ i. 2), the remains of Cassivelaunus's entrenchment were visible seven or eight centuries later.

See Caesar, _B.G._ v. 11-22; Dio Cassius xl. 2, 3; Orosius vi. 9. 6;
Eutropius vi. 17; Polyaenus, _Strategemata_, viii. 23. For the
etymology of the name (which is Celtic in origin, and appears later as
Caswallon) see J. Rhys, _Celtic Britain_, pp. 289-290 (1904); C.I.
Elton, _Origins of English History _ (1890); and Stock's edition of
Caesar, _De Bella Gallico_ (1898).

CASSOCK (Fr. _casaque_, a military cloak), a long-sleeved, close-fitting robe worn by the clergy and others engaged in ecclesiastical functions. The name was originally specially applied to the dress worn by soldiers and horsemen, and later to the long garment worn in civil life by both men and women. As an ecclesiastical term the word "cassock" came into use somewhat late (as a translation of the old names of _subtanea, vestis talaris, toga talaris_, or _tunica talaris_), being mentioned in canon 74 of 1604; and it is in this sense alone that it now survives. The origin of the word has been the subject of much speculation. It is derived through the French from the Italian _casacca_, which Florio (_Q. Anna's New World of Words_, 1611) translates as "a frock, a horseman's cote, a long cote; also a habitation or dwelling," and it is usually held that this in turn is derived from _casa_, a house (cf. the derivation of "chasuble," q.v.). This, however, though possible is uncertain. A Slav origin for the word has been suggested (Hatzfeld and Darmesteter, _Dic. gen. de la langue francaise_), and the Cossack horseman may have given to the West both the garment and the name. Or again, it may be derived from _casequin_ (Ital. _casecchino_), rather than vice versa, and this in turn from an Arabic _kazayand_ (Pers. _kashayand_), a padded jerkin; the word _kasagan_ occurring in Mid. High Ger. for a riding-cloak, and _gasygan_ in O. Fr. for a padded jerkin (Lagarde in _Gott. gelehrte Anzeiger_, April 15, 1887, p. 238).

The cassock, though part of the canonical costume of the clergy, is not a liturgical vestment. It was originally the out-of-doors and domestic dress of lay-people as well as clergy, and its survival among the latter when the secular fashions had changed is merely the outcome of ecclesiastical conservatism. In mild weather it was the outer garment; in cold weather it was worn under the tabard or chimere (q.v.) sometimes in the middle ages the name "chimere" was given to it as well as to the sleeveless upper robe. In winter the cassock was often lined with furs varying in costliness with the rank of the wearer, and its colour also varied in the middle ages with his ecclesiastical or academic status. In the Roman Catholic Church the _subtanea_ (Fr. _soutane_, Ital. _sottana_) must be worn by the clergy whenever they appear, both in ordinary life (except in Protestant countries) and under their vestments in church. It varies in colour with the wearer's rank: white for the pope, red (or black edged with red) for cardinals, purple for bishops, black for the lesser ranks: members of religious orders, however, whatever their rank, wear the colour of their religious habit. In the Church of England the cassock, which with the gown is prescribed by the above-mentioned canon of 1604 as the canonical dress of the clergy, has been continuously, though not universally, worn by the clergy since the Reformation. It has long ceased, however, to be their every-day walking dress and is now usually only worn in church, at home, or more rarely by clergy within the precincts of their own parishes. The custom of wearing the cassock under the vestments is traceable in England to about the year 1400.

The old form of English cassock was a double-breasted robe fastened at the shoulder and probably girdled. The continental, single-breasted cassock, with a long row of small buttons from neck to hem, is said to have been first introduced into England by Bishop Harris of Llandaff (1729-1738). The shortened form of cassock which survives in the bishop's "apron" was formerly widely used also by the continental clergy. Its use was forbidden in Roman Catholic countries by Pope Pius IX., but it is still worn by Roman Catholic dignitaries as part of their out-of-door dress in certain Protestant countries.

See the _Report_ of the sub-committee of Convocation _on the Ornaments
of the Church and its Ministers_ (London, 1908), and authorities there
cited.

CASSONE, in furniture, the Italian name for a marriage coffer. The ancient and once almost universal European custom of providing a bride with a chest or coffer to contain the household linen, which often formed the major part of her dowry, produced in Italy a special type of chest of monumental size and artistic magnificence. The cassoni of the people, although always large in size, were simple as regards ornament; but those of the nobles and the well-to-do mercantile classes were usually imposing as regards size, and adorned with extreme richness. The cassone was almost invariably much longer than the English chest, and even at a relatively early period it assumed an artistic finish such as was never reached by the chests of northern Europe, except in the case of a few of the royal _corbeilles de mariage_ made by such artists as Boulle for members of the house of France. Many of the earlier examples were carved in panels of geometrical tracery, but their characteristic ornament was either _intarsia_ or _gesso_, or a mixture of the two. Bold and massive feet, usually shaped as claws, lioncels, or other animals are also exceedingly characteristic of cassoni, most of which are of massive and sarcophagus-like proportions with moulded lids, while many of them are adorned at their corners with figures sculptured in high relief. The scroll-work inlay is commonly simple and graceful, consisting of floral or geometrical motives, or arabesques. The examples coated with gilded _gesso_ or blazoned with paintings are, however, the most magnificent. They were often made of chestnut, and decorated with flowers and foliage in a relief which, low at first, became after the Renaissance very high and sharp. The panels of the painted cassoni frequently bore representations of scriptural and mythological subjects, or incidents derived from the legends of chivalry. Nor was heraldry forgotten, the arms of the family for which the chest was made being perhaps emblazoned upon the front. These chests rarely bear dates or initials, but it is often possible to determine their history from their armorial bearings.

CASSOWARY (_Casuarius_), a genus of struthious birds, only inferior in size to the emeu and ostrich, and, according to Sir R. Owen, approximating more closely than any other living birds to the extinct moas of New Zealand. The species are all characterized by short rudimentary wings, bearing four or five barbless shafts, a few inches long, and apparently useless for purposes of flight, of running, or of defence; and by loosely webbed feathers, short on the neck, but of great length on the rump and back, whence they descend over the body forming a thick hair-like covering. They possess stout limbs, with which they kick in front, and have the inner toe armed with a long powerful claw. The common cassowary (_Casuarius galeatus_) stands 5 ft. high, and has a horny, helmet-like protuberance on the crown of its head; the front of the neck is naked and provided with two brightly-coloured wattles. It is a native of the Island of Ceram, where it is said to live in pairs, feeding on fruits and herbs, and occasionally on small animals. The mooruk, or Bennett's cassowary (_Casuarius Bennettii_), is a shorter and more robust bird, approaching in the thickness of its legs to the moas. It differs further from the preceding species in having its head crowned with a horny plate instead of a helmet. It has only been found in New Britain, where the natives are said to regard it with some degree of veneration. When captured by them shortly after being hatched, and reared by the hand, it soon becomes tame and familiar; all the specimens which have reached Europe alive have been thus domesticated by the natives. The adult bird in the wild state is exceedingly shy and difficult of approach, and, owing to its great fleetness and strength, is rarely if ever caught. It eats voraciously, and, like the ostrich, will swallow whatever comes in its way. (See EMEU.)

CAST (from the verb meaning "to throw"; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. _kaste_, and Swed. _kasta_; "cast" in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. _weorpan_, cf. Ger. _werfen_), a throw, or that which is thrown, or that into which something is thrown. From these three meanings come the main uses of the word; for the throwing of dice, with the figurative sense of a chance or opportunity, as in "at the last cast"; for the throwing of a fisherman's line in fly-fishing; for hounds spreading out in search of a lost scent; or, with the further meaning of a twisted throw or turn, for a slight squint in the eye. "Cast" is applied to a measure of herrings or other fish, being the amount taken in two hands to be thrown into a vessel, and similarly to a potter's measure for a certain quantity of clay; in fishing, to the casting line of gut with fly attached; to the hard refuse thrown out of the crop of a bird of prey, and to the coils of earth thrown up by earth-worms. From the old method, in making calculations, of using counters, which were thus "thrown" up into a heap, is probably derived the meaning of "cast" for the "casting up" of figures in an account. Further, the word is found for a mould for the casting of metals, and more particularly for the copy of an original statue or relief taken from a mould; similarly, of fossils, for the mineral filling of the empty mould left by the organism. Special uses of the word are also found in the theatrical term for the assignment of particular parts to the actors and actresses in a play, and in the many figurative senses of a type or stamp, as of features or characters.

CASTAGNO, ANDREA DEL (1390-1457), Italian painter of the Florentine school, was born in 1390, probably at Castagno, in the district of Mugello, and died in August 1457. He imitated Masaccio and the naturalists of his time in boldness of attitude, but was deficient in grace and colouring. His name was for about four centuries burdened with the heinous charge of murder; it was said that he treacherously assassinated his colleague, Domenico Veneziano, in order to monopolize the then recent secret of oil painting as practised in Flanders by the Van Eycks. This charge has, however, been proved to be an untruth; Domenico died four years after Andrea. The latter is commonly called "Andrea (or Andreino) degl' Impiccati" (of the Hanged Men); this was in consequence of his being commissioned in 1435 to paint, in the Palazzo del Podesta in Florence, the fallen leaders of the Peruzzi and Albizzi--not (as currently said) the men of the Pazzi conspiracy, an event which did not occur until 1478, long after this painter's death. One of his principal works now extant (most of them have perished) is the equestrian figure of Nicola di Tolentino, in the cathedral of Florence.

CASTALIA, or FONS CASTALIUS, a celebrated fountain in Greece, now called the Fountain of St John, which rises in a chasm of Mount Parnassus, in the neighbourhood of Delphi. It was sacred to Apollo and the Muses, and its water was used in the religious purifications of the "Pythian Pilgrims." From its connexion with the Muses it is sometimes referred to by late Greek writers (e.g. Lucian, _Jup. Trag._ 30) and Latin poets (e.g. Ovid, _Am._ i. 15. 36) as a source of inspiration, and this has passed into a commonplace of modern literature. According to some authorities the nymph Castalia was the daughter of Achelous; according to others the water of the spring was derived from the Boeotian Cephissus.

CASTANETS (Fr. _castagnettes_, Ger. _Kastagnetten_, Span. _castanuelas_), instruments of percussion, introduced through the Moors by way of Spain into Europe from the East, used for marking the rhythm in dancing. Castanets, always used in pairs, one in each hand, consist of two pear or mussel-shaped bowls of hard wood, hinged together by a silk cord, the loop being passed over the thumb and first finger. The two halves are then struck against each other by the other fingers in single, double or triple beats, giving out series of hollow clicks of indefinite musical pitch. When intended for use in the orchestra the pair of castanets is mounted one at each end of a wooden stick about 8 in. long, which facilitates the playing. Castanets are also sometimes used in military bands and are then specially constructed. The two halves are kept open by a slight spring fixed to a frame attached to the hoop of a side drum, and the instrument is worked by the drummer with an ordinary drum-stick. An instance of the use of castanets in opera occurs in the Habanera in _Carmen_. A quaint description of _castinatts_ is given in Harleian MS. 2034 (f. 208) at the British Museum (before 1688) with a pencil sketch which tallies very well with the above. The MS. is by Randle Holme and forms part of the _Academy of Armoury_. Castanets ([Greek: krotala]) were used by the ancient Greeks, and also by the Romans (Lat. _crotalum, crotala_) to accompany the dances in the Dionysiac and Bacchanalian rites.

CASTE (through the Fr. from Span, and Port, _casta_, lineage, Lat. _castus_, pure). There are not many forms of social organization on a large scale to which the name "caste" has not been applied in a good or in a bad sense. Its Portuguese origin simply suggests the idea of family; but before the word came to be extensively used in modern European languages, it had been for some time identified with the Brahmanic division of Hindu society into classes. The corresponding Hindu word is _varna_, or colour, and the words _gati, kula, gotra, pravara_ and _karana_ are also used with different shades of meaning. Wherever, therefore, a writer has seen something which reminds him of any part of the extremely indeterminate notion, Indian caste, he has used the word, without regard to any particular age, race, locality or set of social institutions. Thus Palgrave[1] maintains that the colleges of operatives, which inscriptions prove to have existed in Britain during the Roman period, were practically castes, because by the Theodosian code the son was compelled to follow the father's employment, and marriage into a family involved adoption of the family employment. But these _collegia opificum_ seem to be just the forerunners of the voluntary associations for the regulation of industry and trade, the frith-gilds, and craft-gilds of later times, in which, no doubt, sons had great advantages as apprentices, but which admitted qualified strangers, and for which intermarriage was a matter of social feeling. The history of the formation of gilds shows, in fact, that they were really protests against the authoritative regulation of life from without and above. In the Saxon period, at any rate, there was nothing resembling caste in the strict sense. "The ceorl who had thriven so well as to have five hides of land rose to the rank of a thegn; his wergild became 1200 shillings; the value of his oath and the penalty of trespass against him increased in proportion; his descendants in the third generation became gesithcund. Nor was the character of the thriving defined; it might, so far as the terms of the custom went, be either purchase, or inheritance, or the receipt of royal bounty. The successful merchant might also thrive to thegn-right. The thegn himself might also rise to the rank, the estimation and status of an earl."[2] It has been said that early German history is, as regards this matter, in contrast with English, and that true castes are to be found in the military associations (_Genossenschaften_) which arose from the older class of Dienstmannen, and in which every member--page, squire or knight--must prove his knightly descent; the Bauernstand, or rural non-military population; the Burgerstand, or merchant-class. The ministry of the Catholic Church in the West, was, however, never restricted by blood relation. There is no doubt that at some time or other professions were in most countries hereditary. Thus Prescott[3] tells us that in Peru, notwithstanding the general rule that every man should make himself acquainted with the various arts, "there were certain individuals carefully trained to those occupations which minister to the wants of the more opulent classes. These occupations, like every other calling and office in Peru, always descended from father to son. The division of castes was in this particular as precise as that which existed in Hindustan or Egypt." Again, Zurita[4] says that in Mexico no one could carry on trade except by right of inheritance, or by public permission. The Fiji carpenters form a separate caste, and in the Tonga Islands all the trades, except tattoo-markers, barbers and club-carvers are hereditary,--the separate classes being named matabooles, mooas and tooas. Nothing is more natural than that a father should teach his son his handicraft, especially if there be no organized system of public instruction; it gives the father help at a cheap rate, it is the easiest introduction to life for the son, and the custom or reputation of the father as a craftsman is often the most important legacy he has to leave. The value of transmitted skill in the simple crafts was very great; and what was once universal in communities still survives in outlying portions of communities which have not been brought within the general market of exchange. But so long as this process remains natural, there can be no question of caste, which implies that the adoption of a new profession is not merely unusual, but wrong and punishable. Then, the word caste has been applied to sacred corporations. A family or a tribe is consecrated to the service of a particular altar, or all the altars of a particular god. Or a semi-sacred class, such as the Brehons or the Bards, is formed, and these, and perhaps some specially dignified professions, become hereditary, the others remaining free. Thus in Peru, the priests of the Sun at Cuzco transmitted their office to their sons; so did the Quipu-camayoc, or public registrars, and the _amantas_ and _haravecs_, the learned men and singers.[5] In many countries political considerations, or distinctions of race, have prevented intermarriage between classes. Take, for example, the patricians and the plebeians at Rome, or the [Greek: Spartiatai, Lakones] or [Greek: perioikoi], and the [Greek: Heilotes] at Sparta. In Guatemala it was the law that if any noble married a plebeian woman he should be degraded to the caste of _mazequal_, or plebeian, and be subject to the duties and services imposed on that class, and that the bulk of his estate should be sequestered to the king.[6] In Madagascar marriage is strictly forbidden between the four classes of Nobles, Hovas, Zarahovas and Andevos,--the lowest of whom, however, are apparently mere slaves. In a sense slavery might be called the lowest of castes, because in most of its forms it does permit some small customary rights to the slave. In a sense, too, the survival in European royalty of the idea of "equality of birth" (_Ebenburtigkeit_) is that of a caste conception, and the marriage of one of the members of a European royal family with a person not of royal blood might be described as an infraction of caste rule.