Chapter XXII: Letter II: later, in an indictment to be read to the commission sitting (4)

Castelar kept apart from active politics during the twelve months that Serrano acted as president of the republic. Another _pronunciamiento_ finally put an end to it in the last week of December 1874, when Generals Campos at Sagunto, Jovellar at Valencia, Primo de Rivera at Madrid, and Laserna at Logrono, proclaimed Alphonso XII. king of Spain. Castelar then went into voluntary exile for fifteen months, at the end of which he was elected deputy for Barcelona. He sat in all subsequent parliaments, and just a month before his death he was elected as representative of Murcia. During that period he became even more estranged from the majority of the republicans. Bitter experience had shown him that their federal doctrines and revolutionary methods could lead to nothing in harmony with the aspirations of the majority of Spaniards. He elected, to use his own words, to defend and to seek the realization of the substance of the programme of the Spanish revolution of 1868 by evolution, and legal, pacific means. Hence the contrast between his attitude from 1876 to 1886, during the reign of Alphonso XII., when he stood in the front rank of the Opposition to defend the reforms of that revolution against Senor Canovas, and his attitude from 1886 to 1891. In this latter period Castelar acted as a sort of independent auxiliary of Sagasta and of the Liberal party. As soon as Castelar saw universal suffrage re-established he solemnly declared in the Cortes that his task was accomplished, his political mission at an end, and that he proposed to devote the remainder of his life to those literary, historical, philosophical, and economic studies which he had never neglected even in the busiest days of his political career. Indeed, it was his extraordinary activity and power of assimilation in such directions that allowed him to keep his fellow-countrymen so well informed of what was going on in the outer world. His literary and journalistic labours occupied much of his time, and were his chief means of subsistence. He left unfinished a history of Europe in the 19th century. The most conspicuous of his earlier works were:--_A History of Civilization in the First Five Centuries of Christianity_, _Recollections of Italy_, _Life of Lord Byron_, _The History of the Republican Movement in Europe_, _The Redemption of Slaves_, _The Religious Revolution_, _Historical Essays on the Middle Ages_, _The Eastern Question_, _Fra Filippo Lippi_, _History of the Discovery of America_, and some historical novels. Castelar died near Murcia on the 25th of May 1899, at the age of 66. His funeral at Madrid was an imposing demonstration of the sympathy and respect of all classes and parties. (A. E. H.)

CASTELFRANCO NELL' EMILIA, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Bologna, 16 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Bologna. Pop. (1901) 3163 (town), 13,484 (commune). The churches contain some pictures by later Bolognese artists. Just outside the town is a massive fort erected by Urban VIII. in 1628, on the frontier of the province of Bologna, now used as a prison. Castelfranco either occupies or lies near the site of the ancient Forum Gallorum, a place on the Via Aemilia between Mutina and Bononia, where in 43 B.C. Octavian and Hirtius defeated Mark Antony.

CASTELFRANCO VENETO, a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Treviso, 16 m. W. by rail from the town of Treviso. Pop. (1901) 5220 (town), 12,551 (commune). The older part of the town is square, surrounded by medieval walls and towers constructed by the people of Treviso in 1218 (see CITTADELLA). It was the birthplace of the painter Giorgio Barbarelli (Il Giorgione, 1477-1512), and the cathedral contains one of his finest works, the Madonna with SS. Francis and Liberalis (1504), in the background of which the towers of the old town may be seen.

CASTELL, EDMUND (1606-1685), English orientalist, was born in 1606 at Tadlow, in Cambridgeshire. At the age of fifteen he entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge, but afterwards changed his residence to St John's, on account of the valuable library there. His great work was the compiling of his _Lexicon Heptaglotton Hebraicum, Chaldaicum, Syriacum, Samaritanum, Aethiopicum, Arabicum, et Persicum_ (1669). Over this book he spent eighteen years, working (if we may accept his own statement) from sixteen to eighteen hours a day; he employed fourteen assistants, and by an expenditure of L12,000 brought himself to poverty, for his lexicon, though full of the most unusual learning, did not find purchasers. He was actually in prison in 1667 because he was unable to discharge his brother's debts, for which he had made himself liable. A volume of poems dedicated to the king brought him preferment. He was made prebendary of Canterbury and professor of Arabic at Cambridge. Before undertaking the _Lexicon Heptaglotton_, Castell had helped Dr Brian Walton in the preparation of his Polyglott Bible. His MSS. he bequeathed to the university of Cambridge. He died in 1685 at Higham Gobion, Bedfordshire, where he was rector.

The Syriac section of the _Lexicon_ was issued separately at Gottingen
in 1788 by J.D. Michaelis, who offers a tribute to Castell's learning
and industry. Trier published the Hebrew section in 1790-1792.

CASTELLAMMARE DI STABIA (anc. _Stabiae_), a seaport and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the province of Naples, 17 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Naples. Pop. (1901) town, 26,378; commune, 32,589. It lies in the south-east angle of the Bay of Naples, at the beginning of the peninsula of Sorrento, and owing to the sea and mineral water baths (12 different springs) and its attractive situation, with a splendid view of Vesuvius and fine woods on the hills behind, it is a favourite resort of foreigners in spring and autumn and of Neapolitans in summer. The castle from which it takes its name, on the hill to the south of the town, was built by the emperor Frederick II. There are three large churches of the late 18th century. There are a large royal dockyard and a small-arms factory; there are also iron works, cotton, flour and macaroni mills. The value of imports (chiefly coal, wheat, scrap-iron and cheese) for 1904 was L1,239,048, and the value of exports (chiefly macaroni and green fruit) L769,100. There is also a sponge trade, but the former coral trade is depressed. The port was cleared by 420 vessels of 477,713 tonnage in 1905. An electric tramway along the coast road to Sorrento was opened in 1905.

CASTELLESI, ADRIANO (c. 1460?-c. 1521?), known also as CORNETO from his birthplace, Italian cardinal and writer, was sent by Innocent VIII. to reconcile James III. of Scotland with his subjects. While in England he was appointed (1503), by Henry VII., to the see of Hereford, and in the following year to the more lucrative diocese of Bath and Wells, but he never resided in either. Returning to Rome, he became secretary to Alexander VI. and was made by him cardinal (May 31, 1503). A man of doubtful reputation, Alexander's confidant and favourite, he paid the pope a large sum for his elevation. He bought a _vigna_ in the Borgo near the Vatican, and thereon erected a sumptuous palace after designs by Bramante; and it was here, in the summer of 1503, that he entertained the pope and Cesare Borgia at a banquet that went on till nightfall despite the unhealthy season of the year, when ague in its most malignant form was rife. Of the three, Cardinal Adrian was the first to fall ill, the pope succumbing a week after. The story of the poisoning of the pope is to be relegated to the realm of fiction. Soon after the election of Leo X. the cardinal was implicated in the conspiracy of Cardinal Petrucci against the pope, and confessed his guilt; but, pardon being offered only on condition of the payment oL 25,000 ducats, he fled from Rome and was subsequently deposed from the cardinalate. As early as 1504 he had presented his palace (now the Palazzo Giraud-Torlonia) to Henry VII. as a residence for the English ambassador to the Holy See; and on his flight Henry VIII., who had quarrelled with him, gave it to Cardinal Campeggio. Adrian first fled to Venice. Of his subsequent history nothing is known for certain. It is said that he was murdered by a servant when on his way to the conclave that elected Adrian VI. As a writer, he was one of the first to restore the Latin tongue to its pristine purity; and among his works are _De Vera Philosophia ex quatuor doctoribus ecclesiae_ (Bologna, 1507), _De Sermone Latino_ (Basel, 1513), and a poem, _De Venatione_ (Venice, 1534).

See Polydore Vergil, _Anglicae historiae_, edited by H. Ellis (London,
1844); and A. Aubery, _Histoire generale des cardinaux_ (Paris, 1642).
(E. Tn.)

CASTELLI, IGNAZ FRANZ (1781-1862), Austrian dramatist, was born at Vienna on the 6th of March 1781. He studied law at the university, and then entered the government service. During the Napoleonic invasions his patriotism inspired him to write stirring war songs, one of which, _Kriegslied fur die osterreichische Armee_, was printed by order of the archduke Charles and distributed in thousands. For this Castelli was proclaimed by Napoleon in the _Moniteur_, and had to seek refuge in Hungary. In 1815 he accompanied the allies into France as secretary to Count Cavriani, and, after his return to Vienna, resumed his official post in connexion with the estates of Lower Austria. In 1842 he retired to his property at Lilienfeld, where, surrounded by his notable collections of pictures and other art treasures, he for the rest of his life devoted himself to literature. Castelli's dramatic talent was characteristically Austrian; his plays were well constructed and effective and satirized unsparingly the foibles of the Viennese. But his wit was too local and ephemeral to appeal to any but his own generation, and if he is remembered at all to-day it is by his excellent _Gedichte in niederosterreichischer Mundart_ (1828). He died at Lilienfeld on the 5th of February 1862.

Castelli's _Gesammelte Gedichte_ appeared in 1835 in 6 vols.; a
selection of his _Werke_ in 1843 in 15 vols. (2nd ed., 1848), followed
by 6 supplementary volumes in 1858. His autobiography, _Memoiren
meines Lebens_, appeared in 1861-1862 in 4 vols.

CASTELLO, BERNARDO (1557-1629), Genoese portrait and historical painter, born at Albaro near Genoa, was the intimate friend of Tasso, and took upon himself the task of designing the figures of the _Gerusalemme Liberata_, published in 1592; some of these subjects were engraved by Agostino Caracci. Besides painting a number of works in Genoa, mostly in a rapid and superficial style, Castello was employed in Rome and in the court of the duke of Savoy.

CASTELLO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1500?-1569?), Italian historical painter, was born near Bergamo in 1500 or perhaps 1509, and is hence ordinarily termed Il Bergamasco. He belongs, however, to the school of Genoa, but does not appear to have had any family relationship with the other two painters named Castello, also noticed here. He was employed to decorate the Nunziata di Portoria in Genoa, the saloon of the Lanzi Palace at Gorlago, and the Pardo Palace in Spain. His best-known works are the "Martyrdom of St Sebastian," and the picture of "Christ as Judge of the World" on one of the vaultings of the Annunziata. He was an architect and sculptor as well as painter. In 1567 he was invited to Madrid by Philip II., and there he died, holding the office of architect of the royal palaces. The date of death (as of birth) is differently stated as 1569 or 1579.

CASTELLO, VALERIO (1625-1659), Italian painter, was the youngest son of Bernardo Castello (q.v.). He surpassed his father, and particularly excelled in painting battle-scenes. He painted the "Rape of the Sabines," now in the Palazzo Brignole, Genoa, and decorated the cupola of the church of the Annunziata in the same city. In these works he is regarded by his admirers as combining the fire of Tintoretto with the general style of Paolo Veronese.

CASTELLO BRANCO, CAMILLO, VISCONDE DE CORREIA BOTELHO (1825-1890), Portuguese novelist, was born out of wedlock and lost his parents in infancy. He spent his early years in a village in Traz-os-Montes. He learnt to love poetry from Camoens and Bocage, while Mendes Pinto gave him a lust for adventure, but he dreamed more than he read, and grew up undisciplined and proud. He studied in Oporto and Coimbra with much irregularity, and since his disdain for the intrigues and miseries of politics in Portugal debarred him from the chance of a government post, he entered the career of letters to gain a livelihood. After a spell of journalistic work in Oporto and Lisbon he proceeded to the Episcopal seminary in the former city with a view of studying for the priesthood, and during this period wrote a number of religious works and translated Chateaubriand. He actually took minor orders, but his restless nature prevented him from following one course for long and he soon returned to the world, and henceforth kept up a feverish literary activity to the end. He was created a viscount in 1885 in recognition of his services to letters, and when his health finally broke down and he could no longer use his pen, parliament gave him a pension for life. When, having lost his sight, and suffering from chronic nervous disease, he died by his own hand in 1890, it was generally recognized that Portugal had lost the most national of her modern writers.

Apart from his plays and verses, Castello Branco's works may be divided into three sections. The first comprises his romances of the imagination, of which _Os mysterios de Lisboa_, in the style of Victor Hugo, is a fair example. The second includes his novels of manners, a style of which he was the creator and remained the chief exponent until the appearance of _O Crime de Padre Amaro_ of Eca de Queiroz. In these he is partly idealist and partly realist, and describes to perfection the domestic and social life of Portugal in the early part of the 19th century. The third division embraces his writings in the domain of history, biography and literary criticism. Among these may be cited _Noites de Lamego_, _Cousas leves e pesadas_, _Cavar em ruinas_, _Memorias do Bispo do Grao Para_ and _Bohemia do Espirito_.

In all, his publications number about two hundred and sixty, belonging to many departments of letters, but he owes his great and lasting reputation to his romances. Notwithstanding the fact that his slender means obliged him to produce very rapidly to the order of publishers, who only paid him from L30 to L60 a book, he never lost his individuality under the pressure. Knowing the life of the people by experience and not from books, he was able to fix in his pages a succession of strongly marked and national types, such as the _brazileiro_, the old _fidalgo_ of the north, and the Minho priest, while his lack of personal acquaintance with foreign countries and his relative ignorance of their literatures preserved him from the temptation, so dangerous to a Portuguese, of imitating the classical writers of the larger nations. Among the most notable of his romances are _O Romance de un Homem Rico_, his favourite, _Retrato de Ricardina, Amor de Perdicao_, and the magnificent series entitled _Novellas do Minho_. Many of his novels are autobiographical, like _Onde esta a felicidade_, _Memorias do Carcere_ and _Vinganca_. Castello Branco is an admirable story-teller, largely because he was a brilliant improvisatore, but he does not attempt character study. Nothing can exceed the richness of his vocabulary, and no other Portuguese author has shown so profound a knowledge of the popular language. Though nature had endowed him with the poetic temperament, his verses are mediocre, but his best plays are cast in bold lines and contain really dramatic situations, while his comedies are a triumph of the grotesque, with a mordant vein running through them that recalls Gil Vicente.

The collected works of Camillo Castello Branco are published by the
Companhia Editora of Lisbon, and his most esteemed books have had
several editions. The _Diccionario Bibliographico Portuguez_, vol. ix.
p. 7 et seq., contains a lengthy but incomplete list of his
publications. See _Romance do Romancista_, by A. Pimentel, a badly put
together but informing biography; also a study on the novelist by J.
Pereira de Sampaio in _A Geracao Nova_ (Oporto, 1886); Dr Theophilo
Braga, _As Modernas Ideias na litteratura Portugueza_ (Oporto, 1892);
Padre Senna Freitas, _Perfil de Camillo Castello Branco_ (S. Paulo,
1887); and Paulo Osorio, _Camillo, a sua vida, o seu genio, a sua
obra_ (Oporto, 1908). (E. Pr.)

CASTELLO BRANCO, an episcopal city and the capital of an administrative district formerly included in the province of Beira, Portugal; 1560 ft. above the sea, on the Abrantes-Guarda railway. Pop. (1900) 7288. Numerous Roman remains bear witness to the antiquity of Castello Branco, but its original name is unknown. The city is dominated by a ruined castle, and partly enclosed by ancient walls; its chief buildings are the cathedral and episcopal palace. Cloth is manufactured, and there is a flourishing local trade in cork, wine and olive oil. The administrative district of Castello Branco, which comprises the valleys of the Zezere, Ocreza and Ponsul, right-hand tributaries of the Tagus, coincides with the south-eastern part of Beira; pop. (1900) 216,608; area, 2382 sq. m.

CASTELLON DE LA PLANA, a maritime province of eastern Spain, formed in 1833 of districts formerly included in Valencia, and bounded on the N. by Teruel and Tarragona, E. by the Mediterranean Sea, S. by Valencia, and W. by Teruel. Pop. (1900) 310,828; area, 2495 sq. m. The surface of the province is almost everywhere mountainous, and flat only near the coast and along some of the river valleys. Even on the coast the Atalayas de Alcala and the Desierto de las Palmas form two well-defined though not lofty ridges. The Mijares or Millares is the principal river, flowing east-south-east from the highlands of Teruel, between the Sierras of Espina and Espadan towards the south, and the peak called Pena Golosa (5945 ft.) towards the north, until it reaches the sea a little south of the capital, also called Castellon de la Plana. The Monlleo, a left-hand tributary of the Mijares; the Bergantes, which flows inland to join the Guadalope in Teruel; the Cenia, which divides Castellon from Tarragona; and a variety of lesser streams, render the province abundantly fertile. No considerable inlet breaks the regularity of the coast-line, and there is no first-class harbour. The climate is cold and variable in the hilly districts, temperate in winter and very warm in summer in the lowlands. Agriculture, fruit-growing, and especially the cultivation of the vine and olive, employ the majority of the peasantry; stock-farming and sea-fishing are also of importance. Lead, zinc, iron and other ores have been discovered in the province; but in 1903, out of 129 mining concessions registered, only two were worked, and their output, lead and zinc, was quite insignificant. The local industries are mainly connected with fish-curing, paper, porcelain, woollens, cotton, silk, esparto, brandy and oils. Wine, oranges and oil are exported to foreign countries and other parts of Spain. The important Barcelona-Valencia railway skirts the coast, passing through the capital; and the Calatayud-Sagunto line crosses the southern extremity of the province. Elsewhere the roads, which are generally indifferent, form the sole means of communication. Castellon (29,904), Villarreal (16,068), the port of Burriana (12,962), and Peniscola (3142), a town of some historical interest, are described in separate articles. The other chief towns are Alcala de Chisbert (6293), Almazora (7076), Benicarlo (7251), Maella (7335), Onda (6595), Segorbe (7045), Vail de Uxo (8643), Villafames (6708) and Vinaroz (8625).

CASTELLON DE LA PLANA, the capital of the province described above, on the Barcelona-Valencia railway, 4 m. from the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 29,904. The broad and fertile plain in which Castellon is built is watered artificially by a Moorish aqueduct, largely cut through the solid rock, and supplied by the estuary of the Mijares, 5 m. south-east. The town is partly encircled by ancient walls; and, although most of its public buildings are modern, it contains several convents of early foundation, a curious old bell-tower, 150 ft. high, and a parish church chiefly noteworthy for a painting in the interior by Francisco Ribalta, who was born here in the middle of the 16th century. Castellon has a brisk trade, its manufactures comprising porcelain, leather, silk, linen, brandy and cork goods. Its harbour, El Grao de Castellon, about 4 m. east, is annually entered by some 200 small vessels. A light railway, which traverses the numerous and profitable orange plantations on the south-west, connects it with the towns of Almazora, Villarreal, Burriana and Onda. Under its Moorish rulers Castellon occupied a hill to the north of its present site; its removal to the plain by James I. of Aragon (1213-1276) gave the town its full name, "Castellon of the Plain."

CASTELNAU, MICHEL DE, SIEUR DE LA MAUVISSIERE (c. 1520-1592), French soldier and diplomatist, ambassador to Queen Elizabeth, was born in Touraine about 1520. He was one of a large family of children, and his grandfather, Pierre de Castelnau, was equerry to Louis XII. Endowed with a clear and penetrating intellect and remarkable strength of memory, he received a careful education, to complete which he travelled in Italy and made a long stay at Rome. He then spent some time in Malta, afterwards entered the army, and made his first acquaintance with war in the campaigns of the French in Italy. His abilities and his courage won for him the friendship and protection of the cardinal of Lorraine, who took him into his service. In 1557 a command in the navy was given to him, and the cardinal proposed to get him knighted. This, however, he declined, and then rejoined the French army in Picardy. Various delicate missions requiring tact and discretion were entrusted to him by the constable de Montmorency, and these he discharged so satisfactorily that he was sent by the king, Henry II., to Scotland with despatches for Mary Stuart, then betrothed to the dauphin (afterwards Francis II.). From Scotland he passed into England, and treated with Queen Elizabeth respecting her claims on Calais (1559), a settlement of which was effected at the congress of Cateau-Cambresis. He was next sent as ambassador to the princes of Germany, for the purpose of prevailing upon them to withdraw their favour from the Protestants. This embassy was followed by missions to Margaret of Parma, governess of the Netherlands, to Savoy, and then to Rome, to ascertain the views of Pope Paul IV. with regard to France. Paul having died just before his arrival, Castelnau used his influence in favour of the election of Pius IV. Returning to France, he once more entered the navy, and served under his former patron. It was his good fortune, at Nantes, to discover the earliest symptoms of the conspiracy of Amboise, which he immediately reported to the government.

After the death of Francis II. (December 1560) he accompanied the queen, Mary Stuart, to Scotland, and remained with her a year, during which time he made several journeys into England, and attempted to bring about a reconciliation between Mary and Queen Elizabeth. The wise and moderate counsels which he offered to the former were unheeded. In 1562, in consequence of the civil war in France, he returned there. He was employed against the Protestants in Brittany, was taken prisoner in an engagement with them and sent to Havre, but was soon after exchanged. In the midst of the excited passions of his countrymen, Castelnau, who was a sincere Catholic, maintained a wise self-control and moderation, and by his counsels rendered valuable service to the government. He served at the siege of Rouen, distinguished himself at the battle of Dreux, took Tancarville, and contributed in 1563 to the recapture of Havre from the English.

During the next ten years Castelnau was employed in various important missions:--first to Queen Elizabeth, to negotiate a peace; next to the duke of Alba, the new governor of the Netherlands. On this occasion he discovered the project formed by the prince of Conde and Admiral Coligny to seize and carry off the royal family at Monceaux (1567). After the battle of St Denis he was again sent to Germany to solicit aid against the Protestants; and on his return he was rewarded for his services with the post of governor of Saint-Dizier and a company of orderlies. At the head of his company he took part in the battles of Jarnac and Moncontour. In 1572 he was sent to England by Charles IX. to allay the excitement created by the massacre of St Bartholomew, and the same year he was sent to Germany and Switzerland. Two years later he was reappointed by Henry III. ambassador to Queen Elizabeth, and he remained at her court for ten years. During this period he used his influence to promote the marriage of the queen with the duke of Alencon, with a view especially to strengthen and maintain the alliance of the two countries. But Elizabeth made so many promises only to break them that at last he refused to accept them or communicate them to his government. On his return to France he found that his chateau of La Mauvissiere had been destroyed in the civil war; and as he refused to recognize the authority of the League, the duke of Guise deprived him of the governorship of Saint-Dizier. He was thus brought almost to a state of destitution. But on the accession of Henry IV., the king, who knew his worth, and was confident that although he was a Catholic he might rely on his fidelity, gave him a command in the army, and entrusted him with various confidential missions.

Castelnau died at Joinville in 1592. His _Memoires_ rank very high among the original authorities for the period they cover, the eleven years between 1559 and 1570. They were written during his last embassy in England for the benefit of his son; and they possess the merits of clearness, veracity and impartiality. They were first printed in 1621; again, with additions by Le Laboureur, in 2 vols. folio, in 1659; and a third time, still further enlarged by Jean Godefroy, 3 vols. folio, in 1731. Castelnau translated into French the Latin work of Ramus, _On the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Gauls_. Various letters of his are preserved in the Cottonian and Harleian collections in the British Museum.

His grandson, JACQUES DE CASTELNAU (1620-1658), distinguished himself in the war against Austria and Spain during the ministries of Richelieu and Mazarin, and died marshal of France.

See Hubault, _Ambassade de Castelnau en Angleterre_ (1856); _Relations
politiques de la France ... avec l'Ecosse au seizieme siecle_, edited
by J.B.A.T. Teulet (1862); and De la Ferriere, _Les Projets de mariage
d'Elisabeth_ (1883).

CASTELNAUDARY, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Aude, 22 m. W.N.W. of Carcassonne, on the Southern railway between that city and Toulouse. Pop. (1906) 6650. It is finely situated on an elevation in the midst of a fertile and well-cultivated plain; and its commercial facilities are greatly increased by the Canal du Midi, which widens out, as it passes the town, into an extensive basin surrounded with wharves and warehouses for the timber used in the upkeep of the canal. The principal buildings are the law court, the hotel de ville, and the church of St Michel, dating from the 14th century; none of these offers any feature of unusual interest. There are a number of flour-mills, as well as manufactories of earthenware, tiles and blankets; an extensive trade is maintained in lime, gypsum, timber, grain, fruits, wine, wool, cattle and farm implements, and the building of canal boats forms an important industry. The public institutions include the sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a communal college and a farm school.

Castelnaudary probably represents the ancient town of _Sostomagus_, taken during the 5th century by the Visigoths, who, it is conjectured, rebuilt the town, calling it _Castrum Novum Arianorum_, whence the present name. Early in the 13th century the town was the scene of several struggles during the war against the Albigenses, between Simon IV., count of Montfort, and Raymond VI., count of Toulouse, and their supporters. In 1229 it was deprived of its ramparts, and after these had been rebuilt, it was captured and burned by the Black Prince in 1355, but again rebuilt in 1366. In 1632 it was the scene of a cavalry engagement in which the rebel Henry II., duke of Montmorency, was defeated and captured by the royal troops.

CASTELSARRASIN, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Tarn-et-Garonne, 12 m. W. of Montauban on the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) town, 3189; commune, 7496. Castelsarrasin, situated on the left bank of the lateral canal of the Garonne and about a mile from the right bank of that river, is surrounded by promenades occupying the site of the old fortifications. Its chief building is the brick-built church of St Sauveur, which dates from the 13th century. The administrative buildings are modern. The town has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, and a communal college. The principal industrial establishment is the metal-foundry of Sainte-Marguerite, where copper, tin and other metals are worked; there are also flour-mills, saw-mills and dye-works. Trade is in cattle, agricultural produce, wine, baskets and game.

The name Castelsarrasin appears in the 13th century, when the village of Villelongue was replaced by the present bastide. Castrum Cerrucium, Castel-sur-Azine (from the neighbouring stream, Azine) and Castellum Sarracenum are suggested derivations, no one of which can be adopted with certainty.

CASTI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1721-1803), Italian poet, was born of humble parents at Montefiascone, in the states of the church, in 1721. He rose to the dignity of canon in the cathedral of his native place, but gave up his chance of church preferment to satisfy his gay and restless spirit by visiting most of the capitals of Europe. In 1782, on the death of Metastasio, he was appointed _Poeta Cesario_, or poet-laureate of Austria, in which capacity he applied himself with great success to the opera bouffe; but in 1796 he resigned this post, in order that he might not be hampered by political relations; and he spent the close of his life as a private gentleman at Paris, where he died in 1803. Casti is best known as the author of the _Novelle galanti_, and of _Gli Animali parlanti_, a poetical allegory, over which he spent eight years (1794-1802), and which, notwithstanding its tedious length, excited so much interest that it was translated into French, German and Spanish, and (very freely and with additions) into English, in W.S. Rose's _Court and Parliament of Beasts_ (Lond., 1819). Written during the time of the Revolution in France, it was intended to exhibit the feelings and hopes of the people and the defects and absurdities of various political systems. The _Novelle Galanti_ is a series of poetical tales, in the _ottava rima_--a metre largely used by Italian poets for that class of compositions. The sole merit of these poems consists in the harmony and purity of the style, and the liveliness and sarcastic power of many passages. They are, however, characterized by the grossest licentiousness; and there is no originality of plot--that, according to the custom of Italian novelists, being taken from classical mythology or other ancient legends. Among the other works of Casti is the _Poema Tartaro_, a mock-heroic satire on the court of Catherine II., with which he was personally acquainted.

CASTIGLIONE, BALDASSARE (1478-1529), Italian diplomatist and man of letters, was born at Casanatico near Mantua, and was educated at Milan under the famous professors Merula and Chalcondyles. In 1496 he entered the service of Lodovico Sforza, duke of Milan, returning to Mantua in 1500 when Lodovico was carried prisoner into France. In 1504 he was attached to the court of Guidobaldo Malatesta, duke of Urbino, and in 1506 he was sent by that prince on a mission to Henry VII. of England, who had before conferred on Federigo Malatesta, "the Good Duke," the most famous mercenary of his age, the order of the Garter. Guidobaldo dying childless in 1508, the duchy of Urbino was given to Francesco Maria della Rovere, for whom Castiglione, envoy at the court of Leo X. (Medici), obtained the office of generalissimo of the Papal troops. Charged with the arrangement of the dispute between Clement VII. (Medici) and Charles V., Castiglione crossed, in 1524, into Spain, where he was received with highest honours, being afterwards naturalized, and made bishop of Avila. In 1527, however, Rome was seized and sacked by the Imperialists under Bourbon, and in July of the same year the surrender of the castle of Sant' Angelo placed Clement in their hands. Castiglione had been tricked by the emperor, but there were not wanting accusations of treachery against himself. He had, however, placed fidelity highest among the virtues of his ideal "courtier," and when he died at Toledo in 1529 it was said that he had died of grief and shame at the imputation. The emperor mourned him as "one of the world's best cavaliers." A portrait of him, now at the Louvre, was painted by Raphael, who disdained neither his opinion nor his advice.

Castiglione wrote little, but that little is of rare merit. His verses, in Latin and Italian, are elegant in the extreme; his letters (Padua, 1769-1771) are full of grace and finesse. But the book by which he is best remembered is the famous treatise, _Il Cortegiano_, written in 1514, published at Venice by Aldus in 1528, and translated into English by Thomas Hoby as early as 1561. This book, called by the Italians _Il Libra d'oro_, and remarkable for its easy force and undemonstrative elegance of style no less than for the nobility and manliness of its theories (see the edition by V. Cian, Florence, 1894), describes the Italian gentleman of the Renaissance under his brightest and fairest aspect, and gives a charming picture of the court of Guidobaldo da Montefeltre, duke of Urbino, "confessedly the purest and most elevated court in Italy." In the form of a discussion held in the duchess's drawing-room--with Elizabetta Gonzaga, Pietro Bembo, Bernardo Bibbiena, Giuliano de' Medici, Emilia Pia, and Ceretino the Unique among the speakers--the question, What constitutes a perfect courtier? is debated. With but few differences, the type determined on is the ideal gentleman of the present day.

See P.L. Ginguene, _Histoire litteraire de l'Italie_, vi., vii.; J.A.
Symonds, _The Renaissance in Italy_ (London, 1875); C. Hare, _Courts
and Camps of the Italian Renaissance_ (1908); Julia Cartwright, _B.
Castiglione, the Perfect Courtier_ (1908), with good bibliography.

CASTIGLIONE, CARLO OTTAVIO, COUNT (1784-1849), Italian philologist, was born at Milan of an ancient family. His principal work was done in connexion with the Arabic and other Oriental languages, but he also performed good service in several other departments. In 1819 he published _Monete cufiche del Museo di Milano_, and assisted Cardinal Mai in his _Ulphilae partium ineditarum in Ambrosianis palimpsestis repertarum editio_. A learned _Memoire geographique et numismatique sur la partie orientale de la Barbarie appelee Afrikia par les Arabes_ appeared in 1826, and established his reputation. In 1829 he published by himself the Gothic version of the second epistle of Paul to the Corinthians; and this was followed by the Gothic version of the epistle to the Romans, the first epistle to the Corinthians, and the epistle to the Ephesians in 1834, by Galatians, Philippians, and 1 Thessalonians in 1835, and by 2 Thessalonians in 1839. He died at Genoa on the 10th of April 1849.

His _Life_, by Biondelli, appeared at Milan in 1856.

CASTIGLIONE, GIOVANNI BENEDETTO (1616-1670), called in Italy Il Grechetto, and in France Le Benedette, Italian painter of the Genoese school, was born in Genoa, and studied for some time under Vandyck. He painted portraits, historical pieces and landscapes, but chiefly excelled in fairs, markets and rural scenes with animals. Noah and the animals entering the Ark was a favourite subject of his. His paintings are to be found in Rome, Venice, Naples, Florence, and more especially Genoa and Mantua. He also executed a number of etchings, which are spirited, free and full of taste; "Diogenes searching for a Man" is one of the principal of these. The etchings are remarkable for light and shade, and have even earned for Castiglione the name of "a second Rembrandt." The _Presepio_ (Nativity of Jesus) in the church of San Luca, Genoa, ranks among his most celebrated paintings, and the Louvre contains eight characteristic examples. In his closing years he lived in Mantua, painting for the court; here he received his name of "Grechetto," from the classic air of his pastorals, and here he died of gout in 1670. His brother Salvatore and his son Francesco excelled in the same subjects; and it is thought that many paintings which are ascribed to Benedetto are only copies after him, or perhaps originals by his son or brother.

CASTIGLIONE DELLE STIVIERE, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Mantua, 20 m. N.W. of Mantua by road. Pop. (1901) 4122 (town), 5940 (commune). It has an old castle, much altered and restored, especially by the Gonzaga family of Mantua in the 16th century. During the War of the Spanish Succession, the French under the duke of Vendome occupied it; and during the siege of Mantua in 1796, the Austrians under Wurmser were defeated here by the French under Augereau, who was later created by Napoleon duke of Castiglione.

CASTIGLIONE OLONA, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Como, 27 m. N.E. of Milan by rail. Pop. (1901) 1806. The choir of the collegiate church, erected about 1428 by Cardinal Branda Castiglione, contains fine frescoes by Masolino of Florence: there are other works by the same master in the baptistery. The tomb of the cardinal (1443) is good. The church of S. Sepolcro, in the lower part of the town, has two large stone figures of saints on its facade (of the end of the 13th century) and, within, painted wooden figures and the tomb of Guido Castiglione (d. 1485) with fine sculptures of the school of Amadeo. The palace erected by Cardinal Castiglione has good terra-cotta decorations.

CASTILE, or CASTILLE (_Castilla_), an ancient kingdom of Spain, occupying the central districts of the Iberian Peninsula; and bounded on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, N.E. by the Basque Provinces and Navarre, E. by Aragon, S.E. by Valencia and Murcia, S. by Andalusia, W. by Estremadura and Leon, and N.W. by Asturias. Pop. (1900) 3,708,713; area, 55,307 sq. m. The name _Castile_ is commonly said to be derived from the numerous frontier forts (_castillos_) erected in the middle ages as a defence against the Moors. The northern part of the kingdom, which was first freed from Moorish rule, is called Old Castile (_Castilla la Vieja_); the southern, acquired later, is called New Castile (_Castilla la Nueva_). These two divisions, with a third known as North Castile, now rank as military districts or captaincies-general; but the term "North Castile," which covers the northern extremity of Old Castile, is not generally used. In 1833 Old Castile was divided into the provinces of Avila, Burgos, Logrono, Palencia, Santander, Segovia, Soria and Valladolid; while New Castile was similarly divided into Ciudad Real, Cuenca, Guadalajara, Madrid and Toledo. The modern progress of commerce, communications, &c. in these thirteen provinces is described in the separate articles upon each of them.

Castile extends for about 300 m. from north to south, and 160 m. from east to west. It consists of a vast central plateau, with an average altitude of about 2500 ft. This plateau has a natural frontier of high mountains on all sides, except on the borders of Leon and Murcia; it is also bisected by the Sierra de Guadarrama and Sierra de Gredos, which extend in a south-westerly direction across the central districts, and form the dividing line between Old and New Castile. Geographically it includes also the high plains of Leon, towards the north-west, and of Murcia on the south-east. The existing frontier is marked on the north by the Cantabrian Mountains (q.v.); on the east by the Sierra de la Demanda with its offshoots, and by the Serrania de Cuenca; on the south by the Sierra Morena; and on the west by various minor ranges which link together the three more or less parallel chains of the Sierra de Gredos, Sierra de Guadalupe and Sierra Morena. Three great rivers, the Douro, which traverses Old Castile, with the Tagus and Guadiana, which respectively drain the central and southern regions of New Castile, flow westward into Portugal, and finally reach the Atlantic; while the Ebro, which rises in the north of the kingdom, skirts the north-eastern frontier on its way to the Mediterranean. These rivers are described under their own names.

The climate of Old Castile is healthy, but liable to severe cold and heat. Snow falls early and lies late in the mountains, and there is a heavy rainfall in the north-west. New Castile has a still more rigorous climate, for although the mean annual temperature is about 59 deg. Fahr., the summer heat in the valleys is peculiarly oppressive, and the highlands are swept by scorching or icy gales, laden with dust. The rainfall rarely exceeds 10 in. in a year.

In both the Castiles the central plateau has a naturally fertile soil, for after rain a luxuriant vegetation appears; but drought is common, owing to the insufficient volume of the rivers, and the failure of the Spaniards to extend the fine system of irrigation which the Moors originated. Certain districts, indeed, in which a layer of heavy loam underlies the porous and friable surface, are able to retain the moisture which elsewhere is absorbed. Such land is found in Palencia, and in the Mesa de Ocana, where it yields abundant crops; and many of the northern mountains are well wooded. But vast tracts of land are useless except as pasture for sheep, and even the sheep are driven by the severe winters to migrate yearly into Estremadura (q.v.). The normal Castilian landscape is an arid and sterile steppe, with scarcely a tree or spring of water; and many even of the villages afford no relief to the eye, for they are built of sunburnt unbaked bricks, which share the dusty brownish-grey tint of the soil. Especially characteristic is the great plain of La Mancha (q.v.).

The transformation of Castile from a small county in the north of what is now Old Castile into an independent monarchy, was one of the decisive events in the reconquest of Spain from the Moors. The successful resistance offered by Asturias to the invaders had been followed by the liberation of Galicia and Leon, when Ferdinand I. of Castile (1035-1065), by his marriage with Sancha, widow of the last king of Leon, was enabled to unite Leon and Castile in a single kingdom, with its capital at Burgos. New territories were annexed on the south, until, after the capture of Toledo in 1085, and the consequent formation of a New Castile, the kingdom comprised the whole of central Spain. Thenceforward its history is inseparable from that of the whole country; and it is therefore described in full, together with the language and literature of Castile, under SPAIN (q.v.).

Castilian, which is the literary language of Spain, and with certain differences, of Spanish America, is spoken in Old and New Castile, Aragon, Estremadura, and the greater part of Leon; in Andalusia it is subject to various modifications of accent and pronunciation. As there is little, if any, difference of racial origin, character and physical type, among the inhabitants of this region, except in Andalusia, and, to a less extent, in Estremadura, the Castilian is justly regarded as the typical Spaniard. Among the Castilian peasantry, where education and foreign influence have never penetrated deeply, the national character can best be studied. Its intense pride, its fatalistic indolence and ignorance, its honesty and its bigotry, tempered by a keen sense of humour, are well-known characteristics. Apart from the peasant class, Castilians have contributed more to the development of Spanish art and literature than the inhabitants of any other region except, perhaps, Andalusia, which claims to be regarded as supreme in architecture and painting. Of the two great Spanish universities, Alcala de Henares belonged in all respects to Castile, and Salamanca rose to equality with Paris, Oxford or Bologna, under the purely Castilian influence of Alphonso X. (1252-1284).

For a general description of Castile and its inhabitants, antiquities,
commerce, &c., see _Castillo la Nueva_, three illustrated volumes in
the series _Espana_, by J.M. Quadrado and V. de la Fuente (Barcelona,
1885-1886), and the _Guia del antiguo reino de Castilla_, by E.
Valverde y Alvarez (Madrid, 1886), which deals with the provinces of
Burgos, Santander, Logrono, Soria, Avila and Segovia. For the history,
see in addition to the works cited under SPAIN (section _History_),
_Cronicas de los reyes de Castilla_, by C. Rosell (Madrid, 1875-1877,
2 vols.); _Coleccion de las cronicas y memorias de los reyes de
Castilla_ (Madrid, 1779-1787, 7 vols.); and _Historia de las
communidades de Castilla_ (Madrid, 1897).

CASTILHO, ANTONIO FELICIANO DE (1800-1875), Portuguese man of letters, was born at Lisbon. He lost his sight at the age of six, but the devotion of his brother Augusto, aided by a retentive memory, enabled him to go through his school and university course with success; and he acquired an almost complete mastery of the Latin language and literature. His first work of importance, the _Cartas de Echo e Narciso_ (1821), belongs to the pseudo-classical school in which he had been brought up, but his romantic leanings became apparent in the _Primavera_ (1822) and in _Amor e Melancholia_ (1823), two volumes of honeyed and prolix bucolic poetry. In the poetic legends _A noite de Castello_ (1836) and _Cuimes do bardo_ (1838) Castilho appeared as a full-blown Romanticist. These books exhibit the defects and qualities of all his work, in which lack of ideas and of creative imagination and an atmosphere of artificiality are ill compensated for by a certain emotional charm, great purity of diction and melodious versification. Belonging to the didactic and descriptive school, Castilho saw nature as all sweetness, pleasure and beauty, and he lived in a dreamland of his imagination. A fulsome epic on the succession of King John VI. brought him an office of profit at Coimbra. On his return from a stay in Madeira, he founded the _Revista Universal Lisbonense_, in imitation of Herculano's _Panorama_, and his profound knowledge of the Portuguese classics served him well in the introduction and notes to a very useful publication, the _Livraria Classica Portugueza_ (1845-1847, 25 vols.), while two years later he established the "Society of the Friends of Letters and the Arts." A study on Camoens and treatises on metrification and mnemonics followed from his pen. His praiseworthy zeal for popular instruction led him to take up the study of pedagogy, and in 1850 he brought out his _Leitura Repentina_, a method of reading which was named after him, and he became government commissary of the schools which were destined to put it into practice. Going to Brazil in 1854, he there wrote his famous "Letter to the Empress." Though Castilho's lack of strong individuality and his over-great respect for authority prevented him from achieving original work of real merit, yet his translations of Anacreon, Ovid and Virgil and the _Chave do Enigma_, explaining the romantic incidents that led to his first marriage with D. Maria de Baena, a niece of the satirical poet Tolentino, and a descendant of Antonio Ferreira, reveal him as a master of form and a purist in language. His versions of Goethe's _Faust_ and Shakespeare's _Midsummer Night's Dream_, made without a knowledge of German and English, scarcely added to his reputation. When the Coimbra question arose in 1865, Garrett was dead and Herculano had ceased to write, leaving Castilho supreme, for the moment, in the realm of letters. But the youthful Anthero de Quental withstood his claim to direct the rising generation and attacked his superannuated leadership, and after a fierce war of pamphlets Castilho was dethroned. The rise of Joao de Deus reduced him to a secondary position in the Portuguese Parnassus, and when he died ten years later much of his former fame had preceded him to the tomb.

See also "Memorias de Castilho" in the _Instituto_ of Coimbra;
Innocencio da Silva in _Diccionario bibliographico Portuguez_, i. 130
and viii. 132: Latino Coelho's study in the _Revista contemporanea de
Portugal e Brazil_, vols. i. and ii.; Dr Theophilo Braga, _Historia do
Romantismo_ (Lisbon, 1880). (E. Pr.)

CASTILLEJO, CRISTOBAL DE (1490-1556), Spanish poet, was born at Ciudad Rodrigo in 1490. In 1518 he left Spain with Ferdinand of Austria, afterwards emperor, whose private secretary he eventually became. While residing at Vienna in 1528-1530 he wrote the _Historia de Piramo y Tisbe_, and dedicated it to Anna von Schaumberg, with whom he had a platonic love-affair. He seems to have visited Venice, to have been neglected by his patron, to have fallen ill in 1540, and to have passed his last years in poverty. He died on the 12th of June 1556, and was buried at Vienna. Castillejo's poems are interesting, not merely because of their intrinsic excellence, but also as being the most powerful protest against the metrical innovations imported from Italy by Boscan and Garcilaso de la Vega. He adheres to the native _quintillas_ or to the _coplas de pie quebrado_, and only abandons these traditional forms when he indulges in caustic parody of the new school--as in the lines _Contra los que dejan los metros castellanos_. He excels by virtue of his charming simplicity and his ingenious wit, always keen, sometimes licentious, never brutal. The urbane gaiety of his occasional poems is delightfully spontaneous, and the cynical humour which informs the _Dialogo de las condiciones de las mujeres_ and the _Dialogo de la vida de la corte_ is impregnated with the Renaissance spirit. Castillejo is the Clement Marot of Spain. His plays are lost; the best text of his verses is that printed at Madrid in 1792.

CASTILLO SOLORZANO, ALONSO DE (1584?-1647?), Spanish novelist and playwright, is stated to have been baptized at Tordesillas near Valladolid on 1st October 1584. Nothing is known of his youth, and he is next heard of at Madrid in 1619 as a man of literary tastes. While in the service of the marquis de Villar, he issued his first work, _Donaires del Parnaso_ (1624-1625), two volumes of humorous poems; his _Tardes entretenidas_ (1625) and _Jornadas alegres_ (1626) proved that he was a novelist by vocation. Shortly afterwards he joined the household of the marquis de los Velez, viceroy of Valencia, and published in quick succession three clever picaresque novels: _La Nina de los embustes, Teresa de Manzanares_ (1634), _Las Aventuras del Bachiller Trapaza_ (1637), and a continuation entitled _La Garduna de Sevilla y Anzuelo de las bolsas_ (1642). To these shrewd cynical stories he owes his reputation. He followed the marquis de los Velez in his disastrous campaign in Catalonia, and accompanied him to Rome, where the defeated general was sent as ambassador. Castillo Solorzano's death occurred (probably at Palermo) before 1648, but the exact date is uncertain. His prolonged absence from Madrid prevented him from writing as copiously for the stage as he would otherwise have done; but he was popular as a playwright both at home and abroad. His _Marques del Cigarral_ and _El Mayorazgo figuron_ are the sources respectively of Scarron's _Don Jophet d'Armenie_ and _L'Heritier ridicule_. Among his numerous remaining works may be mentioned _Las Harpias en Madrid_ (1633), _Fiestas del Jardin_ (1634), _Los Alivios de Casandra_ (1640) and the posthumous _Quinta de Laurel_ (1649); the witty observation of these books forms a singular contrast to the prim devotion of his _Sagrario de Valencia_ (1635). His versatility and graceful style deserve the highest praise. (J. F.-K.)

CASTLE (Lat. _castellum_, a fort, diminutive of _castra_, a camp; Fr. _chateau_ and _chatel_), a small self-contained fortress, usually of the middle ages, though the term is sometimes used of prehistoric earthworks (e.g. Hollingbury Castle, Maiden Castle), and sometimes of citadels (e.g. the castles of Badajoz and Burgos) and small detached _forts d'arret_ in modern times. It is also often applied to the principal mansion of a prince or nobleman, and in France (as _chateau_) to any country seat, this use being a relic of the feudal age. Under its twofold aspect of a fortress and a residence, the medieval castle is inseparably connected with the subjects of fortification (see FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT) and architecture (q.v.). An account of Roman and pre-Roman _castella_ in Britain will be found under BRITAIN.