Chapter VI: Front Matter (6)

These machines for weaving pile carpets, either looped (_boucle_) as in Brussels, or cut (_veloute_) as in Wilton or Axminster carpets, were similar in all respects to such as had been in use by the important English manufacturers--Crossley of Halifax, Templeton of Glasgow, Humphreys of Kidderminster, Southwell of Bridgnorth, and others. A so-called tapestry carpet weaving-loom was invented by Richard Whytock of Edinburgh in 1832, but it was not brought to sufficient completeness for sustained manufacture until 1855. The essential feature of Mr Whytock's process was that the warp-threads were dyed and parti-coloured, in such a way that when woven the several points of colour formed the pattern of the whole fabric. Although the name "tapestry" is used, the texture of these wares has but a remote likeness to that of hand-made tapestry hangings and carpets such as those of the Gobelins and Aubusson manufactories, nor is it the same as the texture of Brussels carpets. Machine-made tapestry carpets are also called "ingrain" carpets, because the wool or worsted is dyed in the grain, i.e. before manufacture. Germany in her manufacture of carpets resorts chiefly to the "ingrain" process, but in common with Holland and Belgium she produces pile (looped and cut) carpets from power-looms. In the United States of America there are many similar and very important carpet manufactories; and Austria produces fine cut pile carpets (_veloutes_), the designs of which are largely derived from those of the Aubusson tapestry-woven carpets (_tapis ras_).

Lengths or pieces of felt and other substantial material are frequently made for floor and stair carpeting, and are often printed with patterns. These of course come into quite another class technically. The technological aspects of the several branches of carpet manufacture by machinery are treated in the articles on TEXTILE-PRINTING and WEAVING. Briefly, the products of carpet manufacture practically fall into three main divisions: (1) Pile carpets (_tapis moquettes_) which are either looped (_boucle_) or cut (_veloute_); (2) flat surface carpets (_tapis ras_) as in hand tapestry-woven material; and (3) printed stuffs used for carpeting.

Modern hand-made carpets.

Whilst the production of carpets by steam power predominates in Europe and the United States of America, and at one time appeared to be giving the _coup de grace_ to the craft of making carpets by hand, there has been in recent times a revival in this latter, and many carpets of characteristic modern design, several of them made in England, are due to the influence of the late William Morris, who devoted much of his varied energies to tapestry weaving and pile carpet weaving by hand, both of which crafts are being fostered as cottage industries in parts of Ireland, as well as in England. At the same time leading English carpet manufactures continue to produce hand-made carpets as occasion requires. In France a much more systematic existence of tapestry weaving and pile carpet making by hand has been maintained and is of course attributable to the perennial activity of the state tapestry works in Paris (at the Gobelins workshops) and in Beauvais, and of corresponding works managed by private enterprise at Aubusson and elsewhere.

Designing patterns for English carpet manufacture is now more organized than it was, and greater thought and invention are given to devising ornament suitable to the purpose of floor coverings. Before 1850 and for a few years later, rather rude realistic representations of animals and botanical forms (decadent versions of Savonnerie designs) were often wrought in rugs and carpets, and survivals of these are still to be met with, but the lessons that have been subsequently derived from intelligent study of Oriental designs have resulted in the definite designing of conventional forms for surface patterns. The early movement in this direction owes much to the teaching of Owen Jones, and in its later and rather freer phases the Morris influence has been powerful. Schools of art at Glasgow, at Manchester, Birmingham and elsewhere in the United Kingdom have trained and continue to train designers, whose work has contributed to the formation of an English style with a new note, which, as a French writer puts it, has created a sensation in France, in Germany, in fact in all Europe and America.

France retains that facility of execution and liveliness in invention which have been nurtured for over three hundred years by systematic, governmental solicitude for education in decorative design and enterprise in perfecting manufacture. Her Aubusson and Savonnerie carpets have maintained a style of design in form and colour entirely different from any that clearly throws back to Oriental principles, and many of the designs for the finer and larger of these carpets are schemed with large central oval panels, garlands of flowers and fantastic frames very much on the plan of what is frequently to be seen in the decoration of ceilings. At the same time the style called _l'art nouveau_ has become developed. It largely grows from very fanciful dispositions of free-growing natural forms, as well as curiously curved and tenuous forms, many of which are bone-like and fibre-like in character, flat in treatment and rather thin and washy in colour, and its influence has slightly percolated into designs for pile carpets. This style, sometimes intermixed with the more robust, less fantastic and rather fuller-coloured English style, has found followers in England, America and Germany, but the bulk of the designs now used in power carpet looms seems to be mainly of Oriental descent.

The more important art museums in Europe contain collections of Oriental carpets, and the history of many is fairly well established. The subject has become one of serious study, the results of which have been published and elucidated by means of well-executed coloured reproductions of carpets and rugs preserved in both public and private collections.

PLATE III.

PLATE IV.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(1) _An Account of the New Manufactory of Tapestry
after the manner of that at the Gobelins; and of Carpets after the
manner of that at Chaillot, &c., now undertaken at Fulham, by Mr Peter
Parisot_ (London, Dodsley, 1753, 8vo). This is probably the only
account of carpet-making in England during the 18th century; it is of
peculiar interest in that respect, and as containing a statement that
"the Manufacture of Chaillot is altogether of wool, and worked in the
manner of Velvet. All sorts of Figures of Men and Animals may be
imitated in this work; but Fruits and Flowers answer better; and the
properest employment for this Art is to make Carpets and all sorts of
Skreens." (2) _Essai sur l'histoire et la situation actuelle de
l'industrie des tapisseries et tapis_, by W. Chocqueel (Paris, 1863).
(3) Vol. xi. of _Reports on the Paris Universal Exhibition of 1867_,
containing "Report on Carpets, Tapestry and other stuffs for
Furniture," by Matthew Digby Wyatt, F.S.A. (1868). In reviewing the
modern products shown at the exhibition, Sir Digby Wyatt discusses at
some length the aesthetics of carpet design. (4) _British
Manufacturing Industries_, edited by G. Phillips Bevan, "Carpets," by
Christopher Fresser (London, 1876). (5) _Altorientalische
Teppichmuster nach Bildern und Originalen des xv.-xvi. Jahrhunderts_,
by Julius Lessing (Berlin, 1877). Numerous references are made in this
illustrated work to the carpet designs that occur in paintings by
Italian and Flemish masters. (6) _Eastern Carpets_, by Vincent J.
Robinson, with water-colour drawings by E. Julia Robinson (London,
1882, large 4to). In this publication, which precedes by nine or
ten years the more learned works by Riegl and Bode, there are two
examples, one ascribed to the manufactory at Alcaraz in La Mancha, and
one to the supposed manufactory of the 17th century at Warsaw. By the
light of later and more complete investigations Mr Robinson's
ascriptions are scarcely borne out. (7) _Oriental Carpets_, by Herbert
Coxon (London, 1884, 8vo). (8) _Altorientalische Teppiche_, by Alois
Riegl (Leipzig, 1891); a useful book of reference (containing
thirty-six illustrations) of manufacturing, archaeological and
artistic interest. (9) _Jahrbuch der kunsthistorischen Sammlungen des
Allerhochsten Kaiserhauses_, vol. xiii. (Wien, 1892). Containing an
important and finely illustrated article, "Altere orientalische
Teppiche aus dem Besitze des Allerhochsten Kaiserhauses," by Alois
Riegl, in the course of which comparisons are made between the designs
in Persian MS. illustrations, in engraved metal work and those of
carpets. (10) _Oriental Carpets_, published by the Austrian Commercial
Museum (English edition by C. Purdon Clarke) (Vienna, 1892-1896). This
contains a series of monographs by I.M. Stockel, Smyrna; Dr William
Bode, Berlin; Vincent Robinson, London; M. Gerspach, Paris; T.A.
Churchill, Tehran; Sir George Birdwood, London; C. Purdon Clarke,
London; and Alois Riegl, Vienna, and a preface by A. von Scala,
Vienna, (n) _Ancient Oriental Carpets_, a supplement to the above,
four parts containing twenty-five plates with text (Leipzig, 1906,
large folio). (12) _Vorderasiatische Knupfteppiche aus alterer Zeit_,
by Wilhelm Bode (Leipzig, 1901). This learned treatise gives _inter
alia_ suggestive notes upon the production of the so-called Polish
carpets and of Spanish carpets. (13) _Ein orientalischer Teppich vom
Jahre 1202 und die altesten orientalischen Teppiche_, by Alois Riegl
(Berlin, 1895). A coloured illustration is given of a pile curtain
with a triple niche design and an Armenian inscription that it was
made by "Gorzi the Artist" to the glory of the church of St
Hripsime--an Armenian martyr. The date 651 appears in the inscription,
but Riegl adduces valid reasons for reading it as the equivalent of
A.D. 1202. Another pile carpet of conventional garden design, probably
not of earlier manufacture than 14th century, is also illustrated and
carefully discussed, especially in connexion with the appearance in it
of well-authenticated Sassanid devices--streams with fishes and birds,
&c. (14) _Report on Carpets at the Paris Exhibition of 1900_, by
Ferdinand Leborgne (1901, 8vo). (15) _Oriental Rugs_, by John Kimberly
Mumford (London, 1901), contains twenty-four colour-plate and autotype
reproductions of rugs and eight photo-engravings of phases of the rug
industry--amongst which latter are: "A Nomad Studio," "Kurdish Girls
at the Loom," "Boy Weavers of Tabriz," and a "Rug Market in Iran."
(16) _Rugs, Oriental and Occidental_, by Rosa Belle Holt (Chicago,
1901), well illustrated, with colour-plate reproductions of various
types of rugs, including less known Chinese and Navajo specimens. (17)
_The Art Workers' Quarterly_, vol. iii. No. II, July 1904; article on
the pile carpet belonging to the Worshipful Company of Girdlers of the
City of London, by A.F. Kendrick, with a colour-plate of this
remarkable carpet, made to the order of the master of the company in
1634 at Lahore. (18) _Journal of Indian Art and Industry: Indian
Carpets and Rugs_ (parts 87 to 94) (London, 1905 and 1906). Upwards of
ninety-nine illustrations of many varieties of Indian and Persian
carpets are given in this publication, a large number showing debased
versions of fine designs, e.g. some from the Punjab, Warangal,
Mirzapur and Elura; those from Yarkand exhibit Tatar and Chinese
influences. (19) _A History of Oriental Carpets before 1800_, by F.R.
Martin, published by the State Printing Office in Vienna (Bernard
Quaritch, London, 1906). This contains a series of excellent
reproductions in colours of Oriental carpets, many of which, being
presents to kings of Sweden by the shah of Persia in the 17th century,
are to be seen in the castles of Stockholm and Copenhagen--others are
in the Imperial Museum at Constantinople or belong to private owners.
(A. S. C.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The _tapissiers sarrasinois_ were apparently the makers of piled
or velvety carpets, and have always been written about in
contradistinction to the _tapissiers de haute lisse_ or _tapissiers
nostrez_, who it appears did not weave piled or velvety material, but
made tapestry-woven hangings and coverings for furniture.

[2] In Hakluyt's _Voyages_ mention is made of directions having been
given to Morgan Hubblethorne, a dyer, to proceed (about 1579) to
Persia to learn the arts of dyeing and of making carpets.

[3] The Royal Factory at Lahore was established by Akbar the Great in
the 16th century.

[4] A wealthy serge-maker of Swiss nationality, who had been settled
for some years in Exeter, and bought up the plant of Parisot's Exeter
works. (See _Bulletin de la societe de l'histoire de l'art francais_,
p. 97, vol. 1875 to 1878.)

CARPET-BAGGER, a political slang term for a person who stands as a candidate for election in a locality in which he is a stranger. It is particularly used of such a candidate sent down by the central party organization. The term was first used in the western states of America of speculative bankers who were said to have started business with no other property than what they could carry in a carpet-bag, and absconded when they failed. The term became of general use in American politics in the reconstruction period after the Civil War, as a term of contempt for the northern political adventurers in the South who, by the help of the negro vote, gained control of the administration.

CARPET-KNIGHT, properly one who has been knighted in time of peace on the carpet before the king's throne, and not on the field of battle as an immediate reward for valour. It is used as a term of reproach for a soldier who stays at home, and avoids active service and its hardships, with a particular reference to the carpet of a lady's chamber, in which such a _saineant_ soldier lingers.

CARPI, GIROLAMO DA (1501-1556), Italian historical and portrait painter, born at Ferrara, was one of Benvenuto Garofalo's best pupils. Becoming infatuated with the work of Correggio, he quitted Ferrara, and spent several years in copying that master's paintings at Parma, Modena and elsewhere, succeeding in aping his mannerisms so well as to be able to dispose of his own works as originals by Correggio. It is probable that not a few pictures yet attributed to the great painter are in reality the work of his parasite. Da Carpi's best paintings are a Descent of the Holy Spirit, in the church of St Francis at Rovigo; a Madonna, an Adoration of the Magi, and a St Catharine, at Bologna; and the St George and the St Jerome, at Ferrara.

CARPI, UGO DA, Italian 15th-century painter, was long held the inventor of the art of printing in chiaroscuro, afterwards brought to such perfection by Parmigiano and by Baltasar Peruzzi of Siena. The researches of Michael Huber (1727-1804) and Johann Gottlob Immanuel Breitkopf (1719-1794) have proved, however, that this art was known and practised in Germany by Johann Ulrich Pilgrim (Wachtlin) and Nikolaus Alexander Mair (1450-c. 1520), at least as early as 1499, while the date of the oldest of Da Carpi's prints is 1518. Printing in chiaroscuro is performed by using several blocks. Da Carpi usually employed three--one for the outline and darker shadows, another for the lighter shadows, and a third for the half-tint. By means of them he printed engravings after several pictures and after some of the cartoons of Raphael. Of these a Sybil, a Descent from the Cross, and a History of Simon the Sorcerer are the most remarkable.

CARPI, a Dacian tribe established upon the lower Danube from the 1st century B.C. They rose to considerable power during the 3rd century A.D., and claiming to be superior to the Goths accordingly demanded that their incursions into Roman territory likewise should be bought off by tribute. When this was refused they invaded in force, but were beaten back by the emperor Philip. After this they joined with the Goths in their successful inroads until both nations were defeated by Claudius Gothicus. Later, after repeated defeats under Diocletian and Galerius, they were taken under Roman protection and the greater part established in the provinces of Pannonia and Moesia; some were left beyond the Danube, and they are last heard of as allies of the Huns and Sciri in the time of Theodosius I. Ptolemy speaks of Harpii and a town Harpis. This was no doubt the form the name assumed in the mouths of their Germanic neighbours, Bastarnae and Goths. (E. H. M.)

CARPI, a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Modena, 9 m. N.N.W. by rail from the town of Modena. Pop. (1905) 7118 (town), 27,135 (commune). It is the junction of a branch line to Reggio nell' Emilia via Correggio, and the centre of a fertile agricultural district. Carpi contains several Renaissance buildings of interest, the facade of the old cathedral (an early Romanesque building in origin, with some early 15th-century frescoes), the new cathedral (after 1513), perhaps the nave of S. Niccolo and a palace, all being by Baldassare Peruzzi: while the prince's palace (with a good court and a chapel containing frescoes by Bernardino Loschi of Parma, 1489-1540) and the colonnades opposite the theatre are also good. These, and the fortifications, are all due to Alberto Pio of Carpi, a pupil of Aldus Manutius, expelled in 1525 by Charles V., the principality being given to the house of Este.

CARPINI, JOANNES DE PLANO, the first noteworthy European explorer of the Mongol empire (in the 13th century), and the author of the earliest important Western work on northern and central Asia, Russian Europe, and other regions of the Tatar dominion. He appears to have been a native of Umbria, where a place formerly called Pian del Carpine, but now Piano della Magione, stands near Perugia, on the road to Cortona. He was one of the companions and disciples of his countryman St Francis of Assisi, and from sundry indications can hardly have been younger than the latter, born in 1182. Joannes bore a high repute in the order, and took a foremost part in the propagation of its teaching in northern Europe, holding successively the offices of warden (_custos_) in Saxony, and of provincial (_minister_) of Germany, and afterwards of Spain, perhaps of Barbary, and of Cologne. He was in the last post at the time of the great Mongol invasion of eastern Europe and of the disastrous battle of Liegnitz (April 9, 1241), which threatened to cast European Christendom beneath the feet of barbarous hordes. The dread of the Tatars was, however, still on men's mind four years later, when Pope Innocent IV. despatched the first formal Catholic mission to the Mongols (1245), partly to protest against the latter's invasion of Christian lands, partly to gain trustworthy information regarding the hordes and their purposes; behind there may have lurked the beginnings of a policy much developed in after-time--that of opening diplomatic intercourse with a power whose alliance might be invaluable against Islam.

At the head of this mission the pope placed Friar Joannes, at this time certainly not far from sixty-five years of age; and to his discretion nearly everything in the accomplishment of the mission seems to have been left. The legate started from Lyons, where the pope then resided, on Easter day (April 16, 1245), accompanied by another friar, one Stephen of Bohemia, who broke down at Kanev near Kiev, and was left behind. After seeking counsel of an old friend, Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, Carpini was joined at Breslau by another Minorite, Benedict the Pole, appointed to act as interpreter. The onward journey lay by Kiev; the Tatar posts were entered at Kanev; and thence the route ran across the Dnieper (_Neper, Nepere_, in Carpini and Benedict) to the Don and Volga (_Ethil_ in Benedict; Carpini is the first Western to give us the modern name). Upon the last-named stood the _Ordu_ or camp of Batu, the famous conqueror of eastern Europe, and the supreme Mongol commander on the western frontiers of the empire, as well as one of the most senior princes of the house of Jenghiz. Here the envoys, with their presents, had to pass between two fires, before being presented to the prince (beginning of April 1246). Batu ordered them to proceed onward to the court of the supreme khan in Mongolia; and on Easter day once more (April 8, 1246) they started on the second and most formidable part of their journey--"so ill," writes the legate, "that we could scarcely sit a horse; and throughout all that Lent our food had been nought but millet with salt and water, and with only snow melted in a kettle for drink." Their bodies were tightly bandaged to enable them to endure the excessive fatigue of this enormous ride, which led them across the _Jaec_ or Ural river, and north of the Caspian and the Aral to the Jaxartes or Syr Daria (_quidam fluvius magnus cujus nomen ignoramus_), and the Mahommedan cities which then stood on its banks; then along the shores of the Dzungarian lakes; and so forward, till, on the feast of St Mary Magdalene (July 22), they reached at last the imperial camp called _Sira Orda_ (i.e. Yellow Pavilion), near Karakorum and the Orkhon river--this stout-hearted old man having thus ridden something like 3000 m. in 106 days.

Since the death of Okkodai the imperial authority had been in _interregnum_. Kuyuk, Okkodai's eldest son, had now been designated to the throne; his formal election in a great _Kurultai_, or diet of the tribes, took place while the friars were at Sira Orda, along with 3000 to 4000 envoys and deputies from all parts of Asia and eastern Europe, bearing homage, tribute and presents. They afterwards, on the 24th of August, witnessed the formal enthronement at another camp in the vicinity called the Golden Ordu, after which they were presented to the emperor. It was not till November that they got their dismissal, bearing a letter to the pope in Mongol, Arabic and Latin, which was little else than a brief imperious assertion of the khan's office as the scourge of God. Then commenced their long winter journey homeward; often they had to lie on the bare snow, or on the ground scraped bare of snow with the traveller's foot. They reached Kiev on the 9th of June 1247. There, and on their further journey, the Slavonic Christians welcomed them as risen from the dead, with festive hospitality. Crossing the Rhine at Cologne, they found the pope still at Lyons, and there delivered their report and the khan's letter.

Not long afterwards Friar Joannes was rewarded with the archbishopric of Antivari in Dalmatia, and was sent as legate to St Louis. The date of his death may be fixed, with the help of the _Franciscan Martyrology_ and other authorities, as the 1st of August 1252; hence it is clear that John did not long survive the hardships of his journey.

He recorded the information that he had collected in a work, variously entitled in the MSS. _Historia Mongalorum quos nos Tartaros appellamus_, and _Liber Tartarorum_, or _Tatarorum_. This treatise is divided into eight ample chapters on the country, climate, manners, religion, character, history, policy and tactics of the Tatars, and on the best way of opposing them, followed by a single (ninth) chapter on the regions passed through. The book thus answers to its title. Like some other famous medieval itineraries it shows an entire absence of a traveller's or author's egotism, and contains, even in the last chapter, scarcely any personal narrative. Carpini was not only an old man when he went cheerfully upon this mission, but was, as we know from accidental evidence in the annals of his order, a fat and heavy man (_vir gravis et corpulentus_), insomuch that during his preachings in Germany he was fain, contrary to Franciscan precedent, to ride a donkey. Yet not a word approaching more nearly to complaint than those which we have quoted above appears in his narrative. His book, both as to personal and geographical detail, is inferior to that written a few years later by a younger brother of the same Order, Louis IX.'s most noteworthy envoy to the Mongols, William of Rubrouck or Rubruquis. But in spite of these defects, due partly to his conception of his task, and in spite of the credulity with which he incorporates the Oriental tales, sometimes of childish absurdity, from which Rubruquis is so free, Friar Joannes' _Historia_ is in many ways the chief literary memorial of European overland expansion before Marco Polo. It first revealed the Mongol world to Catholic Christendom; its account of Tatar manners, customs and history is perhaps the best treatment of the subject by any Christian writer of the middle ages. We may especially notice, moreover, its four name-lists:--of the nations conquered by the Mongols; of the nations which had up to this time (1245-1247) successfully resisted; of the Mongol princes; and of the witnesses to the truth of his narrative, including various merchants trading in Kiev whom he had met. All these catalogues, unrivalled in Western medieval literature, are of the utmost historical value. To the accuracy of Carpini's statements upon Mongol life, a modern educated Mongol, Galsang Gomboyev, has borne detailed and interesting testimony (see _Melanges asiat. tires du Bullet. Hist. Philol. de l'Acad. Imp. de St Petersbourg_, ii. p. 650, 1856).

The book must have been prepared immediately after the return of the traveller, for the Friar Salimbeni, who met him in France in the year of his return (1247), gives us these interesting particulars:--"He was a clever and conversable man, well lettered, a great discourser, and full of a diversity of experience.... He wrote a big book about the Tattars (sic), and about other marvels that he had seen, and whenever he felt weary of telling about the Tattars, he would cause that book of his to be read, as I have often heard and seen" ("Chron. Fr. Salimbeni Parmensis" in _Monum. Histor. ad Prov. et Placent. pertinentia_, Parma, 1857).

For a long time the work was but partially known, and that chiefly through an abridgment in the vast compilation of Vincent of Beauvais (_Speculum Historiale_) made in the generation following the traveller's own, and printed first in 1473. Hakluyt (1598) and Bergeron (1634) published portions of the original work; but the complete and genuine text was not printed till 1838, when it was put forth by the late M. D'Avezac, an editorial masterpiece, embodied (1839) in the 4th volume of the _Recueil de voyages et de memoires_ of the Geographical Society of Paris.

Joannes' companion, Benedictus Polonus, also left a brief narrative taken down from his oral relation. This was first published by M. D'Avezac in the work just named.

The following four MSS. may be noticed: (1) "Corpus," i.e. Corpus
Christi College, Cambridge, No. 181; (2) "Petau," i.e. Leiden
University, 77 (formerly 104)--both these are certainly earlier than
1300; (3) "Colbert," i.e. Paris, National Library, Fonds Lat. 2477, of
about 1350; (4) "London-Lumley," i.e. London, British Museum, MSS.
Reg. 13 A xiv., of late 13th century. Three other MSS. certainly
exist; yet six more are perhaps to be found, but none of these
possesses the value of those given above. Besides the editions
referred to in the body of the article, we may also mention (1) P.
Girolamo Golubovich, _Biblioteca bio-bibliografica della Terra Santa e
dell' Oriente Francescano_ (1906), vol. i. (1215-1300), pp. 190-213;
(2) _William of Rubruck ... with ... John of Pian de Carpine_, edited
by W.W. Rockhill, Hakluyt Society (1900), especially pp. 1-39; (3) C.
Raymond Beazley, _Dawn of Modern Geography_, ii. (1901), 279-317,
375-380; in. 85, 544, 553; and _Carpini and Rubruquis_, Hakluyt
Society (1903), especially pp. vii.-xviii. 43-144, 249-295.
(H. Y.; C. R. B.)

CARPOCRATES, a Gnostic of the 2nd century, about whose life and opinions comparatively little is known. He is said to have been a native of Alexandria and by birth a Jew. His family, however, seem to have been converted to Christianity. With Epiphanes, his son, he was the leader of a philosophic school basing its theories mainly upon Platonism, and striving to amalgamate Plato's _Republic_ with the Christian ideal of human brotherhood. The image of Jesus was crowned along with those of Pythagoras, Plato and Aristotle. Carpocrates made especial use of the doctrines of reminiscence and pre-existence of souls. He regarded the world as formed by inferior spirits who are out of harmony with the supreme unity, knowledge of which is the true _Gnosis_. The souls which remember their pre-existing state can attain to this contemplation of unity, and thereby rise superior to all the ordinary doctrines of religion or life. Jesus is but a man in whom this reminiscence is unusually strong, and who has consequently attained to unusual spiritual excellence and power. To the Gnostic the things of the world are worthless; they are to him matters of indifference. From this position it easily followed that actions, being merely external, were morally indifferent, and that the true Gnostic should abandon himself to every lust with perfect indifference. The express declaration of these antinomian principles is said to have been given by Epiphanes. The notorious licentiousness of the sect was the carrying out of their theory into practice.

CARPZOV (Latinized _Carpzovius_), the name of a family, many of whose members attained distinction in Saxony in the 17th and 18th centuries as jurists, theologians and statesmen. The family traced its origin to Simon Carpzov, who was burgomaster of Brandenburg in the middle of the 16th century, and who left two sons, Joachim (d. 1628), master-general of the ordnance in the service of the king of Denmark, and BENEDIKT (1565-1624), an eminent jurist.

BENEDIKT CARPZOV was born in Brandenburg on the 22nd of October 1565, and after studying at Frankfort and Wittenberg, and visiting other German universities, was made doctor of laws at Wittenberg in 1590. He was admitted to the faculty of law in 1592, appointed professor of institutions in 1599, and promoted to the chair _Digesti infortiati et novi_ in 1601. In 1602 he was summoned by Sophia, widow of the elector Christian I. of Saxony, to her court at Colditz, as chancellor, and was at the same time appointed councillor of the court of appeal at Dresden. After the death of the electress in 1623 he returned to Wittenberg, and died there on the 26th of November 1624, leaving five sons. He published a collection of writings entitled _Disputationes juridicae_.

BENEDIKT CARPZOV (1595-1666), second of the name, was the second son of the preceding, and like him was a great lawyer. He was born at Wittenberg on the 27th of May 1595, was at first a professor at Leipzig, obtained an honourable post at Dresden in 1639, became ordinary of the faculty of jurists at Leipzig in 1645, and was named privy councillor at Dresden in 1653. Among his works which had a very extensive influence on the administration of justice, even beyond the limits of Saxony, are _Definitiones forenses_ (1638), _Practica nova Imperialis Saxonica rerum criminalium_ (1635), _Opus decisionum illustrium Saxoniae_ (1646), _Processus juris Saxonici_ (1657), and others. He did much, both by his writings and by his official work, to systematize the body of German jurisprudence which had resulted from the intersection of the common law of Saxony with the Roman and Canon laws. His last years were spent at Leipzig, and his time was entirely devoted to sacred studies. He read the Bible through fifty-three times, studying also the comments of Osiander and Cramer, and making voluminous notes. These have been allowed to remain in manuscript. He died at Leipzig on the 30th of August 1666.

JOHANN BENEDIKT CARPZOV (1607-1657), fourth son of the first Benedikt, was born at Rochlitz in 1607. He became professor of theology at Leipzig in 1643, made himself chiefly known by his _Isagoge in Libros Ecclesiarum Lutheranarum Symbolicos_ (published in 1665), and died at Leipzig on the 22nd of October 1657, leaving five sons, all of whom attained some literary eminence.

AUGUST CARPZOV (1612-1683), fifth son of the first Benedikt, distinguished himself as a diplomatist. Born at Colditz on the 4th of June 1612, he studied at the universities of Wittenberg, Leipzig and Jena, and in 1637 was appointed advocate of the court of justice (_Hofgericht_) at Wittenberg. Entering the service of Frederick William II., duke of Saxe-Altenburg, he took part in the negotiations which led to the peace of Westphalia in 1648, and was appointed chancellor by the duke in 1649. From 1672 to 1680 he was chief minister of Ernest I. and Frederick I., dukes of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and died at Coburg on the 19th of November 1683. August, who was a man of earnest piety, wrote _Der gekreuzigte Jesus_ (1679) and some treatises on jurisprudence.

JOHANN GOTTLOB CARPZOV (1670-1767), grandson of Johann Benedikt, was born at Dresden in 1679. He was educated at Wittenberg, Leipzig and Altdorf, became a learned theologian, and in 1719 was appointed professor of Oriental languages at Leipzig. In 1730 he was made superintendent and first pastor at Lubeck. His most important works were the _Introductio in libros canonicos bibliorum Veteris Testamenti_ (1721), _Critica sacra V.T._ (1728), and _Apparatus Historico-criticus Antiquitatum V. Test._ (1748). He died at Lubeck on the 7th of April 1767.

JOHANN BENEDIKT CARPZOV (1720-1803), great-grandson of the first Johann Benedikt, was born at Leipzig, became professor of philosophy there in 1747, and in the following year removed to Helmstadt as professor of poetry and Greek. In 1749 he was named also professor of theology. He was author of various philological works, wrote a dissertation on Mencius, and published an edition of Musaeus. He died on the 28th of April 1803.

On the family of Carpzov, see Dreyhaupt, _Beschreibung des
Saalkreises_, Beilagen zu Theil 2. S. 26.

CARRANZA, BARTOLOME (1503-1576), Spanish theologian, sometimes called de Miranda or de Carranza y Miranda, younger son of Pedro Carranza, a man of noble family, was born at Miranda d'Arga, Navarre, in 1503. He studied (1515-1520) at Alcala, where Sancho Carranza, his uncle, was professor; entering (1520) the Dominican order, and then (1521-1525) at Salamanca and at Valladolid, where from 1527 he was teacher of theology. No Spaniard save Melchior Canus rivalled him in learning; students from all parts of Spain flocked to hear him. In 1530 he was denounced to the Inquisition as limiting the papal power and leaning to opinions of Erasmus, but the process failed; he was made professor of philosophy and (1533-1539) regent in theology. In 1539, as representative to the chapter-general of his order he visited Rome; here he was made doctor of theology, and while he mixed with the liberal circle associated with Juan de Valdes, he had also the confidence of Paul III. Returning to Valladolid, he acted as censor (_cualificador_) of books (including versions of the Bible) for the Inquisition. In 1540 he was nominated to the sees of Canaria and of Cusco, Peru, but declined both. Charles V. chose him as envoy to the council of Trent (1546). He insisted on the imperative duty of bishops and clergy to reside in their benefices, publishing at Venice (1547) his discourse to the council _De necessaria residentia personali_, which he treated as _juris divini_. His Lenten sermon to the council, on justification, caused much remark. He was made provincial of his order for Castile. Charles sent him to England (1554) with his son Philip on occasion of the marriage with Mary. He became Mary's confessor, and laboured earnestly for the re-establishment of the old religion, especially in Oxford. In 1557 Philip appointed him to the archbishopric of Toledo; he accepted with reluctance, and was consecrated at Brussels on the 27th of February 1558. He was at the deathbed of Charles V. (21st of September) and gave him extreme unction; then raised a curious controversy as to whether Charles, in his last moments, had been infected with Lutheranism. The same year he was again denounced to the Inquisition, on the ground of his _Comentarios sobre el Catechismo_ (Antwerp, 1558), which in 1563, however, was approved by a commission of the council of Trent. He had evidently lost favour with Philip, by whose order he was arrested at Tordelaguna (1559) and imprisoned for nearly eight years, and the book was placed on the Index. The process dragged on. Carranza appealed to Rome, was taken thither in December 1566, and confined for ten years in the castle of St Angelo. The final judgment found no proof of heresy, but compelled him to abjure sixteen errors, rather extorted than extracted from his writings, suspended him from his see for five years, and secluded him to the Dominican cloister of Sta Maria sopra Minerva. Seven days after his abjuration he died, on the 2nd of May 1576. He was succeeded in his see by the inquisitor-general, Gaspar Quiroga. Yet the Spanish people honoured him as a saint; Gregory XIII. placed a laudatory inscription on his tomb in the church of Sta Maria. His real crime was not heresy but reform. His _Summa Conciliorum et Pontificum_ (Venice, 1546) has been often reprinted (as late as 1821), and has permanent value.

See P. Salazar de Miranda, _Vida_ (1788); H. Laugwitz, _Bartholomaus
Carranza_ (1870); J.A. Llorente, _Hist. Inquisition in Spain_ (English
abridgment, 1826); Hefele in I. Goschler's _Dict. encyclopedique de la
theol. cath._ (1858). (A. Go.*)

CARRARA, or CARRARESI, a powerful family of Longobard origin which ruled Padua in the 14th century. They take their name from the village of Carrara near Padua, and the first recorded member of the house is Gamberto (d. before 970). In the wars between Guelphs and Ghibellines the Carraresi at first took the latter side, but they subsequently went over to the Guelphs. This brought them into conflict with Ezzelino da Romano; Jacopo da Carrara was besieged by Ezzelino in his castle of Agna, and while trying to escape was drowned. Another Jacopo led the Paduans in 1312 against Cangrande della Scala, lord of Verona, and though taken prisoner managed to negotiate a peace in 1318. To put an end to the perpetual civil strife the Paduans elected him their lord, and he seems to have governed well, leaving the city at his death (1324) to his nephew Marsiglio a man famed for his cunning. But Cangrande was bent on acquiring Padua, and Marsiglio, unable to resist, gave it over to him and was appointed its governor. Cangrande died in 1319, being succeeded by his nephew Martino, and Marsiglio soon began to meditate treachery; he negotiated with the Venetians in 1336, and in the following year he secretly introduced Venetian troops into Padua, arrested Alberto della Scala, Martino's brother, then in charge of the town, and thus regained the lordship. He died in 1338, and was succeeded by his relative Ubertino, a typical medieval tyrant, who earned an unenviable notoriety for his murders and acts of treachery, but was also a patron of the arts; he built the Palazzo dei Principi, the castle of Este, constructed a number of roads and canals, and protected commerce. He died in 1345. His distant kinsman Marsiglietto da Carrara succeeded to him, but was immediately assassinated by Jacopo da Carrara, a prince famed as the friend of Petrarch. In 1350 Jacopo was murdered by Guglielmo da Carrara, and his brother Jacopino succeeded, reigning together with his nephew Francesco.

In 1355 Francesco (il Vecchio) rose against his uncle and imprisoned him. Francesco changed the traditional policy of his house by quarrelling with the Venetians, in the hope of obtaining more advantages from the Visconti of Milan. When the former were at war with Hungary over Dalmatia in 1356 and asked Carrara to help them, he refused. Their resentment was all the more bitter when at the instance of the pope he mediated between them and Hungary and brought about peace on terms unfavourable to the republic. He received Feltre, Belluno and Cividale from the Hungarian king, but in 1369 a frontier dispute led to war between him and Venice. After some defeats, Venice was victorious and dictated peace; Carrara had to pay a huge indemnity and ask the republic's pardon (1373). In 1378 he joined the league against Venice formed by Genoa, Hungary and the Scala, and took part in the siege of Chioggia. But the Venetians were victorious, and by the peace of Turin Carrara found himself in the _status quo ante_, but he bought Treviso from Austria, to whom Venice had given it in the day of her trouble. In 1385 the Venetians set the Scala against Carrara, who thereupon allied himself with the treacherous Gian Galeazzo Visconti. The Scala were expelled from Verona, but Carrara and Visconti quarrelled over the division of the spoils. Visconti was determined to capture Padua as well as Verona, and made an alliance with Venice and the house of Este for the purpose. Francesco, seeing that the situation was hopeless, surrendered to Visconti, in whose hands he remained a prisoner until his death in 1392.

Francesco Novello, his son, resisted bravely, but was compelled to surrender owing to dissensions in Padua itself. He was forced to renounce his dominions, and received a castle near Asti, but he escaped to France, and after a series of romantic adventures succeeded in making peace with Venice, who was becoming alarmed at the restless ambition and treachery of Visconti; in 1390 he raised a small armed force and seized Padua, where he was enthusiastically welcomed by the citizens, and for several years reigned there in peace. But in 1399 Visconti recommenced his wars of conquest, which were to have included Padua had not death cut short his schemes in 1402. Carrara then allied himself with Guglielmo Scala, seized Verona, and tried to capture Vicenza. But the Vicentini had always hated the Carraresi, and after a short siege gave themselves over to Venice. This led to a war between that republic and Padua, for now that Visconti was dead the Venetians had no longer any reason to protect Carrara. Padua and Verona were besieged; the latter, defended by Novello's son Jacopo, was soon captured. Novello himself, besieged in his capital, although repeatedly offered favourable terms, held out for some months hoping for help from Florence and also from certain Venetian nobles with whom he was intriguing. Hunger, plague, the treachery of his captains and internal discontent at last forced him to surrender (November 1405). He and his sons Francesco III. and Jacopo were conveyed to Venice, and at first treated with consideration; but when their intrigues with Venetian traitors for the overthrow of the republic came to light, they were tried, condemned, and strangled in prison (1406). Novello's other son Marsiglio made a desperate attempt to recover Padua in 1435, but was discovered and killed. With him the house of Carrara ceased from troubling.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G. Gattaro, "Istoria Padovana," in _Muratori's Rer. It.
Script._ xvii., a very full account; P.P. Vergerius, _Vitae
Carrarensium, ibid._ xii., untrustworthy; Verci, _Storia della Marca
Trivigiana_ (Venice, 1789); P. Litta, _Le Famiglie celebri italiane_,
vol. iii. (Milan, 1831); W. Lenel, _Studien zur Geschichte Paduas und
Veronas im XIII. Jahrh._ (Strassburg, 1893); G. Cittadella, _Storia
della Dominazione Carrarese in Padova_ (Padua, 1842); and Horatio
Brown's brilliant essay on "The Carraresi" in his _Studies in Venetian
History_ (London, 1907). (L. V.*)

CARRARA, a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Massa e Carrara, 390 ft. above sea-level, 3 m. by rail N.N.E. of Avenza, which is 16 m. E.S.E. of Spezia. Pop. (1881) 26,325; (1905) town, 38,100; commune, 48,493. The cathedral (1272-1385) is a fine Gothic building dating from the period of Pisan supremacy; the other churches, and indeed all the principal buildings of the town, are constructed of the local marble, to which the place owes its importance. The Accademia di Belle Arti contains several Roman antiquities found in the quarries, and some modern works by local sculptors. A large theatre was inaugurated in 1892. Some of the quarries were worked in Roman times (see LUNA), but were abandoned after the downfall of the western empire, until the growth of Pisan architecture and sculpture in the 12th and 13th centuries created a demand for it. The quarries now extend over almost the whole of the Apuan Alps, and some 600 of them are being worked, of which 345, with 4400 workmen, are at Carrara itself, and 50 (700 men) at Massa. The amount exported in 1899 was 180,000 tons. The quarries are served by a separate railway, with several branch lines.

CARREL, JEAN BAPTISTE NICOLAS ARMAND (1800-1836), French publicist, was born at Rouen on the 8th of May 1800. His father was a merchant in good circumstances, and he received a liberal education at the college of Rouen, afterwards attending the military school at St Cyr. He had an intense admiration for the great generals of Napoleon, and his uncompromising spirit, bold uprightness and independent views marked him as a man to be suspected. Entering the army as sub-lieutenant he took a secret but active part in the unsuccessful conspiracy of Belfort. On the outbreak of war with Spain in 1823, Carrel, whose sympathies were altogether with the liberal cause, sent in his resignation, and succeeded in effecting his escape to Barcelona. He enrolled himself in the foreign legion and fought gallantly against his former comrades. Near Figuieres the legion was compelled to surrender, and Carrel became the prisoner of his old general, Damas. There was considerable difficulty about the terms of capitulation, and one council of war condemned Carrel to death. Fortunately some informality prevented the sentence being executed, and he was soon afterwards acquitted and set at liberty. His career as a soldier being then finally closed, Carrel resolved to devote himself to literature. He came to Paris and began as secretary to Augustin Thierry, the historian. His services were found to be of great value, and he not only obtained admirable training in habits of composition, but was led to investigate for himself some of the most interesting portions of English history. His first work of importance (he had already written one or two historical abstracts) was the _History of the Counter-Revolution in England_, an exceedingly able political study of the events which culminated in the Revolution of 1688. He gradually became known as a skilful writer in various periodicals; but it was not till he formed his connexion with the _National_ that he became a power in France. The _National_ was at first conducted by Thiers, Mignet and Carrel in conjunction; but after the revolution of July, Thiers and Mignet assumed office, and the whole management fell into the hands of Carrel. Under his direction this journal became the first political organ in Paris. His judgment was unusually clear, his principles solid and well founded, his sincerity and honesty beyond question; and to these qualities he united an admirable style, lucid, precise and well balanced. As the defender of democracy he had frequently to face serious dangers. He was once in Ste Pelagie, and several times before the tribunal to answer for his journal. Nor was he in less danger from private enmities. Before his last fatal encounter he was twice engaged in duels with editors of rival papers. The dispute which led to the duel with Emile de Girardin was one of small moment, and might have been amicably arranged had it not been for some slight obstinacy on Carrel's part. The meeting took place on the morning of the 22nd of July 1836. De Girardin was wounded in the thigh, Carrel in the groin. The wound was at once seen to be dangerous, and Carrel was conveyed to the house of a friend, where he died after two days' suffering.

His works, with biographical notice by Littre, were published in five
volumes (Paris, 1858), A fine estimate of his character will be found
in Mill's _Dissertations_, vol. i.

CARRERA, JOSE MIGUEL (1785-1821), the principal leader in the early fighting for the independence of Chile, was born at Santiago on the 15th of October 1785. Sent to Spain for a military career, he served in the Spanish army in the Napoleonic war, but returned to Chile in July 1811, where his vigorous character and military experience enabled him by means of a series of coup d'etats to place himself at the head of the nationalist government. Though at first he laboured patriotically to establish a stable administration, to promote education, and to organize the Chilean forces, his selfish arrogant spirit produced dissensions between himself and other patriots, and it was his rivalry with Bernardo O'Higgins that led to the defeat of the nationalist forces at Rancagua in 1814. In the expedition of 1817, led by Jose de San Martin and Bernardo O'Higgins, which resulted in the liberation of Chile, Carrera had no share, owing to his hostility to the leaders, but he attempted to procure in the United States materials for a fresh enterprise of his own. The Argentine government, however, suspicious of his intentions, would not allow him to go to Chile, and Carrera, enraged by this treatment and by the execution of his brothers at Mendoza by the San Martin party, proceeded to organize rebellion in Argentina, but was eventually captured and shot at Mendoza on the 4th of September 1821.

See A. Valdes, _Revolucion Chilena y Campanas de la Independencia_
(Santiago, 1888), which is practically a vindication of Carrera's
career; also P.B. Figueroa, _Diccionario biografico de Chile,
1550-1887_ (Santiago, 1888), and J.B. Suarez, _Rasgos biograficos de
hombres notables de Chile_ (Valparaiso, 1886), both giving
biographical sketches of prominent characters in Chilean history.

CARRIAGE, a term which in its widest signification is used, as its derivation permits, for any form of "carrying"; thus, a person's "carriage" is still spoken of in the sense of the way he bears himself. But it is more specifically the general term for all vehicular structures employed for the purposes of transport of merchandise and movable goods and of human beings. Such vehicles are generally mounted on wheels, but the sledge and the litter are types of the exception to this rule. Within this definition a vast variety of forms is included, ranging from the coster's barrow and rude farm-cart up to the luxuriously appointed sleeping-cars of railways and the state carriages of royal personages. A narrower application, however, limits the term to such vehicles as are used for the conveyance of persons and are drawn by horses, and it is with carriages in this restricted sense that we are here concerned. Tramcars, railway carriages and motor-cars are dealt with in other articles.

_History_.--A wheeled carriage appears to have been in very general use in Egypt at an early period, called a car or chariot (q.v.); in the Bible the word is usually translated "chariot." The bodies of these chariots were small, usually containing only two persons standing upright. They were very light, and could be driven at great speed. They were narrow, and therefore suitable to Eastern cities, in which the streets were very narrow, and to mountainous roads, which were often only 4 ft. wide. From Egypt the use of chariots spread into other countries, and they were used in war in large numbers on the great plains of Asia. We read of the 900 chariots of Jabin, king of Canaan; how David took 700 chariots from the kings of Syria and 1000 from the king of Zobah. Solomon had 1400 chariots, and his merchants supplied northern Syria and the surrounding countries with chariots brought out of Egypt at 600 shekels (about L50) apiece. From the ancient sculptures preserved from Nineveh and Babylon, some of which are in the British Museum, we observe the use of chariots continued for the purpose of hunting as well as for war. Homer describes the chief warriors on both sides at the siege of Troy as going into battle and fighting from their chariots. The Roman nation as it increased in power adopted the car, though chiefly for purposes of show and state. A beautiful marble model of one of these still exists at the Vatican in Rome: a copy of it and the horses drawing it is in the museum at South Kensington. The war chariots used by the Persians were larger; the idea seems to have been to form a sort of turret upon the car, from which several warriors might shoot or throw their spears. These chariots were provided with curved blades projecting from the axle-trees. Alexander the Great, king of Macedon, invading Asia was met upon the banks of the river Indus by King Porus, in whose army were a number of elephants and also several thousand chariots. On Alexander's return from India towards Persia, he travelled in a chariot drawn by eight horses, followed by an innumerable number of others covered with rich carpets and purple coverlets. After Alexander's death a funeral car was prepared to convey his body from Babylon to Alexandria in Egypt, and this car has perhaps never been excelled in the annals of coach-building. It was designed by the celebrated architect Hieronymus, and took two years to build. It was 18 ft. long and 12 ft. wide, on four massive wheels, and drawn by sixty-four mules, eight abreast. The car was composed of a platform, with a lofty roof, supported by eighteen columns, and was profusely adorned with drapery, gold and jewels; round the edge of the roof was a row of golden bells; in the centre was a throne, and before it the coffin; around were placed the weapons of war and the armour that Alexander had used.