Chapter XV: Part 15

The Presbyterian form of church government was adopted under the influence of refugees from the persecution of Protestantism on the continent. It was formally sanctioned in St Helier and St Peter Port by Queen Elizabeth; and in 1603 King James enacted that the whole of the islands "should quietly enjoy their said liberty." During his reign, however, disputes arose. An Episcopal party had been formed in Jersey, and in 1619 David Bandinel was declared dean of the island. A body of canons which he drew up agreeable to the discipline of the Church of England was accepted after considerable modification by the people of his charge; but the inhabitants of Guernsey maintained their Presbyterian practices. Of the hold which this form of Protestantism had got on the minds of the people even in Jersey abundant proof is afforded by the general character of the worship at the present day.

In the great struggle between king and parliament, Presbyterian Guernsey supported the parliament; in Jersey, however, there were at first parliamentarian and royalist factions. Sir Philip de Carteret, lieutenant-governor, declared for the king, but Dean Bandinel and Michael Lempriere, a leader of the people, headed the parliamentary party. They received a commission for the apprehension of Carteret, who established himself in Elizabeth Castle; but after some fighting had taken place he died in the castle in August 1643. Meanwhile in Guernsey Sir Peter Osborne, the governor, was defying the whole island and maintaining himself in Castle Cornet. A parliamentarian governor, Leonard Lydcott, arrived in Jersey immediately after Sir Philip de Carteret's death. But the dowager Lady Carteret was holding Mont Orgueil; George Carteret, Sir Philip's nephew, arrived from St Malo to support the royalist cause, and Lydcott and Lempriere presently fled to England. George Carteret established himself as lieutenant-governor and bailiff. Bandinel was imprisoned in Mont Orgueil, and killed himself in trying to escape. Jersey was now completely royalist. In 1646 the prince of Wales, afterwards Charles II., arrived secretly at Jersey, and remained over two months at Elizabeth Castle. He went on to France, but returned in 1649, having been proclaimed king by George Carteret, and at Elizabeth Castle he signed the declaration of his claims to the throne on the 29th of October. In 1651, when Charles had fled to France again after the battle of Worcester, parliamentarian vessels of war appeared at Jersey. The islanders, weary of the tyrannical methods of their governor, now Sir George Carteret, offered little resistance. On the 15th of December the royalist remnant yielded up Elizabeth Castle; and at the same time Castle Cornet, Guernsey, which had been steadily held by Osborne, capitulated. In each case honourable terms of surrender were granted. Both islands had suffered severely from the struggle, and the people of Guernsey, appealing to Cromwell on the ground of their support of his cause, complained that two-thirds of the land was out of cultivation, and that they had lost "their ships, their traffic and their trading." After the Restoration there was considerable improvement, and in the reign of James II. the islanders got a grant of wool for the manufacture of stockings--4000 tods[1] of wool being annually allowed to Jersey, 2000 to Guernsey, 400 to Alderney and 200 to Sark. Alderney, which had been parliamentarian, was granted after the Restoration to the Carteret family; and it continued to be governed independently till 1825.

By William of Orange the neutrality of the islands was abolished in 1689, and during the war between England and France (1778-1783) there were two unsuccessful attacks on Jersey, in 1779 and 1781, the second, under Baron de Rullecourt, being famous for the victory over the invaders due to the bravery of the young Major Peirson, who fell when the French were on the point of surrender. During the revolutionary period in France the islands were the home of many refugees. In the 18th century various attempts were made to introduce the English custom-house system; but proved practically a failure, and the islands throve on smuggling and privateering down to 1800.

AUTHORITIES.--Heylin, _Relation of two Journeys_ (1656); P. Falle,
_Account of the Island of Jersey_ (1694; notes, &c., by E. Durell,
Jersey, 1837); J. Duncan, _History of Guernsey_ (London, 1841); P. le
Geyt, _Sur les constitutions, les lois et les usages de cette ile_
[Jersey], ed. R.P. Marett (Jersey, 1846-1847); F.B. Tupper,
_Chronicles of Castle Cornet, Guernsey_ (2nd ed. London, 1851), and
_History of Guernsey and its Bailiwick_ (Guernsey, 1854); S.E.
Hoskins, _Charles II. in the Channel Islands_ (London, 1854), and
other works; Delacroix, _Jersey, ses antiquites, &c._ (Jersey, 1859);
T. le Cerf, _L'archipel des Iles Normandes_ (Paris, 1863); G. Dupont,
_Le Cotentin et ses iles_ (Caen, 1870-1885); J.P.E. Havet, _Les Cours
royales des Iles Normandes_ (Paris, 1878); E. Pegot-Ogier, _Histoire
des Iles de la Manche_ (Paris, 1881); C. Noury, _Geologie de Jersey_
(Paris and Jersey, 1886); D.T. Ansted and R.G. Latham, _Channel
Islands_ (1865; 3rd ed., rev. by E.T. Nicolle, London, 1893), the
principal general work of reference; Sir E. MacCulloch, _Guernsey
Folklore_, ed. Edith F. Carey (London, 1903); E.F. Carey, _Channel
Islands_ (London, 1904).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] A tod generally equalled 28 lb.

CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY (1780-1842), American divine and philanthropist, was born in Newport, Rhode Island, on the 7th of April 1780. His maternal grandfather was William Ellery, a signer of the Declaration of Independence; his mother, Lucy Ellery, was a remarkable woman; and his father, William Channing, was a prominent lawyer in Newport. Channing had as a child a refined delicacy of feature and temperament, and seemed to have inherited from his father simple and elegant tastes, sweetness of temper, and warmth of affection, and from his mother that strong moral discernment and straightforward rectitude of purpose and action which formed so striking a feature of his character. From his earliest years he delighted in the beauty of the scenery of Newport, and always highly estimated its influence upon his spiritual character. His father was a strict Calvinist, and Dr Samuel Hopkins, one of the leaders of the old school Calvinists, was a frequent guest in his father's house. He was, even as a child, he himself says, "quite a theologian, and would chop logic with his elders according to the fashion of that controversial time." He prepared for college in New London under the care of his uncle, the Rev. Henry Channing, and in 1794, about a year after the death of his father, entered Harvard College. Before leaving New London he came under religious influences to which he traced the beginning of his spiritual life. In his college vacations he taught at Lancaster, Massachusetts, and in term time he stinted himself in food that he might need less exercise and so save time for study,--an experiment which undermined his health, producing acute dyspepsia. From his college course he thought that he got little good, and said "when I was in college, only three books that I read were of any moment to me: ... Ferguson on _Civil Society_, ... Hutcheson's _Moral Philosophy_, and Price's _Dissertations_. Price saved me from Locke's philosophy."

After graduating in 1798, he lived at Richmond, Virginia, as tutor in the family of David Meade Randolph, United States marshal for Virginia. Here he renewed his ascetic habits and spent much time in theological study, his mind being greatly disturbed in regard to Trinitarian teachings in general and especially prayer to Jesus. He returned to Newport in 1800 "a thin and pallid invalid," spent a year and a half there, and in 1802 went to Cambridge as regent (or general proctor) in Harvard; in the autumn of 1802 he began to preach, having been approved by the Cambridge Association. On the 1st of June 1803, having refused the more advantageous pastorate of Brattle Street church, he was ordained pastor of the Federal Street Congregational church in Boston. At this time it seems certain that his theological views were not fixed, and in 1808, when he preached a sermon at the ordination of the Rev. John Codman (1782-1847), he still applied the title "Divine Master" to Jesus Christ, and used such expressions as "shed for souls" of the blood of Jesus, and "the Son of God himself left the abodes of glory and expired a victim of the cross." But his sermon preached in 1819 at Baltimore at the ordination of the Rev. Jared Sparks was in effect a powerful attack on Trinitarianism, and was followed in 1819 by an article in _The Christian Disciple_, "Objections to Unitarian Christianity Considered," and in 1820 by another, "The Moral Argument against Calvinism"--an excellent evidence of the moral (rather than the intellectual) character of Unitarian protest. In 1814 he had married a rich cousin, Ruth Gibbs, but refused to make use of the income from her property on the ground that clergymen were so commonly accused of marrying for money.

He was now entering on his public career. Even in 1810, in a Fast Day sermon, he warned his congregation of Bonaparte's ambition; two years later he deplored "this country taking part with the oppressor against that nation which has alone arrested his proud career of victory"; in 1814 he preached a thanksgiving sermon for the overthrow of Napoleon; and in 1816 he preached a sermon on war which led to the organization of the Massachusetts Peace Society. His sermon on "Religion, a Social Principle," helped to procure the omission from the state constitution of the third article of Part I., which made compulsory a tax for the support of religious worship. In 1821 he delivered the Dudleian lecture on the "Evidences of Revealed Religion" at Harvard, of whose corporation he had been a member since 1813; he had received its degree of S.T.D. in 1820. In August 1821 he undertook a journey to Europe, in the course of which he met in England many distinguished men of letters, especially Wordsworth and Coleridge. Both of these poets greatly influenced him personally and by their writings, and he prophesied that the Lake poets would be one of the greatest forces in a forming spiritual reform. Coleridge wrote of him, "He has the love of wisdom and the wisdom of love."

On his return to America in August 1823, Dr Channing resumed his duties as pastor, but with a more decided attention than before to literature and public affairs, especially after receiving as colleague, in 1824, the Rev. Ezra Stiles Gannett. In 1830, because of his wife's bad health, Channing went to the West Indies. Negro slavery, as he saw it there, and as he had seen it in Richmond, more than thirty years before, so strongly impressed him that he began to write his book _Slavery_ (1835). In this he insists that "not what is profitable, but what is right" is "the first question to be proposed by a rational being"; that slavery ought to be discussed "with a deep feeling of responsibility, and so done as not to put in jeopardy the peace of the slave-holding states"; that "man cannot be justly held and used as property"; that the tendency of slavery is morally, intellectually, and domestically, bad; that emancipation, however, should not be forced on slave-holders by governmental interference, but by an enlightened public conscience in the South (and in the North), if for no other reason, because "slavery should be succeeded by a friendly relation between master and slave; and to produce this the latter must see in the former his benefactor and deliverer." He declined to identify himself with the Abolitionists, whose motto was "Immediate Emancipation" and whose passionate agitation he thought unsuited to the work they were attempting. The moderation and temperance of his presentation of the anti-slavery cause naturally resulted in some misunderstanding and misstatement of his position, such as is to be found in Mrs Chapman's _Appendix_ to the _Autobiography of Harriet Martineau_, where Channing is represented as actually using his influence on behalf of slavery. In 1837 he published _Thoughts on the Evils of a Spirit of Conquest, and on Slavery: A Letter on the Annexation of Texas to the United States_, addressed to Henry Clay, and arguing that the Texan revolt from Mexican rule was largely the work of land-speculators, and of those who resolved "to throw Texas open to slave-holders and slaves"; that the results of annexation must be war with Mexico, embroiling the United States with England and other European powers, and at home the extension and perpetuation of slavery, not alone in Texas but in other territories which the United States, once started at conquest, would force into the Union. But he still objected to political agitation by the Abolitionists, preferring "unremitting appeals to the reason and conscience," and, even after the prominent part he took in the meeting in Faneuil Hall, called to protest against the murder of Elijah P. Lovejoy, he wrote to _The Liberator_, counselling the Abolitionists to "disavow this resort to force by Mr Lovejoy." Channing's pamphlet _Emancipation_ (1840) dealt with the success of emancipation in the West Indies, as related in Joseph John Gurney's _Familiar Letters to Henry Clay of Kentucky, describing a Winter in the West Indies_ (1840), and added his own advice "that we should each of us bear our conscientious testimony against slavery," and that the Free States "abstain as rigidly from the use of political power against Slavery in the States where it is established, as from exercising it against Slavery in foreign communities," and should free themselves "from any obligation to use the powers of the national or state governments in any manner whatever for the support of slavery." In 1842 he published _The Duty of the Free States_, or _Remarks Suggested by the Case of the Creole_, a careful analysis of the letter of complaint from the American to the British government, and a defence of the position taken by the British government. On the 1st of August 1842 he delivered at Lenox, Massachusetts, an address celebrating the anniversary of emancipation in the British West Indies. Two months later, on the 2nd of October 1842, he died at Bennington, Vermont.

Physically Channing was short and slight; his eyes were unnaturally large; his voice wonderfully clear, and like his face, filled with devotional spirit. He was not a great pastor, and lacked social tact, so that there were not many people who became his near friends; but by the few who knew him well, he was almost worshipped. As a preacher Channing was often criticised for his failure to deal with the practical everyday duties of life. But his sermons are remarkable for their rare simplicity and gracefulness of style as well as for the thought that they express. The first open defence of Unitarians was not based on doctrinal differences but on the peculiar nature of the attack on them made in June 1815 by the conservatives in the columns of _The Panoplist_, where it was stated that Unitarians were "operating only in secret, ... guilty of hypocritical concealment of their sentiments." His chief objection to the doctrine of the Trinity (as stated in his sermon at the ordination of the Rev. Jared Sparks) was that it was no longer used philosophically, as showing God's relation to the triple nature of man, but that it had lapsed into mere Tritheism. To the name "Unitarian" Channing objected strongly, thinking "unity" as abstract a word as "trinity" and as little expressing the close fatherly relation of God to man. It is to be noted that he strongly objected to the growth of "Unitarian orthodoxy" and its increasing narrowness. His views as to the divinity of Jesus were based on phrases in the Gospels which to his mind established Christ's admission of inferiority to God the Father,--for example, "Knoweth no man, neither the Son, but the Father"; at the same time he regarded Christ as "the sinless and spotless son of God, distinguished from all men by that infinite peculiarity--freedom from moral evil." He believed in the pre-existence of Jesus, and that it differed from the pre-existence of other souls in that Jesus was actually conscious of such pre-existence, and he reckoned him one with God the Father in the sense of spiritual union (and not metaphysical mystery) in the same way that Jesus bade his disciples "Be ye one, even as I am one." Bunsen called him "the prophet in the United States for the presence of God in mankind." Channing believed in historic Christianity and in the story of the resurrection, "a fact which comes to me with a certainty I find in few ancient histories." He also believed in the miracles of the Gospels, but held that the Scriptures were not inspired, but merely records of inspiration, and so saw the possibility of error in the construction put upon miracles by the ignorant disciples. But in only a few instances did he refuse full credence of the plain gospel narrative of miracles. He held, however, that the miracles were facts and not "evidences" of Christianity, and he considered that belief in them followed and did not lead up to belief in Christianity. His character was absolutely averse from controversy of any sort, and in controversies into which he was forced he was free from any theological odium and continually displayed the greatest breadth and catholicity of view. The differences in New England churches he considered were largely verbal, and he said that "would Trinitarians tell us what they mean, their system would generally be found little else than a mystical form of the Unitarian doctrine."

His opposition to Calvinism was so great that even in 1812 he declared "existence a curse" if Calvinism be true. Possibly his boldest and most elaborate defence of Unitarianism was his sermon on _Unitarianism most favourable to Piety_, preached in 1826, criticizing as it did the doctrine of atonement by the sacrifice of an "infinite substitute"; and the Election Sermon of 1830 was his greatest plea for spiritual and intellectual freedom.

Channing's reputation as an author was probably based largely on his publication in _The Christian Examiner_ of _Remarks on the Character and Writings of John Milton_ (1826), _Remarks on the Life and Character of Napoleon Bonaparte_ (1827-1828), and an _Essay on the Character and Writings of Fenelon_ (1829). An _Essay on Self-Culture_ (1838) was an address introducing the Franklin Lectures delivered in Boston September 1838. Channing was an intimate friend of Horace Mann, and his views on the education of children are stated, by no less an authority than Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, to have anticipated those of Froebel. His _Complete Works_ have appeared in various editions (5 vols., Boston, 1841; 2 vols., London, 1865; 1 vol., New York, 1875).

Among members of his family may be mentioned his two nephews William Henry (1810-1884), son of his brother Francis Dana, and William Ellery, commonly known as Ellery (1818-1901), son of his brother Walter, a Boston physician (1786-1876). The former, whose daughter married Sir Edwin Arnold, the English poet, became a Unitarian pastor, for some time in America, and also in England, where he died; he was deeply interested in Christian Socialism, and was a constant writer, translating Jouffroy's _Ethics_ (1840), and assisting in editing the _Memoirs of Margaret Fuller_ (1852); and he wrote the biography of his uncle (see O.B. Frothingham's _Memoir_, 1886). Ellery Channing married Margaret Fuller's sister (1842), and besides critical essays and poems published an intimate sketch of Thoreau in 1873.

See the _Memoir_ by William Henry Channing (3 vols., London, 1848;
republished in one volume, New York, 1880); Elizabeth Palmer Peabody,
_Reminiscences of the Rev. William Ellery Channing, D.D_. (Boston,
1880), intimate but inexact; John White Chadwick, _William Ellery
Channing, Minister of Religion_ (Boston, 1903); and William M. Salter,
"Channing as a Social Reformer" (_Unitarian Review_, March 1888).
(R. We.)

CHANSONS DE GESTE, the name given to the epic chronicles which take so prominent a place in the literature of France from the 11th to the 15th century. Gaston Paris defined a chanson de geste as a song the subject of which is a series of historical facts or _gesta_. These facts form the centre around which are grouped sets of poems, called cycles, and hence the two terms have in modern criticism become synonymous for the epic family to which the hero of the particular group or cycle belongs. The earliest chansons de geste were founded on the fusion of the Teutonic spirit, under a Roman form, into the new Christian and French civilization. It seems probable that as early as the 9th century epic poems began to be chanted by the itinerant minstrels who are known as jongleurs. It is conjectured that in a base Latin fragment of the 10th century we possess a translation of a poem on the siege of Girona. Gaston Paris dates from this lost epic the open expression of what he calls "the epic fermentation" of France. But the earliest existing chanson de geste is also by far the noblest and most famous, the _Chanson de Roland_; the conjectural date of the composition of this poem has been placed between the years 1066 and 1095. That the author, as has been supposed, was one of the conquerors of England, it is perhaps rash to assert, but undoubtedly the poem was composed before the First Crusade, and the writer lived at or near the sanctuary of Mont Saint-Michel. The _Chanson de Roland_ stands at the head of modern French literature, and its solidity and grandeur give a dignity to the whole class of poetry of which it is the earliest and by far the noblest example. But it is in the crowd of looser and later poems, less fully characterized, less steeped in the individuality of their authors, that we can best study the form of the typical chanson de geste. These epics sprang from the soil of France; they were national and historical; their anonymous writers composed them spontaneously, to a common model, with little regard to the artificial niceties of style. The earlier examples, which succeed the _Roland_, are unlike that great work in having no plan, no system of composition. They are improvisations which wander on at their own pace, whither accident may carry them. This mass of medieval literature is monotonous, primitive and superficial. As Leon Gautier has said, in the rudimentary psychology of the chansons de geste, man is either entirely good or entirely bad. There are no fine shades, no observation of character. The language in which these poems are composed is extremely simple, without elaboration, without ornament. Everything is sacrificed to the telling of a story by a narrator of little skill, who helps himself along by means of a picturesque, but almost childish fancy, and a primitive sentiment of rhythm. Two great merits, however, all the best of these poems possess, force and lucidity; and they celebrate, what they did much to create, that unselfish elevation of temper which we call the spirit of chivalry.

Perhaps the most important cycle of chansons de geste was that which was collected around the name of Charlemagne, and was known as the _Geste du roi_. A group of this cycle dealt with the history of the mother of the emperor, and with Charlemagne himself down to the coming of Roland. To this group belong _Bertha Greatfoot_ and _Aspremont_, both of the 12th century, and a variety of chansons dealing with the childhood of Charlemagne and of Ogier the Dane. A second group deals with the struggle of Charlemagne with his rebellious vassals. This is what has been defined as the Feudal Epic; it includes _Girars de Viane_ and _Ogier the Dane_, both of the 13th century, or the end of the 12th. A third group follows Charlemagne and his peers to the East. It is in the principal of these poems, _The Pilgrimage to Jerusalem_, that Alexandrine verse first makes its appearance in French literature. This must belong to the beginning of the 12th century. A fourth group, antecedent to the Spanish war, is of the end of the 12th century and the beginning of the 13th; it includes _Aiquin_, _Fierabras_ and _Otinel_. The fifth class discusses the war in Spain, and it is to this that _Roland_ belongs; there are different minor epics dealing with the events of Roncevaux, and independent chansons of _Gui de Bourgogne_, _Gaidon_ and _Anseis de Carthage_. The _Geste du Roi_ comprises a sixth and last group, proceeding with events up to the death of Charlemagne; this contains _Huon de Bordeaux_ and a vast number of poems of minor originality and importance.

Another cycle is that of Duke William Shortnose, _La Geste de Guillaume_. This includes the very early and interesting _Departure of the Aimeri Children_, _Aliscans_ and _Rainoart_. It is thought that this cycle, which used to be called the _Geste de Garin de Monglane_, is less artificial than the others; it deals with the heroes of the South who remained faithful in their vassalage to the throne. The poems belonging to this cycle are extremely numerous, and some of them are among the earliest which survive. These chansons find their direct opposites in those which form the great cycle of _La Geste de Doon de Mayence_, sometimes called "la faulse geste," because it deals with the feats of the traitors, of the rebellious family of Ganelon. This is the geste of the Northmen, always hostile to the Carlovingian dynasty. It comprises some of the most famous of the chansons, in particular _Parise la duchesse_ and _The Four Sons of Aymon_. Several of its sections are the production of a known poet, Raimbert of Paris. From this triple division of the main body of the chansons de geste into _La Geste du Roi_, _La Geste de Guillaume_ and _La Geste de Doon_, are excluded certain poems of minor importance,--some provincial, such as _Amis and Amiles_ and _Garin_, some dealing with the Crusades, such as _Antioche_, and some which are not connected with any existing cycle, such as _Ciperis de Vignevaux_; most of this last category, however, are works of the decadence.

The analysis which is here sketched is founded on the latest theories of Leon Gautier, who has given the labour of a lifetime to the investigation of this subject. The wealth of material is baffling to the ordinary student; of the medieval chansons de geste many hundreds of thousands of lines have been preserved. The habit of composing became in the 14th century, as has been said, no longer an art but a monomania. Needless to add that a very large proportion of the surviving poems have never yet been published. All the best of the early chansons de geste are written in ten-syllable verse, divided into stanzas or _laisses_ of different length, united by a single assonance. Rhyme came in with the 13th century, and had the effect in languid bards of weakening the narrative; the sing-song of it led at last to the abandonment of verse in favour of plain historical prose. The general character of the chansons de geste, especially of those of the 12th century, is hard, coarse, inflexible, like the march of rough men stiffened by coats of mail. There is no art and little grace, but a magnificent display of force. These poems enshrine the self-sufficiency of a young and powerful people; they are full of Gallic pride, they breathe the spirit of an indomitable warlike energy. All their figures belong to the same social order of things, and all illustrate the same fighting aristocracy. The moving principle is that of chivalry, and what is presented is, invariably, the spectacle of the processional life of a medieval soldier. The age described is a disturbed one; the feudal anarchy of Europe is united, for a moment, in defending western civilization against the inroads of Asia, against "the yellow peril." But it is a time of transition in Europe also, and Charlemagne, the immortal but enfeebled emperor, whose beard is whiter than lilies, represents an old order of things against which the rude barons of the North are perpetually in successful revolt. The loud cry of the dying Ronald, as E. Quinet said, rings through the whole poetical literature of medieval France; it is the voice of the individuality of the great vassal, who, in the decay of the empire, stands alone with himself and with his sword.

AUTHORITIES,--Leon Gautier, _Les Epopees francaises_ (4 vols.,
1878-1894); Gaston Paris, _La Litterature francaise au moyen age_
(1890); Paul Meyer, _Recherches sur l'epopee francaise_ (1867); G.
Paris, _Histoire poetique de Charlemagne_ (1865); A. Longnon, _Les
Quatre Fits Aimon_, &c. (1879). (E. G.)

CHANT (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. _cantare_, to sing; an old form is "chaunt"), a song or melody, particularly one sung according to the rules of church service-books. For an account of the chant or _cantus firmus_ of the Roman Church see PLAIN-SONG. In the English church "chants" are the tunes set to the unmetrical verses of the psalms and canticles. The chant consisted of an "intonation" followed by a reciting note of indefinite length; a "mediation" closed the first part of the verse, leading to a second reciting note; a "termination" closed the second part of the verse. In the English chant the "intonation" disappeared. Chants are "single," if written for one verse only, "double," if for two. "Quadruple" chants for four verses have also been written.

CHANTABUN, or CHANTABURI, the principal town of the Siamese province of the same name, on the E. side of the Gulf of Siam, in 102 deg. 6' E., 12 deg. 38' N. Pop. about 5000. The town lies about 12 m. from the sea on a river which is navigable for boats and inside the bar of which there is good anchorage for light-draft vessels. The trade is chiefly in rubies and sapphires from the mines of the Krat and Pailin districts, and in pepper, of which about 500 tons are exported annually. Cardamoms and rosewood are also exported. In 1905 Chantabun was made the headquarters of a high commissioner with jurisdiction extending over the coast districts from the Nam Wen on the East to Cape Liant on the West, which were thus united to form a provincial division (_Monton_). In 1893 Chantabun was occupied by a French force of four hundred men, a step taken by France as a guarantee for the execution by Siam of undertakings entered into by the treaty of that year. The occupation, which was merely military and did not affect the civil government, lasted until January 1905, when, in accordance with the provisions of the Franco-Siamese treaty of 1904, the garrison of occupation was withdrawn. Chantabun has been since the 17th century, and still is, a stronghold of the Roman Catholic missionaries, and the Christian element amongst the population is greater here than anywhere else in Siam.

CHANTADA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Lugo, on the left bank of the Rio de Chantada, a small right-hand tributary of the river Mino, and on the main road from Orerse, 18 m. S. by W., to Lugo, 28 m. N. by E. Pop. (1900) 15,003. Chantada is the chief town of the fertile region between the Mino and the heights of El Faro, which mark the western border of the province. Despite the lack of railway communication, it has a thriving trade in grain, flax, hemp, and dairy produce.

CHANTAGE (a Fr. word from _chanter_, to sing, slang for a criminal making an avowal under examination), a demand for money backed by the threat of scandalous revelations, the French equivalent of "blackmail."

CHANTARELLE, an edible fungus, known botanically as _Cantharellus cibarius_, found in woods in summer. It is golden yellow, somewhat inversely conical in shape and about 2 in. broad and high. The cap is flattened above with a central depression and a thick lobed irregular margin. Running down into the stem from the cap are a number of shallow thick gills. The substance of the fungus is dry and opaque with a peculiar smell suggesting ripe apricots or plums. The flesh is whitish tinged with yellow. The chantarelle is sold in the markets on the continent of Europe, where it forms a regular article of food, but seems little known in Britain though often plentiful in the New Forest and elsewhere. Before being cooked they should be allowed to dry, and then thrown into boiling water. They may then be stewed in butter or oil, or cut up small and stewed with meat. No fungus requires more careful preparation.

See M.C. Cooke, _British Edible Fungi_, (1891), pp. 104-105.

CHANTAVOINE, HENRI (1850- ), French man of letters, was born at Montpellier on the 6th of August 1850, and was educated at the Ecole Normale Superieure. After teaching in the provinces he moved, in 1876, to the Lycee Charlemagne in Paris, and subsequently became professor of rhetoric at the Lycee Henri IV. and _maitre de conferences_ at the Ecole Normale at Sevres. He was associated with the _Nouvelle Revue_ from its foundation in 1879, and he joined the _Journal des debats_ in 1884. His poems include _Poemes sinceres_ (1877), _Satires contemporaines_ (1881), _Ad memoriam_ (1884), _Au fil des jours_ (1889).

CHANTILLY, a town of northern France, in the department of Oise, 25 m. N. of Paris on the Northern railway to St Quentin. Pop. (1906) 4632. It is finely situated to the north of the forest of Chantilly and on the left bank of the river Nonette, and is one of the favourite Parisian resorts. Its name was long associated with the manufacture, which has now to a great extent decayed, of lace and blonde; it is still more celebrated for its chateau and its park (laid out originally by A. Le Notre in the second half of the 17th century), and as the scene of the great annual races of the French Jockey Club. The chateau consists of the palace built from 1876 to 1885 and of an older portion adjoining it known as the chatelet. The old castle must have been in existence in the 13th century, and in the reign of Charles VI. the lordship belonged to Pierre d'Orgemont, chancellor of France. In 1484 it passed to the house of Montmorency, and in 1632 from that family to the house of Conde. Louis II., prince de Conde, surnamed the Great, was specially attached to the place, and did a great deal to enhance its beauty and splendour. Here he enjoyed the society of La Bruyere, Racine, Moliere, La Fontaine, Boileau, and other great men of his time; and here his steward Vatel killed himself in despair, because of a hitch in the preparations for the reception of Louis XIV. The stables close to the racecourse were built from 1719 to 1735 by Louis-Henri, duke of Bourbon. Of the two splendid mansions existing at that period known as the grand chateau and the chatelet, the former was destroyed about the time of the Revolution, but the latter, built for Anne de Montmorency by Jean Bullant, still remains as one of the finest specimens of Renaissance architecture in France. The chateau d'Enghien, facing the entrance to the grand chateau, was built in 1770 as a guest-house. On the death in 1830 of the duke of Bourbon, the last representative of the house of Conde, the estate passed into the hands of Henri, duc d'Aumale, fourth son of Louis Philippe. In 1852 the house of Orleans was declared incapable of possessing property in France, and Chantilly was accordingly sold by auction. Purchased by the English bankers, Coutts & Co., it passed back into the hands of the duc d'Aumale, in 1872. By him a magnificent palace, including a fine chapel in the Renaissance style, was erected on the foundations of the ancient grand chateau and in the style of the chatelet. It is quadrilateral in shape, consisting of four unequal sides flanked by towers and built round a courtyard. The whole group of buildings as well as the pleasure-ground behind them, known as the Parterre de la Voliere, is surrounded by fosses supplied with water from the Nonette. On the terrace in front of the chateau there is a bronze statue of the constable Anne de Montmorency. The duc d'Aumale installed in the chatelet a valuable library, specially rich in incunabula and 16th century editions of classic authors, and a collection of the paintings of the great masters, besides many other objects of art. By a public act in 1886 he gave the park and chateau with its superb collections to the Institute of France in trust for the nation, reserving to himself only a life interest; and when he died in 1897 the Institute acquired full possession.

CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS LEGATT (1782-1841), English sculptor, was born on the 7th of April 1782 at Norton near Sheffield, where his father, a carpenter, cultivated a small farm. His father died when he was eight years of age; and his mother having married again, his profession was left to be chosen by his friends. In his sixteenth year he was on the point of being apprenticed to a grocer in Sheffield, when, having seen some wood-carving in a shop-window, he requested to be made a carver instead, and was accordingly placed with a Mr Ramsey, wood-carver in Sheffield. In this situation he became acquainted with Raphael Smith, a distinguished draftsman in crayon, who gave him lessons in painting; and Chantrey, eager to commence his course as an artist, procured the cancelling of his indentures, and went to try his fortune in Dublin and Edinburgh, and finally (1802) in London. Here he first obtained employment as an assistant wood-carver, but at the same time devoted himself to portrait-painting, bust-sculpture, and modelling in clay. He exhibited pictures at the Academy for some years from 1804, but from 1807 onwards devoted himself mainly to sculpture. The sculptor Nollekens showed particular zeal in recognizing his merits. In 1807 he married his cousin, Miss Wale, who had some property of her own. His first imaginative work in sculpture was the model of the head of Satan, which was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1808. He afterwards executed for Greenwich hospital four colossal busts of the admirals Duncan, Howe, Vincent and Nelson; and so rapidly did his reputation spread that the next bust which he executed, that of Horne Tooke, procured him commissions to the extent of L12,000. From this period he was almost uninterruptedly engaged in professional labour. In 1819 he visited Italy, and became acquainted with the most distinguished sculptors of Florence and Rome. He was chosen an associate (1815) and afterwards a member (1818) of the Royal Academy, received the degree of M.A. from Cambridge, and that of D.C.L. from Oxford, and in 1835 was knighted. He died after an illness of only two hours' duration on the 25th of November 1841, having for some years suffered from disease of the heart, and was buried in a tomb constructed by himself in the church of his native village.

The works of Chantrey are extremely numerous. The principal are the statues of Washington in the State-house at Boston, U.S.A.; of George III. in the Guildhall, London; of George IV. at Brighton; of Pitt in Hanover Square, London; of James Watt in Westminster Abbey and in Glasgow; of Roscoe and Canning in Liverpool; of Dalton in Manchester; of Lord President Blair and Lord Melville in Edinburgh, &c. Of his equestrian statues the most famous are those of Sir Thomas Munro in Calcutta, and the duke of Wellington in front of the London Exchange. But the finest of Chantrey's works are his busts, and his delineations of children. The figures of two children asleep in each other's arms, which form a monumental design in Lichfield cathedral, have always been lauded for beauty, simplicity and grace. So is also the statue of the girlish Lady Louisa Russell, represented as standing on tiptoe and fondling a dove in her bosom. Both these works appear, in design, to have owed something to Stothard; for Chantrey knew his own scantiness of ideal invention or composition, and on system sought aid from others for such attempts. In busts, his leading excellence is facility--a ready unconstrained air of life, a prompt vivacity of ordinary expression. Allan Cunningham and Weekes were his chief assistants, and were indeed the active executants of many works that pass under Chantrey's name. Chantrey was a man of warm and genial temperament, and is said to have borne noticeable though commonplace resemblance to the usual portraits of Shakespeare.

_Chantrey Bequest._--By the will dated the 31st of December 1840, Chantrey (who had no children) left his whole residuary personal estate after the decease or on the second marriage of his widow (less certain specified annuities and bequests) in trust for the president and trustees of the Royal Academy (or in the event of the dissolution of the Royal Academy, to such society as might take its place), the income to be devoted to the encouragement of British fine art in painting and sculpture only, by "the purchase of works of fine art of the highest merit ... that can be obtained." The funds might be allowed to accumulate for not more than five years; works by British or foreign artists, dead or living, might be acquired, so long as such works were entirely executed within the shores of Great Britain, the artists having been in residence there during such execution and completion. The prices to be paid were to be "liberal," and no sympathy for an artist or his family was to influence the selection or the purchase of works, which were to be acquired solely on the ground of intrinsic merit. No commission or orders might be given: the works must be finished before purchase. Conditions were made as to the exhibition of the works, in the confident expectation that as the intention of the testator was to form and establish a "public collection of British Fine Art in Painting and Sculpture," the government or the country would provide a suitable gallery for their display; and an annual sum of L300 and L50 was to be paid to the president of the Royal Academy and the secretary respectively, for the discharge of their duties in carrying out the provisions of the will.

Lady Chantrey died in 1875, and two years later the fund became available for the purchase of paintings and sculptures. The capital sum available amounted to L105,000 in 3% Consols, which (since reduced to 2-1/2%) produces an available annual income varying from L2500 to L2100. Galleries in the Victoria and Albert Museum at South Kensington were at first adopted as the depository of the works acquired, until in 1898 the Royal Academy arranged with the treasury, on behalf of the government, for the transference of the collection to the National Gallery of British Art, which had been erected by Sir Henry Tate at Millbank. It was agreed that the "Tate Gallery" should be its future home, and that "no power of selection or elimination is claimed on behalf of the trustees and director of the National Gallery" (Treasury Letter, 18054-98, 7th December 1898) in respect of the pictures and sculptures which were then to be handed over and which should, from time to time, be sent to augment the collection. Inasmuch as it was felt that the provision that all works must be complete to be eligible for purchase militated against the most advantageous disposition of the fund in respect of sculpture, in the case of wax models or plaster casts before being converted into marble or bronze, it was sought in the action of _Sir F. Leighton_ v. _Hughes_ (tried by Mr Justice North, judgment May 7th, 1888, and in the court of appeal, before the master of the rolls, Lord Justice Cotton, and Lord Justice Fry, judgment June 4th, 1889--the master of the rolls dissenting) to allow of sculptors being commissioned to complete in bronze or marble a work executed in wax or plaster, such "completion" being more or less a mechanical process. The attempt, however, was abortive.

A growing discontent with the interpretation put by the Royal Academy upon the terms of the will as shown in the works acquired began to find expression more than usually forcible and lively in the press during the year 1903, and a debate raised in the House of Lords by the earl of Lytton led to the appointment of a select committee of the House of Lords, which sat from June to August 1904. The committee consisted of the earls of Carlisle, Lytton, and Crewe, and Lords Windsor, Ribblesdale, Newton, and Killanin, and the witnesses represented the Royal Academy and representative art institutions and art critics. The report (ordered to be printed on the 8th of August 1904) made certain recommendations with a view to the prevention of certain former errors of administration held to have been sustained, but dismissed other charges against the Academy. In reply thereto a memorandum was issued by the Royal Academy (February 1905, ordered to be printed on the 7th of August 1905--Paper 166) disagreeing with certain recommendations, but allowing others, either intact or in a modified form.

Up to 1905 inclusive 203 works had been bought--all except two from living painters--at a cost of nearly L68,000. Of these, 175 were in oil-colours, 12 in water-colours, and 16 sculptures (10 in bronze and 6 marble).

See _The Administration of the Chantrey Bequest_, by D.S. MacColl
(l6mo, London, 1904), a highly controversial publication by the
leading assailant of the Royal Academy: _Chantrey and His Bequest_, by
Arthur Fish, a complete illustrated record of the purchases, &c.
(London, 1904); _The Royal Academy, its Uses and Abuses_, by H.J.
Laidlay (London, 1898), controversial; _Report from the Select
Committee of the House of Lords on the Chantrey Trust; together with
the Proceedings of the Committee, Minutes of Evidence and Appendix_
(Wyman & Sons, 1904), and _Index_ (separate publication, 1904).

CHANT ROYAL, one of the fixed forms of verse invented by the ingenuity of the poets of medieval France. It is composed of five strophes, identical in arrangement, of eleven verses each, and of an envoi of five verses. All the strophes are written on the five rhymes exhibited in the first strophe, the entire poem, therefore, consisting of sixty lines in the course of which five rhymes are repeated. It has been conjectured that the chant royal is an extended ballade, or rather a ballade conceived upon a larger scale; but which form preceded the other appears to be uncertain. On this point Henri de Croi, who wrote about these forms of verse in his _Art et science de rhetorique_ (1493), throws no light. He dwells, however, on the great dignity of what he calls the "Champt Royal," and says that those who defy with success the ardour of its rules deserve crowns and garlands for their pains. Etienne Pasquier (1529-1615) points out the fact that the Chant Royal, by its length and the rigidity of its structure, is better fitted than the ballade for solemn and pompous themes. In Old French, the most admired chants royal are those of Clement Marot; his _Chant royal chrestien_, with its refrain

"Sante au corps, et Paradis a l'ame,"

was celebrated. Theodore de Banville defines the chant royal as essentially belonging to ages of faith, when its subjects could be either the exploits of a hero of royal race or the processional splendours of religion. La Fontaine was the latest of the French poets to attempt the chant royal, until it was resuscitated in modern times.

This species of poem was unknown in English medieval literature and was only introduced into Great Britain in the last quarter of the 19th century. The earliest chant royal in English was that published by Edmund Gosse in 1877; it is here given to exemplify the structure and rhyme-arrangement of the form:--

THE PRAISE OF DIONYSUS

"Behold, above the mountains there is light,
A streak of gold, a line of gathering fire,
And the dim East hath suddenly grown bright
With pale aerial flame, that drives up higher
The lurid mists which all the night long were
Breasting the dark ravines and coverts bare;
Behold, behold! the granite gates unclose,
And down the vales a lyric people flows,
Who dance to music, and in dancing fling
Their frantic robes to every wind that blows,
_And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._

Nearer they press, and nearer still in sight,
Still dancing blithely in a seemly choir;
Tossing on high the symbol of their rite,
The cone-tipp'd thyrsus of a god's desire;
Nearer they come, tall damsels flushed and fair,
With ivy circling their abundant hair,
Onward, with even pace, in stately rows,
With eye that flashes, and with cheek that glows,
And all the while their tribute-songs they bring,
And newer glories of the past disclose
_And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._

The pure luxuriance of their limbs is white,
And flashes clearer as they draw the nigher,
Bathed in an air of infinite delight,
Smooth without wound of thorn, or fleck of mire,
Borne up by song as by a trumpet's blare,
Leading the van to conquest, on they fare,
Fearless and bold, whoever comes or goes,
These shining cohorts of Bacchantes close,
Shouting and shouting till the mountains ring,
And forests grim forget their ancient woes,
_And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._

And youths there are for whom full many a night
Brought dreams of bliss, vague dreams that haunt and tire
Who rose in their own ecstasy bedight,
And wandered forth through many a scourging briar,
And waited shivering in the icy air,
And wrapped the leopard-skin about them there,
Knowing for all the bitter air that froze,
The time must come, that every poet knows,
When he shall rise and feel himself a king,
And follow, follow where the ivy grows,
_And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._

But oh! within the heart of this great flight,
Whose ivory arms hold up the golden lyre?
What form is this of more than mortal height?
What matchless beauty, what inspired ire?
The brindled panthers know the prize they bear,
And harmonize their steps with tender care;
Bent to the morning, like a living rose,
The immortal splendour of his face he shows;
And, where he glances, leaf and flower and wing
Tremble with rapture, stirred in their repose,
_And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._

_Envoi_.

Prince of the flute and ivy, all thy foes
Record the bounty that thy grace bestows,
But we, thy servants, to thy glory cling,
And with no frigid lips our songs compose,
_And deathless praises to the Vine-God sing._"

In the middle ages the chant royal was largely used for the praise of the Virgin Mary. Eustache Deschamps (1340-1410) distinguishes these Marian chants royaux, which were called "serventois," by the absence of an envoi. These poems are first mentioned by Rutebeuf, a _trouvere_ of the 13th century. The chant royal is practically unknown outside French and English literature. (E. G.)

CHANTRY (Fr. _chanterie_, from _chanter_, to sing; Med. Lat. _cantuaria_), a small chapel built out from a church, endowed in pre-Reformation times for the express purpose of maintaining priests for the chanting of masses for the soul of the founder or of some one named by him. It generally contained the tomb of the founder, and, as the officiator or mass-priest was often unconnected with the parochial clergy, had an entrance from the outside. The word passed through graduations of meaning. Its first sense was singing or chanting. Then it meant the endowment funds, next the priests, and then the church or chapel itself.

CHANUTE, a city of Neosho county, Kansas, U.S.A., 1 m. from the Neosho river, and about 120 m. S.S.W. of Kansas city. Pop. (1890) 2826; (1900) 4208, of whom 210 were foreign-born and 171 were negroes; (1910 census) 9272. Chanute is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways, the former having large repair shops. The city is in the Kansas-Oklahoma oil and gas field, and is surrounded by a fine farming and dairying region, in which special attention is given to the raising of small fruit; oil, gas, cement rock and brick shale are found in the vicinity. Among the city's manufactures are refined oil, Portland cement, vitrified brick and tile, glass, asphalt, ice, cigars, drilling machinery, and flour. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks, a natural gas plant, and an electric lighting plant. Four towns--New Chicago, Tioga, Chicago Junction and Alliance--were started here about the same time (1870). In 1872 they were consolidated, and the present name was adopted in honour of Octave Chanute (b. 1832), the civil engineer and aeronautist (see FLIGHT AND FLYING), then the engineer of the Lawrence, Leavenworth & Galveston railway (now part of the Atchison system). Chanute was incorporated as a city of the third class in 1873, and its charter was revised in 1888. Natural gas and oil were found here in 1899, and Chanute became one of the leaders of the Kansas independent refineries in their contest with the Standard Oil Company.