Chapter XVI: Part 16

CHANZY, ANTOINE EUGENE ALFRED (1823-1883), French general, was born at Nouart (Ardennes) on the 18th of March 1823. The son of a cavalry officer, he was educated at the naval school at Brest, but enlisted in the artillery, and, subsequently passing through St Cyr, was commissioned in the Zouaves in 1843. He saw a good deal of fighting in Algeria, and was promoted lieutenant in 1848, and captain in 1851. He became _chef de bataillon_ in 1856, and served in the Lombardy campaign of 1859, being present at Magenta and Solferino. He took part in the Syrian campaign of 1860-61 as a lieutenant-colonel; and as colonel commanded the 48th regiment at Rome in 1864. He returned to Algeria as general of brigade, assisted to quell the Arab insurrection, and commanded the subdivisions of Bel Abbes and Tlemcen in 1868. Although he had acquired a good professional reputation, he was in bad odour at the war office on account of suspected contributions to the press, and at the outbreak of the Franco-German War he was curtly refused a brigade command. After the revolution, however, the government of national defence called him from Algeria, made him a general of division, and gave him command of the XVI. corps of the army of the Loire. (For the operations of the Orleans campaign which followed, see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR.) The Loire army won the greatest success of the French during the whole war at Coulmiers, and followed this up with another victorious action at Patay; in both engagements General Chanzy's corps took the most brilliant part. After the second battle of Orleans and the separation of the two wings of the French army, Chanzy was appointed to command that in the west, designated the second army of the Loire. His enemies, the grand duke of Mecklenburg, Prince Frederick Charles, and General von der Tann, all regarded Chanzy as their most formidable opponent. He displayed conspicuous moral courage and constancy, not less than technical skill, in the fighting from Beaugency to the Loire, in his retreat to Le Mans, and in retiring to Laval behind the Mayenne. As Gambetta was the soul, Chanzy was the strong right arm of French resistance to the invader. He was made a grand officer of the Legion of Honour, and was elected to the National Assembly. At the outbreak of the Commune, Chanzy, then at Paris, fell into the hands of the insurgents, by whom he was forced to give his parole not to serve against them. It was said that he would otherwise have been appointed instead of MacMahon to command the army of Versailles. A ransom of L40,000 was also paid by the government for him. In 1872 he became a member of the committee of defence and commander of the VII. army corps, and in 1873 was appointed governor of Algeria, where he remained for six years. In 1875 he was elected a life senator, in 1878 received the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, and in 1879, without his consent, was nominated for the presidency of the republic, receiving a third of the total votes. For two years he was ambassador at St Petersburg, during which time he received many tokens of respect, not only from the Russians, but also from the German emperor, William I., and Prince Bismarck. He died suddenly, while commanding the VI. army corps (stationed nearest to the German frontier), at Chalons-sur-Marne, on the 4th of January 1883, only a few days after Gambetta, and his remains received a state funeral. He was the author of _La Deuxieme Armee de la Loire_ (1872). Statues of General Chanzy have been erected at Nouart and Le Mans.

CHAOS, in the Hesiodic theogony, the infinite empty space, which existed before all things (_Theog._ 116, 123). It is not, however, a mere abstraction, being filled with clouds and darkness; from it proceed Erebus and Nyx (Night), whose children are Aether (upper air) and Hemera (Day). In the Orphic cosmogony the origin of all goes back to Chronos, the personification of time, who produces Aether and Chaos. In the Aristophanic parody (_Birds_, 691) the winged Eros in conjunction with gloomy Chaos brings forth the race of birds. The later Roman conception (Ovid, _Metam._ i. 7) makes Chaos the original undigested, amorphous mass, into which the architect of the world introduces order and harmony, and from which individual forms are created. In the created world (cosmos, order of the universe) the word has various meanings:--the universe; the space between heaven and earth; the under-world and its ruler. Metaphorically it is used for the immeasurable darkness, eternity, and the infinite generally. In modern usage "chaos" denotes a state of disorder and confusion.

CHAPBOOK (from the O. Eng. _chap_, to buy and sell), the comparatively modern name applied by booksellers and bibliophiles to the little stitched tracts written for the common people and formerly circulated in England, Scotland and the American colonies by itinerant dealers or chapmen, consisting chiefly of vulgarized versions of popular stories, such as _Tom Thumb_, _Jack the Giant Killer_, _Mother Shipton_, and _Reynard the Fox_--travels, biographies and religious treatises. Few of the older chapbooks exist. Samuel Pepys collected some of the best and had them bound into small quarto volumes, which he called Vulgaria; also four volumes of a smaller size, which he lettered _Penny Witticisms, Penny Merriments, Penny Compliments_ and _Penny Godlinesses_. The early chapbooks were the direct descendants of the black-letter tracts of Wynkyn de Worde. It was in France that the printing-press first began to supply reading for the common people. At the end of the 15th century there was a large popular literature of farces, tales in verse and prose, satires, almanacs, &c., stitched together so as to contain a few leaves, and circulated by itinerant booksellers, known as colporteurs. Most early English chapbooks are adaptations or translations of these French originals, and were introduced into England early in the 16th century. The chapbooks of the 17th century present us with valuable illustrations of the manners of the time; one of the best known is that containing the story of Dick Whittington. Others which had a great vogue are _Jack the Giant Killer, Little Red Riding Hood_, and _Mother Shipton_. Those of the 18th century are far inferior in every way, both as regards the literature and the printing; and unfortunately it is these which form the bulk of what is now known to us in collections as chapbooks. They have never exercised any great influence in England nor received much attention, owing no doubt to their poor literary character. In France, on the other hand, their French equivalents have been the object of close and systematic study, and _L'Histoire des livres populaires ou de la litterature du colportage_ by Charles Nisard (1854) goes deeply into the subject. Amongst English books may be mentioned _Notices of Fugitive Tracts and Chapbooks_, by J.O. Halliwell-Phillipps (1849); _Chapbooks of the 18th Century_, by John Ashton (1882), and some reprints by the Villon Society in 1885. The word "chapbook" has not been noticed earlier than 1824, when Dibdin, the celebrated bibliographer, described a work as being "a chapbook, printed in rather a neat black-letter."

CHAPE (from the Fr. _chape_, a hood, cope or sheath), a cover or metal plate, such as the cap upon the needle in the compass, also the transverse guard of a sword which protects the hand. From the original meaning comes the use of the word as a support or catch to attach one thing to another, as the hook on a belt to which the sword is fastened. The word is also used for the tip of a fox's brush.

CHAPEL, a place of religious worship,[1] a name properly applied to that of a Christian religious body, but sometimes to any small temple of pagan worship (Lat. _sacellum_). The word is derived through the O. Fr. _chapele_, modern _chapelle_, from the Late Lat. _capelle_ or _cappella_, diminutive of _cappa_, a cape, particularly that of a monk. This word was transferred to any sanctuary containing relics, in the early history of the Frankish Church, because the cloak of St Martin, _cappa brevior Sancti Martini_, one of the most sacred relics of the Frankish kings, was carried in a sanctuary or shrine wherever the king went; and oaths were taken on it (see Ducange, _Glossarium_, s.v. _Capella_). Such a sanctuary was served by a priest, who was hence called _capellanus_, from which is derived the English "chaplain" (q.v.). The strict application of the word to a sanctuary containing relics was extended to embrace any place of worship other than a church, and it was synonymous, therefore, with "oratory" (_oratorium_), especially one attached to a palace or to a private dwelling-house. The celebrated Sainte Chapelle in Paris, attached to what is now the Palais de Justice, well illustrates the early and proper meaning of the word. It was built (consecration, 1248) by St Louis of France to contain the relic of the Crown of Thorns, ransomed by the king from the Venetians, who held it in pawn from the Latin emperor of the East, John of Brienne, lately dead. The chapel served as the sanctuary of the relic lodged in the upper chapel, and the whole building was attached as the place of worship to the king's palace. This, the primary meaning, survives in the chapels usually placed in the aisles of cathedrals and large churches. They were originally built either to contain relics of a particular saint to whom they were dedicated, or the tomb of a particular family.

In the Church of England the word is applied to a private place of worship, attached either to the palaces of the sovereign, "chapels royal," or to the residence of a private person, to a college, school, prison, workhouse, &c. Further, the word has particular legal applications, though in each case the building might be and often is styled a church. These are places of worship supplementary to a parish church, and may be either "chapels of ease," to ease or relieve the mother-church and serve those parishioners who may live far away, "parochial chapels," the "churches" of ancient divisions of a very large and widely scattered parish, or "district chapels," those of a district of a parish divided under the various church building acts. A "free chapel" is one founded by the king and by his authority, and visited by him and not by the bishop. A "proprietary chapel" is one that belongs to a private person. They are anomalies to the English ecclesiastical law, have no parish rights, and can be converted to other than religious purposes, but a clergyman may be licensed to perform duty in such a place of worship. In the early and middle part of the 19th century such proprietary chapels were common, but they have practically ceased to exist. "Chapel" was early and still is in England the general name of places of worship other than those of the established Church, but the application of "church" to all places of worship without distinction of sect is becoming more and more common. The word "chapel" was in this restricted sense first applied to places of worship belonging to the Roman Church in England, and was thus restricted to those attached to foreign embassies, or to those of the consorts of Charles I. and II. and James II., who were members of that church. The word is still frequently the general term for Roman Catholic churches in Great Britain and always so in Ireland. The use of "chapel" as a common term for all Nonconformist places of worship was general through most of the 19th century, so that "church and chapel" was the usual phrase to mark the distinction between members of the established Church and those of Nonconformist bodies. Here the widened use of "church" noticed above has been especially marked. Most of the recent buildings for worship erected by Nonconformist bodies will be found to be styled Wesleyan, Congregational, &c., churches. It would appear that while the word "chapel" was not infrequent in the early history of Nonconformity, "meeting-house" was the more usual term.

From the architectural point of view the addition of chapels to a cathedral or large church assumes some historical importance in consequence of the changes it involved in the plan. It was the introduction of the apsidal chapels in the churches of France which eventually led to the _chevet_ or cluster of eastern chapels in many of the great cathedrals, and also sometimes to the extension of the transept so as to include additional apsidal chapels on the east side. In France, and to a certain extent in Italy, the multiplication of chapels led to their being placed on the north and south side of the aisles, and in some cases, as at Albi in France, to the suppression of the aisles and the instalment of the chapels in their place. The chapels of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge are sometimes of large dimensions and architecturally of great importance, that of Christ Church being actually the cathedral of Oxford; among others may be mentioned the chapel of Merton College, and the new chapel of Exeter College, both in Oxford, and the chapel of King's College, Cambridge, which is roofed over with perhaps the finest fan-vault in England. (See VAULT, Plate II., fig. 19.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The only other English sense is that of a printer's workshop, or
the body of compositors in it, who are presided over by a "father of
the chapel."

CHAPELAIN, JEAN (1595-1674), French poet and man of letters, the son of a notary, was born in Paris on the 4th of December 1595. His father destined him for his own profession; but his mother, who had known Ronsard, had determined otherwise. At an early age Chapelain began to qualify himself for literature, learning, under Nicolas Bourbon, Greek and Latin, and teaching himself Italian and Spanish. Having finished his studies, he was engaged for a while in teaching Spanish to a young nobleman. He was then appointed tutor to the two sons of a M. de la Trousse, grand provost of France. Attached for the next seventeen years to the family of this gentleman, the administration of whose fortune was wholly in his hands, he seems to have published nothing during this period, yet to have acquired a great reputation as a probability. His first work given to the public was a preface for the _Adone_ of Marini, who printed and published that notorious poem at Paris. This was followed by an excellent translation of Mateo Aleman's novel, _Guzman de Alfarache_, and by four extremely indifferent odes, one of them addressed to Richelieu. The credit of introducing the law of the dramatic unities into French literature has been claimed for many writers, and especially for the Abbe d'Aubignac, whose _Pratique du theatre_ appeared in 1657. The theory had of course been enunciated in the _Art poetique_ of J.C. Scaliger in 1561, and subsequently by other writers, but there is no doubt that it was the action of Chapelain that transferred it from the region of theory to that of actual practice. In a conversation with Richelieu in about 1632, reported by the abbe d'Olivet, Chapelain maintained that it was indispensable to maintain the unities of time, place and action, and it is explicitly stated that the doctrine was new to the cardinal and to the poets who were in his pay. French classical drama thus owes the riveting of its fetters to Chapelain. Rewarded with a pension of a thousand crowns, and from the first an active member of the newly-constituted Academy, Chapelain drew up the plan of the grammar and dictionary the compilation of which was to be a principal function of the young institution, and at Richelieu's command drew up the _Sentiments de l'Academie sur le Cid_. In 1656 he published, in a magnificent form, the first twelve cantos of his celebrated epic _La Pucelle_,[1] on which he had been engaged during twenty years. Six editions of the poem were disposed of in eighteen months. But this was the end of the poetic reputation of Chapelain, "the legist of Parnassus". Later the slashing satire of Boileau (in this case fairly master of his subject) did its work, and Chapelain ("_Le plus grand poete Francais qu' ait jamais ete et du plus solide jugement_," as he is called in Colbert's list) took his place among the failures of modern art.

Chapelain's reputation as a critic survived this catastrophe, and in 1663 he was employed by Colbert to draw up an account of contemporary men of letters, destined to guide the king in his distribution of pensions. In this pamphlet, as in his letters, he shows to far greater advantage than in his unfortunate epic. His prose is incomparably better than his verse; his criticisms are remarkable for their justice and generosity; his erudition and kindliness of heart are everywhere apparent; the royal attention is directed alike towards the author's firmest friends and bitterest enemies. To him young Racine was indebted not only for kindly and seasonable counsel, but also for that pension of six hundred livres which was so useful to him. The catholicity of his taste is shown by his _De la lecture des vieux romans_ (pr. 1870), in which he praises the _chansons de geste_, forgotten by his generation. Chapelain refused many honours, and his disinterestedness in this and other cases makes it necessary to receive with caution the stories of Menage and Tallemant des Reaux, who assert that he was in his old age a miser, and that a considerable fortune was found hoarded in his apartments when he died on the 22nd of February 1674.

There is a very favourable estimate of Chapelain's merits as a critic
in George Saintsbury's _History of Criticism_, ii. 256-261. An
analysis of _La Pucelle_ is given in pp. 23-79 of Robert Southey's
_Joan of Arc_. See also _Les Lettres de Jean Chapelain_ (ed. P.
Tanuzey de Larroque, 1880-1882); _Lettres inedites ... a P.D. Huet_
(1658-1673, ed. by L.G. Pellissier, 1894); Julien Duchesne, _Les
Poemes epiques du XVIIe siecle_ (1870); the abbe A. Fabre, _Les
Ennemis de Chapelain_ (1888), _Chapelain et nos deux premieres
Academies_ (1890); and A. Muehlan,_ Jean Chapelain_ (1893).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The last twelve cantos of _La Pucelle_ were edited (1882) from
the MS. with corrections and a preface in the author's autograph, in
the _Bibliotheque Nationale_, by H. Herluison. Another edition, by E.
de Molenes (2 vols.), was published in 1892.

CHAPEL-EN-LE-FRITH, a market town in the High Peak parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, 20 m. S.E. of Manchester, on the London & North-Western and Midland railways. Pop. (1901) 4626. It lies in an upland valley of the Peak district, the hills of which rise above 1200 ft. in its immediate vicinity. There are paper-works and ironworks, and brewing is carried on. The foundation of the church of St Thomas of Canterbury is attributed to the foresters of the royal forest or frith of the Peak early in the 13th century; and from this the town took name. After the defeat of the Scottish forces at Preston by Cromwell in 1648, it is said that 1500 prisoners were confined in the church at Chapel-en-le-Frith.

CHAPEL HILL, a town of Orange county, North Carolina, U.S.A., about 28 m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1900) 1099; (1910) 1149. It is served by a branch of the Southern railway, connecting at University, 10 m. distant, with the Greensboro & Goldsboro division. The town is best known as the seat of the University of North Carolina (see NORTH CAROLINA), whose campus contains 48 acres. There are cotton and knitting mills and lumber interests of some importance. Chapel Hill was settled late in the 18th century, and was first incorporated in 1851.

CHAPELLE ARDENTE (Fr. "burning chapel"), the chapel or room in which the corpse of a sovereign or other exalted personage lies in state pending the funeral service. The name is in allusion to the many candles which arc lighted round the catafalque. This custom is first chronicled as occurring at the obsequies of Dagobert I. (602-638).

CHAPERON, originally a cap or hood (Fr. _chape_) worn by nobles and knights of the Garter in full dress, and after the 16th century by middle-aged ladies. The modern use of the word is of a married or elderly lady (cf. "duenna") escorting or protecting a young and unmarried girl in public places and in society.

CHAPLAIN, strictly one who conducts service in a chapel (q.v.), i.e. a priest or minister without parochial charge who is attached for special duties to a sovereign or his representatives (ambassadors, judges, &c.), to bishops, to the establishments of nobles, &c., to institutions (e.g. parliament, congress, colleges, schools, workhouses, cemeteries), or to the army and the navy. In some cases a parish priest is also appointed to a chaplaincy, but in so far as he is a chaplain he has no parochial duties. Thus a bishop of the English Church appoints examining chaplains who conduct the examination of candidates for holy orders; such officials generally hold ordinary benefices also. The British sovereign has 36 "Chaplains in Ordinary," who perform service at St James's in rotation, as well as "Honorary Chaplains" and "Chaplains of the Household." There are also royal chaplains in Scotland and Ireland. The Scottish chaplains in ordinary are on the same basis as those in England, but the Irish chaplains are attached to the household of the lord-lieutenant. The Indian civil service appoints a number of clergymen of the Church of England and the Church of Scotland. These clergymen are known as Chaplains, and are subject to the same conditions as other civil servants, being eligible for a retiring pension after 23 years of service. Chaplains are also appointed under the foreign office to embassies, legations, consulates, &c.

Workhouse chaplains are appointed by overseers and guardians on the direction of the Local Government Board, to which alone such chaplains are responsible. Prison chaplains are appointed by the home secretary.

In the British army there are two kinds of chaplains, permanent and occasional. The former, described as Chaplains to the Forces, hold commissions, serving throughout the empire except in India: they include a Chaplain-General who ranks as a major-general, and four classes of subordinate chaplains who rank respectively as colonels, lieutenant-colonels, majors and captains. There are about 100 in all. Special chaplains (Acting Chaplains for Temporary Service) may be appointed by a secretary of state under the Army Chaplains Act of 1868 to perform religious service for the army in particular districts. The permanent chaplains may be Church of England, Roman Catholic, or Presbyterian; Wesleyans (if they prefer not to accept commissions) may be appointed Acting Chaplains. The Church of England chaplains report to the chaplain-general, while other chaplains report to the War Office direct. In the navy, chaplains are likewise appointed but do not hold official rank. They must have a special ecclesiastical licence from the archbishop of Canterbury. In 1900 a Chaplains' Department of the Territorial Force was formed; there is no denominational restriction.

In the armies and navies of all Christian countries chaplains are officially appointed, with the single exception of France, where the office was abolished on the separation of Church and State. In the army of the United States of America chaplains are originally appointed by the president, and subsequently are under the authority of the secretary of war, who receives recommendations as regards transfer from department commanders. By act of Congress, approved in April 1904, the establishment of chaplains was fixed at 57 (15 with the rank of major), 12 for the artillery corps and 1 each for the cavalry and infantry regiments. There is no distinction of sect. In the U.S. navy the chaplains are 24 in number, of whom 13 rank as lieutenants, 7 as commanders, 4 as captains.

In the armies of Roman Catholic countries there are elaborate regulations. Where the chaplains are numerous a chaplain-major is generally appointed, but in the absence of special sanction from the pope such officer has no spiritual jurisdiction. Moreover, chaplains must be approved by the ordinary of the locality. In Austria there are Roman Catholic, Greek Church, Jewish and Mahommedan chaplains. The Roman Catholic chaplains are classed as parish priests, curates and assistants, and are subject to an army Vicar Apostolic. In war, at an army headquarters there are a "field-rabbi," a "military imam," an evangelical minister, as well as the Roman Catholic hierarchy. By a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda (May 15, 1906), the archbishop of Westminster is the ecclesiastical superior of all commissioned Roman Catholic chaplains in the British army and navy, and he is empowered to negotiate with the civil authorities concerning appointments.

In Germany, owing to the fact that there are different religions in the different states, there is no uniform system. In Prussia there are two _Feldprobste_ (who are directly under the war minister), one Lutheran, one Roman Catholic. The latter is a titular bishop, and has sole spiritual authority over soldiers. There are also army corps and divisional chaplains of both faiths. Bavaria and Saxony, both Roman Catholic states, have no special spiritual hierarchy; in Bavaria, the archbishop of Munich and Freysing is _ex officio_ bishop of the army.

The origin of the office of _capellanus_ or _cappellanus_ in the medieval church is generally traced (see Du Cange, _Gloss, med. et infim. Latin_.) to the appointment of persons to watch over the sacred cloak (_cappa_ or _capella_) of St Martin of Tours, which was preserved as a relic by the French monarchs. In time of war this cloak was carried with the army in the field, and was kept in a tent which itself came to be known as a _cappella_ or _capella_. It is also suggested that the _capella_ was simply the tent or canopy which the French kings erected over the altar in the field for the worship of the soldiers. However this may be, the name _capellanus_ was generally applied to those who were in charge of sacred relics: such officials were also known as _custodes, martyrarii, cubicularii_. Thus we hear of a _custos palatinae capellae_ who was in charge of the palace chapel relics, and guarded them in the field; the chief of these _custodes_ was sometimes called the _archicapellanus_. From the care of sacred relics preserved in royal chapels, &c. (_sacella_ or _capellae_), the office of _capellanus_ naturally extended its scope until it covered practically that of the modern court chaplain, and was officially recognized by the Church. These clerics became the confessors in royal and noble houses, and were generally chosen from among bishops and other high dignitaries. The arch-chaplain not only received jurisdiction within the royal household, but represented the authority of the monarch in religious matters, and also acquired more general powers. In France the arch-chaplain was grand-almoner, and both in France and in the Holy Roman Empire was also high chancellor of the realm. The office was abolished in France at the Revolution in 1789, revived by Pius IX. in 1857, and again abolished on the fall of the Second Empire.

The Roman Catholic Church also recognizes a class of beneficed chaplains, supported out of "pious foundations" for the specific duty of saying, or arranging for, certain masses, or taking part in certain services. These chaplains are classified as follows:--_Ecclesiastical_, if the foundation has been recognized officially as a benefice; _Lay_, if this recognition has not been obtained; _Mercenary_, if the person who has been entrusted with the duty of performing or procuring the desired celebration is a layman (such persons also are sometimes called "Lay Chaplains"); _Collative_, if it is provided that a bishop shall collate or confer the right to act upon the accepted candidate, who otherwise could not be recognized as an ecclesiastical chaplain. There are elaborate regulations governing the appointment and conduct of these chaplains.

Other classes of chaplains are:--(1) _Parochial_ or _Auxiliary Chaplains_, appointed either by a parish priest (under a provision authorized by the Council of Trent) or by a bishop to take over certain specified duties which he is unable to perform; (2) _Chaplains of Convents_, appointed by a bishop: these must be men of mature age, should not be regulars unless secular priests cannot be obtained, and are not generally to be appointed for life; (3) _Pontifical Chaplains_, some of whom (known as Private Chaplains) assist the pontiff in the celebration of Mass; others attached directly to the pope are honorary private chaplains who occasionally assist the private chaplains, private clerics of the chapel, common chaplains and supernumerary chaplains. The common chaplains were instituted by Alexander VII., and in 1907 were definitely allowed the title "Monsignore" by Pius X.

CHAPLIN, HENRY (1841- ), English statesman, second son of the Rev. Henry Chaplin, of Blankney, Lincolnshire, was educated at Harrow and Christ Church, Oxford, and first entered parliament in 1868 as Conservative member for Mid-Lincolnshire. He represented this constituency (which under the Redistribution Act of 1885 became the Sleaford division) till 1906, when he was defeated, but in 1907 returned to the House of Commons as member for Wimbledon at a by-election. In 1876 he married a daughter of the 3rd duke of Sutherland, but lost his wife in 1881. Outside the House of Commons he was a familiar figure on the Turf, winning the Derby with Hermit in 1867; and in politics from the first the "Squire of Blankney" took an active interest in agricultural questions, as a popular and typical representative of the English "country gentleman" class. Having filled the office of chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in Lord Salisbury's short ministry of 1885-1886, he became president of the new Board of Agriculture in 1889, with a seat in the cabinet, and retained this post till 1892. In the Conservative cabinet of 1895-1900 he was president of the Local Government Board, and was responsible for the Agricultural Rates Act of 1896; but he was not included in the ministry after its reconstruction in 1900. Mr Chaplin had always been an advocate of protectionism, being in this respect the most prominent inheritor of the views of Lord George Bentinck; and when in 1903 the Tariff Reform movement began under Mr Chamberlain's leadership, he gave it his enthusiastic support, becoming a member of the Tariff Commission and one of the most strenuous advocates in the country of the new doctrines in opposition to free trade.

CHAPMAN, GEORGE (? 1559-1634), English poet and dramatist, was born near Hitchin. The inscription on the portrait which forms the frontispiece of _The Whole Works of Homer_ states that he was then (1616) fifty-seven years of age. Anthony a Wood (_Athen. Oxon._ ii. 575) says that about 1574 he was sent to the university, "but whether first to this of Oxon, or that of Cambridge, is to me unknown; sure I am that he spent some time in Oxon, where he was observed to be most excellent in the Latin and Greek tongues, but not in logic or philosophy." Chapman's first extant play, _The Blind Beggar of Alexandria_, was produced in 1596, and two years later Francis Meres mentions him in _Palladis Tamia_ among the "best for tragedie" and the "best for comedie." Of his life between leaving the university and settling in London there is no account. It has been suggested, from the detailed knowledge displayed in _The Shadow of Night_ of an incident in Sir Francis Vere's campaign, that he saw service in the Netherlands. There are frequent entries with regard to Chapman in Henslowe's diary for the years 1598-1599, but his dramatic activity slackened during the following years, when his attention was chiefly occupied by his _Homer_. In 1604 he was imprisoned with John Marston for his share in _Eastward Ho_, in which offence was given to the Scottish party at court. Ben Jonson voluntarily joined the two, who were soon released. Chapman seems to have enjoyed favour at court, where he had a patron in Prince Henry, but in 1605 Jonson and he were for a short time in prison again for "a play." Beaumont, the French ambassador in London, in a despatch of the 5th of April 1608, writes that he had obtained the prohibition of a performance of _Biron_ in which the queen of France was represented as giving Mademoiselle de Verneuil a box on the ears. He adds that three of the actors were imprisoned, but that the chief culprit, the author, had escaped (Raumer, _Briefe aus Paris_, 1831, ii. 276). Among Chapman's patrons was Robert Carr, earl of Somerset, to whom he remained faithful after his disgrace. Chapman enjoyed the friendship and admiration of his great contemporaries. John Webster in the preface to _The White Devil_ praised "his full and heightened style," and Ben Jonson told Drummond of Hawthornden that Fletcher and Chapman "were loved of him." These friendly relations appear to have been interrupted later, for there is extant in the Ashmole MSS. an "Invective written by Mr George Chapman against Mr Ben Jonson." Chapman died in the parish of St Giles in the Fields, and was buried on the 12th of May 1634 in the churchyard. A monument to his memory was erected by Inigo Jones. (M. Br.)

Chapman, his first biographer is careful to let us know, "was a person of most reverend aspect, religious and temperate, qualities rarely meeting in a poet"; he had also certain other merits at least as necessary to the exercise of that profession. He had a singular force and solidity of thought, an admirable ardour of ambitious devotion to the service of poetry, a deep and burning sense at once of the duty implied and of the dignity inherent in his office; a vigour, opulence, and loftiness of phrase, remarkable even in that age of spiritual strength, wealth and exaltation of thought and style; a robust eloquence, touched not unfrequently with flashes of fancy, and kindled at times into heat of imagination. The main fault of his style is one more commonly found in the prose than in the verse of his time,--a quaint and florid obscurity, rigid with elaborate rhetoric and tortuous with labyrinthine illustration; not dark only to the rapid reader through closeness and subtlety of thought, like Donne, whose miscalled obscurity is so often "all glorious within," but thick and slab as a witch's gruel with forced and barbarous eccentricities of articulation. As his language in the higher forms of comedy is always pure and clear, and sometimes exquisite in the simplicity of its earnest and natural grace, the stiffness and density of his more ambitious style may perhaps be attributed to some pernicious theory or conceit of the dignity proper to a moral and philosophic poet. Nevertheless, many of the gnomic passages in his tragedies and allegoric poems are of singular weight and beauty; the best of these, indeed, would not discredit the fame of the very greatest poets for sublimity of equal thought and expression: witness the lines chosen by Shelley as the motto for a poem, and fit to have been chosen as the motto for his life.

The romantic and sometimes barbaric grandeur of Chapman's _Homer_ remains attested by the praise of Keats, of Coleridge and of Lamb; it is written at a pitch of strenuous and laborious exaltation, which never flags or breaks down, but never flies with the ease and smoothness of an eagle native to Homeric air. From his occasional poems an expert and careful hand might easily gather a noble anthology of excerpts, chiefly gnomic or meditative, allegoric or descriptive. The most notable examples of his tragic work are comprised in the series of plays taken, and adapted sometimes with singular licence, from the records of such part of French history as lies between the reign of Francis I. and the reign of Henry IV., ranging in date of subject from the trial and death of Admiral Chabot to the treason and execution of Marshal Biron. The two plays bearing as epigraph the name of that famous soldier and conspirator are a storehouse of lofty thought and splendid verse, with scarcely a flash or sparkle of dramatic action. The one play of Chapman's whose popularity on the stage survived the Restoration is _Bussy d'Ambois_ (d'Amboise),--a tragedy not lacking in violence of action or emotion, and abounding even more in sweet and sublime interludes than in crabbed and bombastic passages. His rarest jewels of thought and verse detachable from the context lie embedded in the tragedy of _Caesar and Pompey_, whence the finest of them were first extracted by the unerring and unequalled critical genius of Charles Lamb. In most of his tragedies the lofty and labouring spirit of Chapman may be said rather to shine fitfully through parts than steadily to pervade the whole; they show nobly altogether as they stand, but even better by help of excerpts and selections. But the excellence of his best comedies can only be appreciated by a student who reads them fairly and fearlessly through, and, having made some small deductions on the score of occasional pedantry and occasional indecency, finds in _All Fools_, _Monsieur d'Olive_, _The Gentleman Usher_, and _The Widow's Tears_ a wealth and vigour of humorous invention, a tender and earnest grace of romantic poetry, which may atone alike for these passing blemishes and for the lack of such clear-cut perfection of character and such dramatic progression of interest as we find only in the yet higher poets of the English heroic age.

So much it may suffice to say of Chapman as an original poet, one who held of no man and acknowledged no master, but from the birth of Marlowe well-nigh to the death of Jonson held on his own hard and haughty way of austere and sublime ambition, not without kindly and graceful inclination of his high grey head to salute such younger and still nobler compeers as Jonson and Fletcher. With Shakespeare we should never have guessed that he had come at all in contact, had not the keen intelligence of William Minto divined or rather discerned him to be the rival poet referred to in Shakespeare's sonnets with a grave note of passionate satire, hitherto as enigmatic as almost all questions connected with those divine and dangerous poems. This conjecture Professor Minto fortified by such apt collocation and confrontation of passages that we may now reasonably accept it as an ascertained and memorable fact.

The objections which a just and adequate judgment may bring against Chapman's master-work, his translation of Homer, may be summed up in three epithets: it is romantic, laborious, Elizabethan. The qualities implied by these epithets are the reverse of those which should distinguish a translator of Homer; but setting this apart, and considering the poems as in the main original works, the superstructure of a romantic poet on the submerged foundations of Greek verse, no praise can be too warm or high for the power, the freshness, the indefatigable strength and inextinguishable fire which animate this exalted work, and secure for all time that shall take cognizance of English poetry an honoured place in its highest annals for the memory of Chapman. (A. C. S.)

Chapman's works include:--[Greek: Skia nyktos]: _The Shadow of Night:
Containing two Poeticall Hymnes_ ... (1594), the second of which deals
with Sir Francis Vere's campaign in the Netherlands; _Ovid's Banquet
of Sence. A Coronet for his Mistresse Philosophie; and His Amorous
Zodiacke with a translation of a Latine coppie, written by a Fryer,
Anno Dom. 1400_ (1595, 2nd ed. 1639), a collection of poems frequently
quoted from in _England's Parnassus_ (1600); "De Guiana, carmen
epicum," a poem prefixed to Lawrence Keymis's _A Relation of the
second voyage to Guiana_ (1596); _Hero and Leander. Begun by
Christopher Marloe; and finished by George Chapman_ (1598); _The
Blinde begger of Alexandria, most pleasantly discoursing his variable
humours_ ... (acted 1596, printed 1598), a popular comedy; _A Pleasant
Comedy entituled An Humerous dayes Myrth_ (identified by Mr Fleay with
the "Comodey of Umero" noted by Henslowe on the 11th of May 1597;
printed 1599); _Al Fooles, A Comedy_ (paid for by Henslowe on the 2nd
of July 1599, its original name being "The World runs on wheels";
printed 1605); _The Gentleman Usher_ (c. 1601, pr. 1606), a comedy;
_Monsieur d'Olive_ (1604, pr. 1606), one of his most amusing and
successful comedies; _Eastward Hoe_ (1605), written in conjunction
with Ben Jonson and John Marston, an excellent comedy of city life;
_Bussy d'Ambois,[1] A Tragedie_ (1604, pr. 1607, 1608, 1616, 1641,
&c.), the scene of which is laid in the court of Henry III.; _The
Revenge of Bussy d'Ambois. A Tragedie_ (pr. 1613, but probably written
much earlier); _The Conspiracie, And Tragedie of Charles Duke of
Byron. Marshall of France, ... in two plays_ (1607 and 1608; pr. 1608
and 1625); _May-Day, A witty Comedie_ (pr. 1611; but probably acted as
early as 1601); _The widdowes Teares. A Comedie_ (pr. 1612; produced
perhaps as early as 1605); _Caesar and Pompey: A Roman Tragedy,
declaring their warres. Out of whose events is evicted this
Proposition. Only a just man is a freeman_ (pr. 1631), written, says
Chapman in the dedication, "long since," but never staged.

_The Tragedy of Alphonsus Emperour of Germany_ (see the edition by Dr
Karl Elye; Leipzig, 1867) and _Revenge for Honour_ (1654)[2] both bear
Chapman's name on the title-page, but his authorship has been
disputed. In _The Ball_ (lic. 1632; pr. 1639), a comedy, and _The
Tragedie of Chabot Admirall of France_ (lic. 1635; pr. 1639) he
collaborated with James Shirley. _The memorable Masque of the two
Honourable Houses or Inns of Court; the Middle Temple and Lyncoln's
Inne_, was performed at court in 1613 in honour of the marriage of the
Princess Elizabeth.

_The Whole Works of Homer: Prince of Poets. In his Iliads and
Odysseys_ ... appeared in 1616, and about 1624 he added _The Crowne
of all Homers works Batrachomyomachia or the Battaile of Frogs and
Mise. His Hymns and Epigrams._ But the whole works had been already
published by instalments. _Seaven Bookes of the Iliades of Homer_ had
appeared in 1598, _Achilles Shield_ in the same year, books i.-xii.
about 1609; in 1611 _The Iliads of Homer, Prince of Poets_ ...; and
in 1614 _Twenty-four Bookes of Homer's Odisses_ were entered at
Stationers' Hall. In 1609 he addressed to Prince Henry _Enthymiae
Raptus; or the Teares of Peace_, and on the death of his patron he
contributed _An Epicede, or Funerall Song_ (1612). A paraphrase of
_Petrarchs Seven Penitentiall Psalms_ (1612), a poem in honour of the
marriage of Robert Carr, earl of Somerset, and Frances, the divorced
countess of Essex, indiscreetly entitled _Andromeda Liberata_ ...
(1614), a translation of _The Georgicks of Hesiod_ (1618), _Pro Vere
Autumni Lachrymae_ (1622), in honour of Sir Horatio Vere, _A
justification of a Strange Action of Nero ... also ... the fifth
Satyre of Juvenall_ (1629), and _Eugenia_ ... (1614), an elegy on Sir
William Russell, complete the list of his separately published works.

Chapman's _Homer_ was edited in 1857 by the Rev. Richard Hooper; and a
reprint of his dramatic works appeared in 1873. The standard edition
of Chapman is the _Works_, edited by R.H. Shepherd (1874-1875), the
third volume of which contains an "Essay on the Poetical and Dramatic
works of George Chapman," by Mr Swinburne, printed separately in 1875.
The selection of his plays (1895) for the Mermaid Series is edited by
Mr W.L. Phelps. For the sources of the plays see Emil Koeppel,
"Anellen Studien zu den Dramen George Chapman's, Philip Massinger's
und John Ford's" in _Quellen und Forschungen zur Sprach und
Kulturgeschichte_ (vol. 82, Strassburg, 1897). The suggestion of W.
Minto (see _Characteristics of the English Poets_, 1885) that Chapman
was the "rival poet" of Shakespeare's sonnets is amplified in Mr A.
Acheson's _Shakespeare and the Rival Poet_ (1903). Much satire in
Chapman's introduction is there applied to Shakespeare. For other
criticisms of his translation of Homer see Matthew Arnold, _Lectures
on translating Homer_ (1861), and Dr A. Lohff, _George Chapman's
Ilias-Ubersetzung_ (Berlin, 1903). (M. Br.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Chapman's source in this piece remains undetermined. It cannot be
the _Historia sui temporis_ of Jacques de Thorn, for the 4th volume
of his work, which relates the story, was not published until 1609
(see Koeppel, p. 14).

[2] This play appears to have been issued in 1653 with the title _The
Parracide, or Revenge for Honour_ as the work of Henry Glathorne.

CHAPMAN (from O. Eng. _ceap_, and Mid. Eng. _cheap_, to barter, cf. "Cheapside" in London, and Ger. _Kaufmann_), one who buys or sells, a trader or dealer, especially an itinerant pedlar. The word "chap," now a slang term, meant originally a customer.

CHAPONE, HESTER (1727-1801), English essayist, daughter of Thomas Mulso, a country gentleman, was born at Twywell, Northamptonshire, on the 27th of October 1727. She was a precocious child, and at the age of nine wrote a romance entitled _The Loves of Amoret and Melissa_. Hecky Mulso, as she was familiarly called, developed a beautiful voice, which earned her the name of "the linnet." While on a visit to Canterbury she made the acquaintance of the learned Mrs Elizabeth Carter, and soon became one of the admirers of the novelist Samuel Richardson. She was one of the little court of women who gathered at North End, Fulham; and in Miss Susannah Highmore's sketch of the novelist reading _Sir Charles Grandison_ to his friends Miss Mulso is the central figure. She corresponded with Richardson on "filial obedience" in letters as long as his own, signing herself his "ever obliged and affectionate child." She admired, however, with discrimination, and in the words of her biographer (_Posthumous Works_, 1807, p. 9) "her letters show with what dignity, tempered with proper humility, she could maintain her own well-grounded opinion." In 1760 Miss Mulso, with her father's reluctant consent, married the attorney, John Chapone, who had been befriended by Richardson. Her husband died within a year of her marriage. Mrs Chapone remained in London visiting various friends. She had already made small contributions to various periodicals when she published, in 1772, her best known work, _Letters on the Improvement of the Mind._ This book brought her numerous requests from distinguished persons to undertake the education of their children. She died on the 25th of December 1801.

See _The Posthumous Works of Mrs Chapone, containing her
correspondence with Mr Richardson; a series of letters to Mrs
Elizabeth Carter ... together with an account of her life and
character drawn up by her own family_ (1807).

CHAPPE, CLAUDE (1763-1805), French engineer, was born at Brulon (Sarthe) in 1763. He was the inventor of an optical telegraph which was widely used in France until it was superseded by the electric telegraph. His device consisted of an upright post, on the top of which was fastened a transverse bar, while at the ends of the latter two smaller arms moved on pivots. The position of these bars represented words or letters; and by means of machines placed at intervals such that each was distinctly visible from the next, messages could be conveyed through 50 leagues in a quarter of an hour. The machine was adopted by the Legislative Assembly in 1792, and in the following year Chappe was appointed _ingenieur-telegraphe_; but the originality of his invention was so much questioned that he was seized with melancholia and (it is said) committed suicide at Paris in 1805.

His elder brother, Ignace Urbain Jean Chappe (1760-1829), took part in the invention of the telegraph, and with a younger brother, Pierre Francois, from 1805 to 1823 was administrator of the telegraphs, a post which was also held by two other brothers, Rene and Abraham, from 1823 to 1830. Ignace was the author of a _Histoire de la telegraphie_ (1824). An uncle, Jean Chappe d'Auteroche (1728-1769), was an astronomer who observed two transits of Venus, one in Siberia in 1761, and the other in 1769 in California, where he died.

CHAPPELL, WILLIAM (1809-1888), English writer on music, a member of the London musical firm of Chappell & Co., was born on the 20th of November 1809, eldest son of Samuel Chappell (d. 1834), who founded the business. William Chappell is particularly noteworthy for his starting the Musical Antiquarian Society in 1840, and his publication of the standard work _Popular Music of the Olden Time_ (1855-1859)--an expansion of a collection of "national English airs" made by him in 1838-1840. The modern revival of interest in English folk-songs owes much to this work, which has since been re-edited by Professor H.E. Wooldridge (1893). W. Chappell died on the 20th of August 1888. His brother, Thomas Patey Chappell (d. 1902), meanwhile had largely extended the publishing business, and had started (1859) the Monday and Saturday Popular Concerts at St James's Hall, which were successfully managed by a younger brother, S. Arthur Chappell, till they came to an end towards the close of the century.

CHAPRA, or CHUPRA, a town of British India, the administrative headquarters of Saran district in Bengal, near the left bank of the river Gogra, just above its confluence with the Ganges; with a railway station on the Bengal & North-Western line towards Oudh. Pop. (1901) 45,901, showing a decrease of 21% in the decade. There are a government high school, a German Lutheran mission, and a public library endowed by a former maharaja of Hatwa. Chapra is the centre of trade in indigo and saltpetre, and conducts a large business by water as well as by rail.

CHAPTAL, JEAN ANTOINE CLAUDE, COMTE DE CHANTE-LOUP (1756-1832), French chemist and statesman, was born at Nogaret, Lozere, on the 4th of June 1756. The son of an apothecary, he studied chemistry at Montpellier, obtaining his doctor's diploma in 1777, when he repaired to Paris. In 1781 the States of Languedoc founded a chair of chemistry for him at the school of medicine in Montpellier, where he taught the doctrines of Lavoisier. The capital he acquired by the death of a wealthy uncle he employed in the establishment of chemical works for the manufacture of the mineral acids, alum, white-lead, soda and other substances. His labours in the cause of applied science were at length recognized by the French government, which presented him with letters of nobility, and the cordon of the order of Saint Michel. During the Revolution a publication by Chaptal, entitled _Dialogue entre un Montagnard et un Girondin_, caused him to be arrested; but being speedily set at liberty through the intermission of his friends, he undertook, in 1793, the management of the saltpetre works at Grenelle. In the following year he went to Montpellier, where he remained till 1797, when he returned to Paris. After the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th of Brumaire (November 9, 1799) he was made a councillor of state by the First Consul, and succeeded Lucien Bonaparte as minister of the interior, in which capacity he established a chemical manufactory near Paris, a school of arts, and a society of industries; he also reorganized the hospitals, introduced the metrical system of weights and measures, and otherwise greatly encouraged the arts and sciences. A misunderstanding between him and Napoleon (who conferred upon him the title of comte de Chanteloup) occasioned Chaptal's retirement from office in 1804; but before the end of that year he was again received into favour by the emperor, who bestowed on him the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, and made him treasurer to the conservative senate. On Napoleon's return from Elba, Chaptal was made director-general of commerce and manufactures and a minister of state. He was obliged after the downfall of the emperor to withdraw into private life; and his name was removed from the list of the peers of France until 1819. In 1816, however, he was nominated a member of the Academy of Sciences by Louis XVIII. Chaptal was especially a popularizer of science, attempting to apply to industry and agriculture the discoveries of chemistry. In this way he contributed largely to the development of modern industry. He died at Paris on the 30th of July 1832.

His literary works exhibit both vigour and perspicuity of style; he
wrote, in addition to various articles, especially in the _Annales de
chimie, Elemens de chimie_ (3 vols., 1790; new ed., 1796-1803);
_Traite du salpetre et des goudrons_ (1796); _Tableau des principaux
sels terreux_ (1798); _Essai sur le perfectionnement des arts
chimiques en France_ (1800); _Art de faire, de gouverner, et de
perfectionner les vins_ (1 vol., 1801; new ed., 1819); _Traite
theorique et pratique sur la culture de la vigne, &c._, (2 vols.,
1801; new ed., 1811); _Essai sur le blanchiment_ (1801); _La Chimie
appliquee aux arts_ (4 vols., 1806); _Art de la teinture du coton en
rouge_ (1807); _Art du teinturier et du degraisseur_ (1800); _De
l'industrie francaise_ (2 vols., 1819); _Chimie appliquee a
l'agriculture_ (2 vols., 1823; new ed., 1829).