Chapter IV: Part 4

His son DINIZULU afterwards attempted to become king, was exiled (1889) to St Helena, permitted to return (1898), and granted the position of a chief. In December 1907 Dinizulu was imprisoned at Maritzburg, being suspected of complicity in the revolt which had occurred in Zululand the previous year. He was kept many months waiting trial, there being considerable friction between the colonial government and the British government over the incident. He was eventually brought to trial in November 1908 before a special court, his defence (to the cost of which the British government contributed L2000) being undertaken by Mr W.P. Schreiner. The trial was not concluded until March 1909. The charge of high treason was not proved, but Dinizulu was convicted of harbouring rebels and was sentenced to four years' imprisonment.

_The Life of Sir Bartle Frere_, by John Martineau, vol. ii. chaps. 18
to 21, contains much information concerning Cetywayo.

CEUTA (Arabic _Sebta_), a Spanish military and convict station and seaport on the north coast of Morocco, in 35 deg. 54' N., 5 deg. 18' W. Pop. about 13,000. It is situated on a promontory connected with the mainland by a narrow isthmus. This promontory marks the south-eastern end of the straits of Gibraltar, which between Ceuta and Gibraltar have a width of 14 m. The promontory terminates in a bold headland, the Montagne des Singes, with seven distinct peaks. Of these the highest is the Monte del Hacko, the ancient _Abyla_, one of the "Pillars of Hercules," which faces Gibraltar and rises 636 ft. above the sea. On the westernmost point--Almina, 476 ft. high--is a lighthouse with a light visible for 23 m. Ceuta consists of two quarters, the old town, covering the low ground of the isthmus, and the modern town, built on the hills forming the north and west faces of the peninsula. Between the old and new quarters and on the north side of the isthmus lies the port. The public buildings in the town, thoroughly Spanish in its character, are not striking: they include the cathedral (formerly a mosque), the governor's palace, the town hall, barracks, and the convict prison in the old convent of San Francisco. Ceuta has been fortified seaward, the works being furnished with modern artillery intended to command the entrance to the Mediterranean. Landward are three lines of defence, the inner line stretching completely across the isthmus. These fortifications, which date from the time of the Portuguese occupation, have been partly modernized. The citadel, El Hacho, built on the neck of the isthmus, dates from the 15th century. The garrison consists of between 3000 and 4000 men, inclusive of a disciplinary corps of military convicts. Of the rest of the population about 2000 are civilian convicts; and there are colonies of Jews, negroes and Moors, the last including descendants of Moors transferred to Ceuta from Oran when Spain abandoned that city in 1796.

Ceuta occupies in part the site of a Carthaginian colony, which was succeeded by a Roman colony said to have been called _Ad Septem Fratres_ and also _Exilissa_ or _Lissa Civitas_. From the Romans the town passed to the Vandals and afterwards to Byzantium, the emperor Justinian restoring its fortifications in 535. In 618 the town, then known as _Septon_, fell into the hands of the Visigoths. It was the last stronghold in North Africa which held out against the Arabs. At that date (A.D. 711) the governor of the town was the Count Julian who, in revenge for the betrayal of his daughter by King Roderick of Toledo, invited the Arabs to cross the straits under Tarik and conquer Spain for Islam. By the Arabs the town was called _Cibta_ or _Sebta_, hence the Spanish form _Ceuta_. From the date of its occupation by the Arabs the town had a stormy history, being repeatedly captured by rival Berber and Spanish-Moorish dynasties. It became nevertheless an important commercial and industrial city, being noted for its brass ware, its trade in ivory, gold and slaves. It is said to have been the first place in the West where a paper manufactory was established. In 1415 the town was captured by the Portuguese under John I., among those taking part in the attack being Prince Henry "the Navigator" and two of his brothers, who were knighted on the day following in the mosque (hastily dedicated as a Christian church). Ceuta passed to Spain in 1580 on the subjugation of Portugal by Philip II., and was definitely assigned to the Spanish crown by the treaty of Lisbon in 1688. The town has been several times unsuccessfully besieged by the Moors--one siege, under Mulai Ismail, lasting twenty-six years (1694-1720). In 1810, with the consent of Spain, it was occupied by British troops under General Sir J.F. Fraser. The town was restored to Spain by the British at the close of the Napoleonic Wars. As the result of the war between Spain and Morocco in 1860 the area of Spanish territory around the town was increased. The military governor of the town also commands the troops in the other Spanish stations on the coast of Morocco. For civil purposes Ceuta is attached to the province of Cadiz. It is a free port, but does little trade.

See de Prado, _Recuerdos de Africa; historia de la plaza de Ceuta_
(Madrid, 1859-1860); Budgett Meakin, _The Land of the Moors_ (London,
1901), chap, xix., where many works dealing with Spanish Morocco are
cited.

CEVA, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Cuneo, 33 m. E. by rail from the town of Cuneo, 1270 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2703. In the middle ages it was a strong fortress defending the confines of Piedmont towards Liguria, but the fortifications on the rock above the town were demolished in 1800 by the French, to whom it had been ceded in 1796. Its cheese (_caseus cebanus_) was famous in Roman times, but it does not seem ever to have been a Roman town. It lay on the road between Augusta Taurinorum and Vada Sabatia. A branch railway runs from Ceva through Garessio, with its marble quarries, to Ormea (2398 ft.), 22 m. to the south through the upper valley of the Tanaro, which in Roman times was under Albingaunum (Th. Mommsen in _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ v. (Berlin, 1877), p. 898). From Ormea a road runs south to (31 m.) Oneglia on the Ligurian coast.

CEVENNES (Lat. _Cebenna_ or _Gebenna_), a mountain range of southern France, forming the southern and eastern fringe of the central plateau and part of the watershed between the Atlantic and Mediterranean basins. It consists of a narrow ridge some 320 m. long, with numerous lofty plateaus and secondary ranges branching from it. The northern division of the range, which nowhere exceeds 3320 ft. in height, extends, under the name of the mountains of Charolais, Beaujolais and Lyonnais, from the Col de Longpendu (west of Chalon-sur-Saone) in a southerly direction to the Col de Gier. The central Cevennes, comprising the volcanic chain of Vivarais, incline south-east and extend as far as the Lozere group. The northern portion of this chain forms the Boutieres range. Farther south it includes the Gerbier des Joncs (5089 ft.), the Mont de Mezenc (5755 ft.), the culminating point of the entire range, and the Tanargue group. South of the Mont Lozere, where the Pic Finiels reaches 5584 ft., lies that portion of the range to which the name Cevennes is most strictly applied. This region, now embraced in the departments of Lozere and Gard, stretches south to include the Aigoual and Esperou groups. Under various local names (the Garrigues, the mountains of Espinouse and Lacaune) and with numerous offshoots the range extends south-east and then east to the Montagne Noire, which runs parallel to the Canal du Midi and comes to an end some 25 m. east of Toulouse. In the south the Cevennes separate the cold and barren table-lands known as the Causses from the sunny region of Languedoc, where the olive, vine and mulberry flourish. Northwards the contrast between the two slopes is less striking.

The Cevennes proper are formed by a folded belt of Palaeozoic rocks which lies along the south-east border of the central plateau of France. Concealed in part by later deposits, this ancient mountain chain extends from Castelnaudary to the neighbourhood of Valence, where it sinks suddenly beneath the Tertiary and recent deposits of the valley of the Rhone. It is in the Montagne Noire rather than in the Cevennes proper that the structure of the chain has been most fully investigated. All the geological systems from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous are included in the folded belt, and J. Bergeron has shown that the gneiss and schist which form so much of the chain consist, in part at least, of metamorphosed Cambrian beds. The direction of the folds is about N. 60 deg. E., and the structure is complicated by overthrusting on an extensive scale. The overthrust came from the south-east, and the Palaeozoic beds were crushed and crumpled against the ancient massif of the central plateau. The principal folding took place at the close of the Carboniferous period, and was contemporaneous with that of the old Hercynian chain of Belgium, &c. The Permian and later beds lie unconformably upon the denuded folds, and in the space between the Montagne Noire and the Cevennes proper the folded belt is buried beneath the horizontal Jurassic strata of the Causses. Although the chain was completed in Palaeozoic times, a second folding took place along its south-east margin at the close of the Eocene period. The Secondary and Tertiary beds of the Languedoc were crushed against the central plateau and were frequently overfolded. But by this time the ancient Palaeozoic chain had become a part of the unyielding massif, and the folding did not extend beyond its foot.

As the division between the basins of the Loire and the Garonne to the west and those of the Saone and Rhone to the east, the Cevennes send many affluents to those rivers. In the south the Orb, the Herault and the Vidourle are independent rivers flowing to the Golfe du Lion; farther north, the Gard--formed by the union of several streams named Gardon--the Ceze and the Ardeche flow to the Rhone. The Vivarais mountains and the northern Cevennes approach the right banks of the Rhone and Saone closely, and on that side send their waters by way of short torrents to those rivers; on the west side the streams are tributaries of the Loire, which rises at the foot of Mont Mezenc. A short distance to the south on the same side are the sources of the Allier and Lot. The waters of the north-western slope of the southern Cevennes drain into the Tarn either directly or by way of the Aveyron, which rises in the outlying chain of the Levezou, and, in the extreme south, the Agout. The Tarn itself rises on the southern slope of the Mont Lozere.

In the Lozere group and the southern Cevennes generally, good pasturage is found, and huge flocks spend the summer there. Silkworm-rearing and the cultivation of peaches, chestnuts and other fruits are also carried on. In the Vivarais cattle are reared, while on the slopes of the Beaujolais excellent wines are grown.

The chief historical event in the history of the Cevennes is the revolt of the Camisards in the early years of the 18th century (see CAMISARDS).

CEYLON, a large island and British colony in the Indian Ocean, separated on the N.W. from India by the Gulf of Manaar and Palk Strait. It lies between 5 deg. 55' and 9 deg. 51' N. and between 79 deg. 41' and 81 deg. 54' E. Its extreme length from north to south is 271-1/2 m.; its greatest width is 137-1/2 m.; and its area amounts to 25,481 sq. m., or about five-sixths of that of Ireland. In its general outline the island resembles a pear, the apex of which points towards the north.

Coast.

The coast is beset on the N.W. with numberless sandbanks, rocks and shoals, and may be said to be almost connected with India by the island of Rameswaram and Adam's Bridge, a succession of bold rocks reaching almost across the gulf at its narrowest point. Between the island and the opposite coast there exist two open channels of varying depth and width, beset by rocks and shoals. One of these, the Manaar Passage, is only navigable by very small craft. The other, called the Paumben Passage, lying between Rameswaram and the mainland, has been deepened at considerable outlay, and is used by large vessels in passing from the Malabar to the Coromandel coast, which were formerly compelled in doing so to make the circuit of the island. The west and south coasts, which are uniformly low, are fringed their entire length by coco-nut trees, which grow to the water's edge in great luxuriance, and give the island a most picturesque appearance. Along these shores there are numerous inlets and backwaters of the sea, some of which are available as harbours for small native craft. The east coast from Point de Galle to Trincomalee is of an entirely opposite character, wanting the ample vegetation of the other, and being at the same time of a bold precipitous character. The largest ships may freely approach this side of the island, provided they take care to avoid a few dangerous rocks, whose localities, however, are well known to navigators.

Seen from a distance at sea this "utmost Indian isle" of the old geographers wears a truly beautiful appearance. The remarkable elevation known as "Adam's Peak," the most prominent, though not the loftiest, of the hilly ranges of the interior, towers like a mountain monarch amongst an assemblage of picturesque hills, and is a sure landmark for the navigator when as yet the Colombo lighthouse is hidden from sight amid the green groves of palms that seem to be springing from the waters of the ocean. The low coast-line encircles the mountain zone of the interior on the east, south and west, forming a belt which extends inland to a varying distance of from 30 to 80 m.; but on the north the whole breadth of the island from Kalpitiya to Batticaloa is an almost unbroken plain, containing magnificent forests of great extent.

Mountains.

The mountain zone is towards the south of the island, and covers an area of about 4212 sq. m. The uplifting force seems to have been exerted from south-west to north-east, and although there is much confusion in many of the intersecting ridges, and spurs of great size and extent are sent off in many directions, the lower ranges manifest a remarkable tendency to run in parallel ridges in a direction from south-east to north-west. Towards the north the offsets of the mountain system radiate to short distances and speedily sink to the level of the plain. Detached hills are rare; the most celebrated of these are Mihintale (anc. _Missiaka_), which overlooks the sacred city of Anuradhapura, and Sigiri. The latter is the only example in Ceylon of those solitary acclivities which form so remarkable a feature in the tableland of the Deccan--which, starting abruptly from the plain, with scarped and perpendicular sides, are frequently converted into strongholds accessible only by precipitous pathways or by steps hewn in the solid rock.

For a long period Adam's Peak was supposed to be the highest mountain in Ceylon, but actual survey makes it only 7353 ft. above sea-level. This elevation is chiefly remarkable as the resort of pilgrims from all parts of the East. The hollow in the lofty rock that crowns the summit is said by the Brahmans to be the footstep of Siva, by the Buddhists of Buddha, by the Mahommedans of Adam, whilst the Portuguese Christians were divided between the conflicting claims of St Thomas and the eunuch of Candace, queen of Ethiopia. The footstep is covered by a handsome roof, and is guarded by the priests of a rich monastery half-way up the mountain, who maintain a shrine on the summit of the peak. The highest mountains in Ceylon are Pidurutalagala, 8296 ft. in altitude; Kirigalpota, 7836 ft.; and Totapelakanda, 7746 ft.

The summits of the highest ridges are clothed with verdure, and along their base, in the beautiful valleys which intersect them in every direction, the slopes were formerly covered with forests of gigantic and valuable trees, which, however, have disappeared under the axe of the planter, who felled and burnt the timber on all the finest slopes at an elevation of 2000 to 4500 ft., and converted the hillsides into highly cultivated coffee and afterwards tea estates.

The plain of Nuwara Eliya, the sanatorium of the island, is at an elevation of 6200 ft., and possesses many of the attributes of an alpine country. The climate of the Horton plains, at an elevation of 7000 ft., is still finer than that of Nuwara Eliya, but they are difficult of access, and are but little known to Europeans. The town of Kandy, in the Central Province, formerly the capital of the native sovereigns of the interior, is situated 1727 ft. above sea-level.

Rivers.

The island, though completely within the influence of oceanic evaporation, and possessing an elevated tableland of considerable extent, does not boast of any rivers of great volume. The rains which usher in each monsoon or change of season are indeed heavy, and during their fall swell the streams to torrents and impetuous rivers. But when these cease the water-courses fall back to their original state, and there are few of the rivers which cannot generally be passed on horseback. The largest river, the Mahaweliganga, has a course of 206 m., draining about one-sixth of the area of the island before it reaches the sea at Trincomalee on the east coast. There are twelve other considerable rivers, running to the west, east and south, but none of these exceeds 90 m. in length. The rivers are not favourable for navigation, except near the sea, where they expand into backwaters, which were used by the Dutch for the construction of their system of canals all round the western and southern coasts. Steamers ply between Colombo and Negombo along this narrow canal and lake. A similar service on the Kaluganga did not prove a success. There are no inland lakes except the remains of magnificent artificial lakes in the north and east of the island, and the backwaters on the coast. The lakes which add to the beauty of Colombo, Kandy, Lake Gregory, Nuwara Eliya and Kurunegala are artificial or partly so. Giant's Tank is said to have an area of 6380 acres, and Minneri and Kalawewa each exceed 4000 acres.

The magnificent basin of Trincomalee, situated on the east coast of Ceylon, is perhaps unsurpassed in extent, security and beauty by any haven in the world. The admiralty had a dockyard here which was closed in 1905.

_Geology._--Ceylon may be said to have been for ages slowly rising from the sea, as appears from the terraces abounding in marine shells, which occur in situations far above high-water mark, and at some miles distance from the sea. A great portion of the north of the island may be regarded as the joint production of the coral polyps and the currents, which for the greater part of the year set impetuously towards the south; coming laden with alluvial matter collected along the coast of Coromandel, and meeting with obstacles south of Point Calimere, they have deposited their burdens on the coral reefs round Point Pedro; and these, raised above the sea-level and covered deeply by sand drifts, have formed the peninsula of Jaffna, and the plains that trend westward till they unite with the narrow causeway of Adam's Bridge. Tertiary rocks are almost unknown. The great geological feature of the island is the profusion of gneiss, overlaid in many places in the interior by extensive beds of dolomitic limestone. This formation appears to be of great thickness; and when, as is not often the case, the under-surface of the gneiss series is exposed, it is invariably found resting on granite. Veins of pure quartz and felspar of considerable extent have been frequently met with in the gneiss; while in the elevated lands of the interior in the Galle districts may be seen copious deposits of disintegrated felspar, or _kaolin_, commonly known as porcelain clay. At various elevations the gneiss may be found intersected by veins of trap rock, upheaved whilst in a state of fusion subsequent to the consolidation of the former. In some localities on the seashore these veins assume the character of pitch-stone porphyry highly impregnated with iron. Hornblende and primitive greenstone are found in the vicinity of Adam's Peak and in the Pussellava district. Laterite, known in Ceylon as _kabuk_, a product of disintegrated gneiss, exists in vast quantities in many parts, and is quarried for building purposes.

_Climate._--The seasons in Ceylon differ very slightly from those prevailing along the coasts of the Indian peninsula. The two distinctive monsoons of the year are called, from the winds which accompany them, the south-west and the north-east. The former is very regular in its approach, and may be looked for along the south-west coast between the 10th and 20th of May; the latter reaches the north-east coast between the end of October and the middle of November. There is a striking contrast in the influence which the south-west monsoon exerts on the one side of the island and on the other. The clouds are driven against the lofty mountains that overhang the western and southern coasts, and their condensed vapours descend there in copious showers. But the rains do not reach the opposite side of the island: while the south-west is deluged, the east and north are sometimes exhausted with dryness; and it not unfrequently happens that different sides of the same mountain present at the same moment the opposite extreme of droughts and moisture. The influence of the north-east monsoon is more general. The mountains which face the north-east are lower and more remote from the sea than those on the south-west; the clouds are carried farther inland, and it rains simultaneously on both sides of the island.

The length of the day, owing to the proximity of the island to the equator, does not vary more than an hour at any season. The mean time of the rising of the sun's centre at Colombo on February 1st is 6^h 23^m A.M., and of its setting 6^h 5^m P.M. On August 15th its rising is at 5^h 45^m A.M., and its setting at 6^h 7^m P.M. It is mid-day in Colombo when it is morning in England. Colombo is situated in 79 deg. 50' 45" E., and the day is further advanced there than at Greenwich by 5^h 19^m 23^s.

_Flora_.--The characteristics of the low-growing plants of Ceylon
approach nearly to those of the coasts of southern India. The
_Rhizophoreae_ are numerous along the low muddy shores of salt lakes
and stagnant pools; and the acacias are equally abundant. The list
comprises _Aegiceras fragrans_, _Epithinia malayana_, _Thespesia
populnea_, _Feronia elephantum_, _Salvadora persica_ (the true mustard
tree of Scripture), _Eugenia bracteata_, _Elaeodendron Roxburghii_,
_Cassia Fistula_, _Cassia Roxburghii_, &c. The herbaceous plants of
the low country belong mostly to the natural orders _Compositae_,
_Leguminosae_, _Rubiaceae_, _Scrophulariaceae_ and _Euphorbiaceae_.

Leaving the plains of the maritime country and ascending a height of
4000 ft. in the central districts, we find both herbage and trees
assume an altered character. The foliage of the latter is larger and
deeper coloured, and they attain a height unknown in the hot low
country. The herbaceous vegetation is there made up of ferns,
_Cyrtandreae_, _Compositae_, _Scitamineae_ and _Urticaceae_. The dense
masses of lofty forest at that altitude are interspersed with large
open tracts of coarse wiry grass, called by the natives _patanas_, and
of value to them as affording pasturage for their cattle.

Between the altitudes of 4000 and 8000 ft., many plants are to be met
with partaking of European forms, yet blended with tropical
characteristics. The guelder rose, St John's wort, the _Nepenthes
distillatoria_ or pitcher plant, violets, geraniums, buttercups,
sundews, ladies' mantles and campanulas thrive by the side of
_Magnoliaceae_, _Ranunculaceae_, _Elaeocarpeae_, &c. The most
beautiful flowering shrub of this truly alpine region is the
rhododendron, which in many instances grows to the height of 70 ft. It
is met with in great abundance in the moist plains of the elevated
land above Nuwara Eliya, flowering abundantly in June and July. There
are two distinct varieties, one similar to the Nilgiri plant, having
its leaves broad and cordate, and of a rusty colour on the under side;
the other, peculiar to Ceylon, is found only in forests at the
loftiest elevations; it has narrow rounded leaves, silvery on the
under side, and grows to enormous heights, frequently measuring 3 ft.
round the stem. At these altitudes English flowers, herbs and
vegetables have been cultivated with perfect success, as also wheat,
oats and barley. English fruit-trees grow, but rarely bear. Grapes are
grown successfully in the north of the island. The vines were
introduced by the Dutch, who overcame the difficulty of perpetual
summer by exposing the roots, and thus giving the plants an artificial
winter.

The timber trees indigenous to Ceylon are met with at every altitude
from the sea-beach to the loftiest mountain peak. They vary much in
their hardiness and durability, from the common cashew-nut tree, which
when felled decays in a month, to the ebony and satinwood, which for
many years resist the attacks of insects and climate. Many of the
woods are valuable for furniture, and house and shipbuilding, and are
capable of standing long exposure to weather. The most beautiful woods
adapted to furniture work are the calamander, ebony, flowered
satinwood, tamarind, nedun, dell, kadomberiya, kitul, coco-nut, &c.;
the sack-yielding tree (_Antiaris saccidora_), for a long time
confounded with the far-famed upas tree of Java (_Antiaris
toxicaria_), grows in the Kurunegala district of the island. The
_Cocos nucifera_, or coco-nut palm, is a native of the island, and may
justly be considered the most valuable of its trees. It grows in vast
abundance alone the entire sea-coast of the west and south sides of
the island, and furnishes almost all that a Sinhalese villager
requires. Its fruit, when green, supplies food and drink; when ripe,
it yields oil. The juice of the unopened flower gives him toddy and
arrack. The fibrous casing of the fruit when woven makes him ropes,
nets, matting. The nut-shells form drinking-vessels, spoons, &c. The
plaited leaves serve as plates and dishes, and as thatch for his
cottage. The dried leaves are used as torches, the large leaf-stalks
as garden fences. The trunk of the tree sawn up is employed for every
possible purpose, from knife-handles to door-posts; hollowed out it
forms a canoe or a coffin. There are four kinds of this palm--the
common, the king, the dwarf and the Maldive. The Palmyra and Areca
palms grow luxuriantly and abundantly, the former in the northern, the
latter in the western and central districts. The one is valuable
chiefly for its timber, of which large quantities are exported to the
Indian coasts; the other supplies the betel-nut in common use amongst
natives of the eastern tropics as a masticatory. The export trade in
the latter to India and eastern ports is very considerable. Next in
importance to the coco-nut palm among the indigenous products of
Ceylon is the cinnamon plant, yielding the well-known spice of that
name.

_Fauna_.--Foremost among the animals of Ceylon is the elephant, which,
though far inferior to those of Africa and the Indian continent, is
nevertheless of considerable value when tamed, on account of its
strength, sagacity and docility. They are to be met with in greater or
less numbers throughout most unfrequented parts of the interior.
Occasionally they make inroads in herds upon the cultivated grounds
and plantations, committing great damage. In order to protect these
lands, and at the same time keep up the government stud of draught
elephants, "kraals" or traps on a large scale are erected in the
forests, into which the wild herds are driven; and once secured they
are soon tamed and fit for service. The oxen are of small size, but
hardy, and capable of drawing heavy loads. Buffaloes exist in great
numbers throughout the interior, where they are employed in a
half-tame state for ploughing rice-fields and treading out the corn.
They feed upon any coarse grass, and can therefore be maintained on
the village pasture-lands where oxen would not find support. Of deer,
Ceylon possesses the spotted kind (_Axis maculata_), the muntjac
(_Stylocerus muntjac_), a red deer (the Sambur of India), popularly
called the Ceylon elk (_Musa Aristotelis_), and the small musk
(_Moschus minima_). There are five species of monkeys, one the small
rilawa (_Macacus pileatus_), and four known in Ceylon by the name of
"wandaru" (_Presbytes ursinus_, _P. Thersites_, _P. cephalopterus_,
_P. Priamus_), and the small quadrumanous animal, the loris (_Loris
gracilis_), known as the "Ceylon sloth." Of the Cheiroptera sixteen
species have been identified; amongst them is the rousette or flying
fox (_Pteropus Edwardsii_). Of the Carnivora the only one dangerous to
man is the small black bear (_Prochilus labiatus_). The tiger is not
known in Ceylon, but the true panther (_Felis pardus_) is common, as
is the jackal (_Canis aureus_) and the mongoose or ichneumon
(_Herpestes vitticollis_). Rats are numerous, as are the squirrel and
the porcupine, and the pig-rat or bandicoot (_Mus bandicota_), while
the scaly ant-eater (_Manis pentedactyla_), locally known by the Malay
name of pangolin, is occasionally found. The dugong (_Halicore
dugong_), is frequently seen on various points of the coast. A game
preservation society and the judicious action of government have done
much to prevent the wanton destruction of Ceylon deer, elephants, &c.,
by establishing a close season. It is estimated that there must be
5000 wild elephants in the Ceylon forests. A licence to shoot or
capture and an export royalty are now levied by government.

Captain V. Legge includes 371 species of birds in Ceylon, and many of
them have splendid plumage, but in this respect they are surpassed by
the birds of South America and Northern India. The eagles are small
and rare, but hawks and owls are numerous; among the latter is a
remarkable brown species, the cry of which has earned for it the name
of the "devil-bird." The esculent swift, which furnishes in its edible
nest the celebrated Chinese dainty, builds in caves in Ceylon. Crows
of various species are numerous, and in the wilder parts pea-fowl are
abundant. There are also to be mentioned king-fishers, sun-birds,
several beautiful fly-catchers and snatchers, the golden oriole,
parroquets and numerous pigeons, of which there are at least a dozen
species. The Ceylon jungle-fowl (_Gallus Lafayetti_) is distinct from
the Indian species. Ceylon is singularly rich in wading and water
birds--ibises, storks, egrets, spoonbills and herons being frequently
seen on the wet sands, while flamingoes line the beach in long files,
and on the deeper waters inland are found teal and a countless variety
of ducks and smaller fowl. Of the birds familiar to European sportsmen
there are partridge, quail and snipe in abundance, and the woodcock
has been seen.

The poisonous snakes of Ceylon are not numerous. Four species have
been enumerated--the ticpolonga (_Daboia elegans_), the cobra di
capello (_Naja tripudians_), the carawilla (_Trigonocephalus
hypnale_), and the _Trigonocephalus nigromarginatus_, which is so rare
that it has no popular name. The largest snake in Ceylon is the "boa,"
or "anaconda" of Eastern story (_Python reticulatus_); it is from 20
to 30 ft. in length, and preys on hog-deer and other smaller animals.
Crocodiles infest the rivers and estuaries, and the large fresh-water
reservoirs which supply the rice-fields; there are two species (_C.
biporcatus_ and _C. palustris_). Of lizards the most noteworthy are
the iguana, several bloodsuckers, the chameleon and the familiar
geckoes, which are furnished with pads to each toe, by which they are
enabled to ascend perpendicular walls and adhere to glass and
ceilings.

Insects exist in great numbers. The leaf and stick insects are of
great variety and beauty. Ceylon has four species of the ant-lion,
renowned for the predaceous ingenuity of its larvae; and the white
ants or termites, the ravages of which are most destructive, are at
once ubiquitous and innumerable in every place where the climate is
not too chilly or the soil too sandy for them to construct their domed
dwellings. They make their way through walls and floors, and in a few
hours destroy every vegetable substance within their reach. Of all the
insect pests that beset an unseasoned European the most annoying are
the mosquitoes. Ticks are also an intolerable nuisance; they are
exceedingly minute, and burrow under the skin. In the lower ranges of
the hill country land leeches are found in tormenting profusion. But
insects and reptiles do not trouble European residents so much as in
early years--at any rate in the towns, while in the higher planting
districts there is almost complete exemption from their unwelcome
attentions. Bungalows are more carefully built to resist white ants,
drainage and cleanliness prevent mosquitoes and ticks from
multiplying, while snakes and leeches avoid cultivated, occupied
ground.

Of the fish in ordinary use for the table the finest is the seir, a
species of scomber (_Cybium guttatum_). Mackerel, dories, carp,
whitings, mullet (red and striped), soles and sardines are abundant.
Sharks appear on all parts of the coast, and the huge saw fish
(_Pristis antiquorum_) infests the eastern coast of the island, where
it attains a length of 12 to 15 ft. There are also several fishes
remarkable for the brilliancy of their colouring; e.g. the Red Sea
perch (_Holocentrum rubrum_), of the deepest scarlet, and the great
fire fish (_Scorpaena miles_), of a brilliant red. Some are purple,
others yellow, and numbers with scales of a lustrous green are called
"parrots" by the natives; of these one (_Sparus Hardwickii_) is called
the "flower parrot," from its exquisite colouring--irregular bands of
blue, crimson and purple, green, yellow and grey, crossed by
perpendicular stripes of black. The pearl fishery, as indicated below,
is of great importance.

_Population_.--The total population of Ceylon in 1901, inclusive of
military, shipping and 4914 prisoners of war, was 3,578,333, showing
an increase of 18.8% in the decade. The population of Colombo was
158,228.

The population and area of the nine provinces was as follows:--

+--------------------------+-------------+----------------+
| District. | Population. | Area in sq. m. |
+--------------------------+-------------+----------------+
| | | |
| Western Province | 925,342 | 1,432 |
| Central Province | 623,011 | 2,299-1/2 |
| Northern Province | 341,985 | 3,363-1/4 |
| Southern Province | 566,925 | 2,146-1/4 |
| Eastern Province | 174,288 | 4,036-1/2 |
| North-Western Province | 353,845 | 2,996-7/8 |
| North Central Province | 79,110 | 4,002-1/4 |
| Province of Uva | 192,072 | 3,154-1/2 |
| Province of Sabaragamuwa | 321,755 | 1,901-1/8 |
| +-------------+----------------+
| | 3,578,333 | 25,332 |
+--------------------------+-------------+----------------+

The table of nationality gives the principal groups as follows:--

Europeans 9,509
Burghers and Eurasians 23,539
Low-country Sinhalese 1,458,320
Kandyan Sinhalese 872,487
Tamils 953,535
Moors (Mahommedan) 228,706
Malays 11,963
Veddahs (Aborigines) 3,971

Altogether there are representatives of some seventy races in Ceylon.
The Veddahs, who run wild in the woods, are the aborigines of the
island.

_Language_.--The language of nearly 70% of the population is
Sinhalese, which is nearly allied to Pali (q.v.); of the remaining
30%, with the exception of Europeans, the language is Tamil. A corrupt
form of Portuguese is spoken by some natives of European descent. The
Veddahs, a small forest tribe, speak a distinct language, and the
Rodiyas, an outcast tribe, possess a large vocabulary of their own.
The Sinhalese possess several original poems of some merit, and an
extensive and most interesting series of native chronicles, but their
most valuable literature is written in Pali, though the greater
portion of it has been translated into Sinhalese, and is best known to
the people through these Sinhalese translations.

_Religion_.--The principal religions may be distributed as
follows:--Christians, 349,239; Buddhists, 2,141,404; Hindus, 826,826;
Mahommedans, 246,118. Of the Christians, 287,419 are Roman Catholics,
and 61,820 are Protestants of various denominations; and of these
Christians 319,001 are natives, and 30,238 Europeans. The Mahommedans
are the descendants of Arabs (locally termed Moormen) and the Malays.
The Tamils, both the inhabitants of the island and the immigrants from
India, are Hindus, with the exception of 93,000 Christians. The
Sinhalese, numbering 70% of the whole population, are, with the
exception of 180,000 Christians, Buddhists. Ceylon may properly be
called a Buddhist country, and it is here that Buddhism is found
almost in its pristine purity. Ceylon was converted to Buddhism in the
3rd century B.C. by the great Augustine of Buddhism, Mahinda, son of
the Indian king Asoka; and the extensive ruins throughout Ceylon,
especially in the ancient cities of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, bear
witness to the sacrifices which kings and people joined in making to
create lasting monuments of their faith. The Buddhist temples in the
Kandyan country possess valuable lands, the greater portion of which
is held by hereditary tenants on the tenure of service. These lands
were given out with much care to provide for all that was necessary to
maintain the temple and its connected monastery. Some tenants had to
do the blacksmiths' work, others the carpenters', while another set of
tenants had to cultivate the land reserved for supplying the
monastery; others again had to attend at the festivals, and prepare
decorations, and carry lamps and banners. In course of time
difficulties arose; the English courts were averse to a system under
which the rent of lands was paid by hereditary service, and a
commission was issued by Sir Hercules Robinson (afterwards Lord
Rosmead) when governor, to deal with the whole question, to define the
services and to enable the tenants to commute these for a money
payment. The result of the inquiry was to show that the services,
except in a few instances, were not onerous, and that almost without
an exception the tenants were willing to continue the system. The
anomaly of an ecclesiastical establishment of Anglican and
Presbyterian chaplains with a bishop of Colombo paid out of the
general revenues has now been abolished in Ceylon, and only the bishop
and two or three incumbents remain on the list for life, or till they
retire on pension.

_Education_.--There has been a great advance in public instruction
since 1875, through the multiplication of vernacular, Anglo-vernacular
and English schools by government, by the different Christian missions
and by the Buddhists and Hindus who have come forward to claim the
government grant. The government has also started a technical college,
and an agricultural school has been reorganized. An agricultural
department, recommended by a commission, should profit by the services
of the entomologist, mycologist and chemical analyst added by the
governor to the staff of the royal botanic gardens at Peradeniya.
There are industrial and reformatory schools, which are partially
supported by government. In spite of the great advance that has been
made, however, at the census of 1901 no fewer than 2,790,235 of the
total population were entered as unable to read or write their own
tongue. Of this number 1,553,078 were females, showing a very
unsatisfactory state of things.

Soil.

_Agriculture._--The natural soils of Ceylon are composed of quartzose
gravel, felspathic clay and sand often of a pure white, blended with
or overlaid by brown and red loams, resulting; from the decay of
vegetable matter, or the disintegration of the gneiss and hornblende
formations. The whole of the great northern extremity of the island
consists of a sandy and calcareous admixture, made to yield productive
crops of grain, tobacco, cotton and vegetables by the careful industry
of the Tamil population, who spare no pains in irrigating and manuring
their lands. Between the northern districts and the elevated mountain
ranges which overlook the Bintenne and Uva countries are extensive
plains of alluvial soil washed down from the table-lands above, where
once a teeming population produced large quantities of grain. The
remains of ancient works of irrigation bear testimony to the bygone
agriculture of these extensive regions now covered by swamps or dense
jungle.

The general character of the soil in the maritime provinces to the
east, south and west is sandy. Large tracts of quartzose sand spread
along the whole line of sea-coast, some of which, of a pure white, and
very deficient in vegetable matter, is admirably adapted to the growth
of the cinnamon plant. In the light sandy districts where the soil is
perfectly free, and contains a portion of vegetable and mineral loam,
the coco-nut palm flourishes in great luxuriance. This is the case
along the entire coast line from Kalpitiya to Point de Galle, and
farther eastward and northward to Matara, stretching to a distance
inland varying from 100 yds. to 3 m. From this light sandy belt as far
as the mountain-zone of the Kandyan country the land is mainly
composed of low hilly undulations of sandstone and ferruginous clay,
incapable of almost any cultivation, but intersected in every
direction with extensive valleys and wide plains of a more generous
soil, not highly fertile, but still capable, with a little industry,
of yielding ample crops of rice.

The soil of the central province, although frequently containing great
quantities of quartzose sand and ferruginous clay, is in many of the
more elevated districts of a fine loamy character. Sand sufficiently
vegetable and light for rice culture may be seen at all elevations in
the hill districts; but the fine chocolate and brown loams overlying
gneiss or limestone formations, so admirably adapted for coffee
cultivation, are only to be found on the steep sides or along the base
of mountain ranges at an elevation varying from 2000 to 4000 ft. Such
land, well-timbered, contains in its elements the decomposed particles
of the rocks above, blended with the decayed vegetable matter of
forests that have for centuries scattered beneath them the germs of
fertility. The quantity of really rich coffee land in these districts
is but small as compared with the extent of country--vast tracts of
open valleys consisting of an indifferent yellow tenacious soil
interspersed with many low ranges of quartz rock, but tea is a much
hardier plant than coffee, and grows on poorer soil.

_Irrigation_.--The native rulers covered the whole face of the country
with a network of irrigation reservoirs, by which Ceylon was enabled
in ancient times to be the great granary of southern Asia. Wars, and
the want of a strong hand to guide the agriculture of the country, led
to the decay of these ancient works, and large tracts of land, which
were formerly highly productive, became swampy wastes or dense
forests. The remains of some of the larger irrigation works are
amongst the most interesting of the memorials of Ceylon's former
greatness. Some of the artificial lakes were of great size. Minneri,
formed by damming across the valleys between the low hills which
surround it with an embankment 60 ft. wide at the top, is at this day
20 m. in circumference. It has recently been restored by government,
and is capable of irrigating 15,000 acres; while the Giant's Tank,
which has also been restored, irrigates 20,000 acres. Another lake,
with an embankment several miles in length, the Kalawewa, was formed
by damming back the waters of the Kalaoya, but they have forced their
way through the embankment, and in the ancient bed of the lake, or
tank, are now many small villages. In connexion with these large tanks
were numerous canals and channels for supplying smaller tanks, or for
irrigating large tracts of fields. Throughout the district of
Nuwarakalawiya every village has its tank. The embankments have been
formed with great skill, and advantage has been taken to the utmost of
the slightest fall in the land; but they in common with the larger
works had been allowed to fall into decay, and were being brought to
destruction by the evil practice of cutting them every year to
irrigate the fields. The work of restoring these embankments was
undertaken by the government, and 100 village tanks were repaired
every year, besides eighteen larger works. In 1900 a sum of five
million rupees was set apart for these larger undertakings.

_Cultivation and Products._--The area of uncultivated land is little
over 3-1/2 million acres, whereas fully four times that amount is
capable of cultivation. A great deal is waste, besides lagoons, tanks,
backwaters, &c. Thick forest land does not cover more than 5000 sq. m.
Scrub, or chena, and patana grass cover a very great area. Tea, cacao,
cardamoms, cinchona, coffee and indiarubber are the products
cultivated by European and an increasing number of native planters in
the hill country and part of the low country of Ceylon. A great change
has been effected in the appearance of the country by the introduction
of the tea plant in place of the coffee plant, after the total failure
of the latter owing to disease. For some time coffee had been the most
important crop. In the old days it grew wild like cinnamon, and was
exported so far back as the time of the Portuguese, but was lightly
esteemed as an article of European commerce, as the berry was gathered
unripe, was imperfectly cured and had little flavour. In 1824 the
governor, Sir E. Barnes, introduced coffee cultivation on the West
Indian plan; in 1834 the falling off of other sources of supply drew
general attention to Ceylon, and by 1841 the Ceylon output had become
considerable, and grew steadily (with an interval in 1847 due to a
commercial crisis) till 1877 when 272,000 acres were under coffee
cultivation, the total export amounting to 103,000,000 lb. Then owing
to disease came a crisis, and a rapid decline, and now only a few
thousand acres are left. On the failure of the coffee crops planters
began extensively to grow the tea plant, which had already been known
in the island for several years. By 1882 over 20,000 acres had been
planted with tea, but the export that year was under 700,000 lb. Five
years later the area planted was 170,000 acres, while the export had
risen to nearly 14,000,000 lb. By 1892 there were 262,000 acres
covered with tea, and 71,000,000 lb. were that year exported. In 1897,
350,000 acres were planted, and the export was 116,000,000 lb. By the
beginning of the 20th century, the total area cultivated with tea was
not under 390,000 acres, while the estimate of shipments was put at
146,000,000 lb. annually. Nearly every plantation has its factory,
with the machinery necessary to prepare the leaf as brought in from
the bushes until it becomes the tea of commerce. The total amount of
capital now invested in the tea industry in Ceylon cannot be less than
L10,000,000. The tea-planting industry more than anything else has
raised Ceylon from the depressed state to which it fell in 1882.

Before tea was proved a success, however, _cinchona_ cultivation was
found a useful bridge from coffee to the Ceylon planter, who, however,
grew it so freely that in one year 15,000,000 lb. bark was shipped,
bringing the price of quinine down from 16s. to 1s. 6d. an ounce.

In a few places, where the rainfall is abundant, rice cultivation is
allowed to depend on the natural supply of water, but in most parts
the cultivation is not attempted unless there is secured beforehand a
certain and sufficient supply, by means of canals or reservoirs. In
the hill country every valley and open plain capable of tillage is
made to yield its crops of grain, and the steep sides of the hills are
cut into terraces, on which are seen waving patches of green rice
watered by mountain streams, which are conducted by means of channels
ingeniously carried round the spurs of the hills and along the face of
acclivities, by earthen water-courses and bamboo aqueducts, so as to
fertilize the fields below. These works bear witness to the patience,
industry and skill of the Kandyan villagers. In the low country to the
north and east and north-west of the hills, irrigation works of a
more expensive kind are necessary. In January 1892, the immemorial
rent or tax on fields of _paddy_ (rice in the husk) was removed, but
not the customs duty on imported rice. But even with the advantage of
protection to the extent of 10% in the local markets, there has been
no extension of paddy cultivation; on the contrary, the import of
grain from India has grown larger year by year. Through the
multiplication of irrigation works and the northern railway, rice
culture may be sufficiently extended to save some of the large imports
(8,000,000 to 9,000,000 bushels annually) now required from India.

Tobacco is extensively cultivated in various parts of the island, and
the growth of particular places, such as Dumbara and Uva, is much
prized for local consumption. The tobacco of export is grown in the
peninsula of Jaffna. The exports of this article in 1850 were 22,176
cwts., valued at L20,698. The cultivation of the plant has not greatly
increased of recent years, and is almost entirely in the hands of
natives in the northern and parts of the central Province.

Ceylon has been celebrated since the middle of the 14th century for
its cinnamon, and during the period of the Dutch occupation this spice
was the principal article of commerce; under their rule and up to 1832
its cultivation was a government monopoly. With the abolition of the
monopoly the quantity exported increased, but the value declined.

Unlike the coffee plant, the hardy tea plant grows from sea-level to
7000 ft. altitude; but crown forest-lands above 5000 ft. are no longer
sold, so that a very large area on the highest mountain ranges and
plateaus is still under forest. Moreover, on the tea plantations
arboriculture is attended to in a way unknown in 1875; the Australian
eucalypts, acacias and grevilleas, Indian and Japanese conifers, and
other trees of different lands, are now freely planted for ornament,
for protection from wind, for firewood or for timber. A great advance
has been made at Hakgalla and Nuwara Eliya, in Upper Uva, and other
high districts, in naturalizing English fruits and vegetables. The
calamander tree is nearly extinct, and ebony and other fine cabinet
woods are getting scarce; but the conservation of forests after the
Indian system has been taken in hand under a director and trained
officers, and much good has been done. The cinnamon tree (wild in the
jungles, cultivated as a shrub in plantations) is almost the only one
yielding a trade product which is indigenous to the island. The
coco-nut and nearly all other palms have been introduced.

Among other agricultural products mention must be made of _cacao_, the
growth and export of which have steadily extended since coffee failed.
Important also is the spice or aromatic product of cardamoms.

The culture of _indiarubber_ was begun on low-country plantations, and
Ceylon rubber is of the best quality in the market. The area of
cultivation of the coco-nut palm has been greatly extended since 1875
by natives as well as by Europeans. The products of this palm that are
exported, apart from those so extensively used in the island itself,
exceed in a good year L1,000,000 sterling in value. Viticulture and
cotton cultivation, as well as tobacco growing, are being developed
along the course of the new northern railway.

Taking the trade in the products mentioned as a whole, no country can
compete with the United Kingdom as a customer of Ceylon. But there is
a considerable trade in nearly all products with Germany and America;
in cardamoms with India; in cinnamon with Spain, Italy, Belgium,
Australia, Austria and France; and in one or other of the products of
the coco-nut palm (coco-nuts, coco-nut oil, copra, desiccated
coco-nut, poonac, coir) with Belgium, Russia, France, Austria,
Australia and Holland.