Chapter II: Part 2

Meanwhile, on the 12th of April 1605, Cervantes authorized his publisher to proceed against the Lisbon booksellers who threatened to introduce their piratical reprints into Castile. By June the citizens of Valladolid already regarded Don Quixote and Sancho Panza as proverbial types. Less gratifying experiences awaited the popular author. On the 27th of June 1605 Gaspar de Ezpeleta, a Navarrese gentleman of dissolute life, was wounded outside the lodging-house in which Cervantes and his family lived; he was taken indoors, was nursed by Cervantes' sister Magdalena, and died on the 29th of June. That same day Cervantes, his natural daughter (Isabel de Saavedra), his sister Andrea and her daughter were lodged in jail on suspicion of being indirectly concerned in Ezpeleta's death; one of the witnesses made damaging charges against Cervantes' daughter, but no substantial evidence was produced, and the prisoners were released. Little is known of Cervantes' life between 1605 and 1608. A _Relacion_ of the festivities held to celebrate the birth of Philip IV., and a certain _Carta a don Diego Astudillo Carrillo_ have been erroneously ascribed to him; during these three years he apparently wrote nothing beyond three sonnets, and one of these is of doubtful authenticity. The depositions of the Valladolid enquiry show that he was living in poverty five months after the appearance of _Don Quixote_, and the fact that he borrowed 450 _reales_ from his publisher before November 1607 would convey the idea that his position improved slowly, if at all. But it is difficult to reconcile this view of his circumstances with the details concerning his illegitimate daughter revealed in documents recently discovered. Isabel de Saavedra was stated to be a spinster when arrested at Valladolid in June 1605; the settlement of her marriage with Luis de Molina in 1608 describes her as the widow of Diego Sanz, as the mother of a daughter eight months old, and as owning house-property of some value. These particulars are perplexing, and the situation is further complicated by the publication of a deed in which Cervantes declares that he himself is the real owner of this house-property, and that his daughter has merely a life-interest in it. This claim may be regarded as a legal fiction; it cannot easily be reconciled with Cervantes' statement towards the end of his life, that he was dependent on the bounty of the count de Lemos and of Bernardo de Sandoval, cardinal-archbishop of Toledo. In 1609 he joined the newly founded confraternity of the Slaves of the Most Blessed Sacrament; in 1610 Lemos was appointed viceroy of Naples, and Cervantes was keenly disappointed at not being chosen to accompany his patron. In 1611 he lost his sister Magdalena, who was buried by the charity of the Tertiaries of Saint Francis; in 1612 he joined the Academia Selvaje, and there appears to have renewed his former friendly relations with Lope de Vega; in 1613 he dedicated his _Novelas exemplares_ to the count de Lemos, and disposed of his rights for 1600 _reales_ and twenty-four copies of the book. The twelve tales in this volume, some of them written very much later than others, are of unequal merit, but they contain some of the writer's best work, and the two picaresque stories--_Rinconete y Cortadillo_ and the _Coloquio de los perros_--are superb examples of their kind, and would alone entitle Cervantes to take rank with the greatest masters of Spanish prose. In 1614 he published the _Viage del Parnaso_, a burlesque poem suggested by the _Viaggio in Parnaso_ (1582) of the Perugian poet Cesare Caporali. It contains some interesting autobiographical passages, much flattery of contemporary poetasters, and a few happy satirical touches; but, though it is Cervantes' most serious bid for fame as a poet, it has seldom been reprinted, and would probably have been forgotten but for an admirably humorous postscript in prose which is worthy of the author at his best. In the preface to his _Ocho comedias y ocho entremeses nuevos_ (1615) he good-humouredly admits that his dramatic works found no favour with managers, and, when this collection was first reprinted (1749), the editor advanced the fantastic theory that the _comedias_ were deliberate exercises in absurdity, intended to parody the popular dramas of the day. This view cannot be maintained, but a sharp distinction must be drawn between the eight set plays and the eight interludes; with one or two exceptions, the _comedias_ or set plays are unsuccessful experiments in Lope de Vega's manner, while the _entremeses_ or _interludes_, particularly those in prose, are models of spontaneous gaiety and ingenious wit.

In the preface to the _Novelas exemplares_ Cervantes had announced the speedy appearance of the sequel to _Don Quixote_ which he had vaguely promised at the end of the first part. He was at work on the fifty-ninth chapter of his continuation when he learned that he had been anticipated by Alonso Fernandez de Avellaneda of Tordesillas, whose _Segunde tamo del ingenioso hidalgo don Quixote de la Mancha_ was published at Tarragona in 1614. On the assumption that Fernandez de Avellaneda is a pseudonym, this spurious sequel has been ascribed to the king's confessor, Luis de Aliaga, to Cervantes' old enemy, Blanco de Paz, to his old friend, Bartolome Leonardo de Argensola, to the three great dramatists, Lope de Vega, Tirso de Molina and Ruiz de Alarcon, to Alonso Fernandez, to Juan Jose Marti, to Alfonso Lamberto, to Luis de Granada, and probably to others. Some of these attributions are manifestly absurd--for example, Luis de Granada died seventeen years before the first part of _Don Quixote_ was published--and all of them are improbable conjectures; if Avellaneda be not the real name of the author, his identity is still undiscovered. His book is not devoid of literary talent and robust humour, and possibly he began it under the impression that Cervantes was no more likely to finish _Don Quixote_ than to finish the _Galatea_. He should, however, have abandoned his project on reading the announcement in the preface to the _Novelas exemplares_; what he actually did was to disgrace himself by writing an insolent preface taunting Cervantes with his physical defects, his moral infirmities, his age, loneliness and experiences in jail. He was too intelligent to imagine that his continuation could hold its own against the authentic sequel, and malignantly avowed his intention of being first in the field and so spoiling Cervantes' market. It is quite possible that _Don Quixote_ might have been left incomplete but for this insulting intrusion; Cervantes was a leisurely writer and was, as he states, engaged on _El Engano a los ojos, Las Semanas del Jardin_ and _El Famoso Bernardo_, none of which have been preserved. Avellaneda forced him to concentrate his attention on his masterpiece, and the authentic second part of _Don Quixote_ appeared towards the end of 1615. No book more signally contradicts the maxim, quoted by the Bachelor Carrasco, that "no second part was ever good." It is true that the last fourteen chapters are damaged by undignified denunciations of Avellaneda; but, apart from this, the second part of _Don Quixote_ is an improvement on the first. The humour is more subtle and mature; the style is of more even excellence; and the characters of the bachelor and of the physician, Pedro Recio de Aguero, are presented with a more vivid effect than any of the secondary characters in the first part. Cervantes had clearly profited by the criticism of those who objected to "the countless cudgellings inflicted on Senor Don Quixote," and to the irrelevant interpolation of extraneous stories in the text. Don Quixote moves through the second part with unruffled dignity; Sancho Panza loses something of his rustic cunning, but he gains in wit, sense and manners. The original conception is unchanged in essentials, but it is more logically developed, and there is a notable progress in construction. Cervantes had grown to love his knight and squire, and he understood his own creations better than at the outset; more completely master of his craft, he wrote his sequel with the unfaltering confidence of a renowned artist bent on sustaining his reputation.

The first part of _Don Quixote_ had been reprinted at Madrid in 1608; it had been produced at Brussels in 1607 and 1611, and at Milan in 1610; it had been translated into English in 1612 and into French in 1614. Cervantes was celebrated in and out of Spain, but his celebrity had not brought him wealth. The members of the French special embassy, sent to Madrid in February 1615, under the Commandeur de Sillery, heard with amazement that the author of the _Galatea_, the _Novelas exemplares_ and _Don Quixote_ was "old, a soldier, a gentleman and poor." But his trials were almost at an end. Though failing in health, he worked assiduously at _Los Trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda_, which, as he had jocosely prophesied in the preface to the second part of _Don Quixote_, would be "either the worst or the best book ever written in our tongue." It is the most carefully written of his prose works, and the least animated or attractive of them; signs of fatigue and of waning powers are unmistakably visible. Cervantes was not destined to see it in print. He was attacked by dropsy, and, on the 18th of April 1616, received the sacrament of extreme unction; next day he wrote the dedication of _Persiles y Sigismunda_ to the count de Lemos--the most moving and gallant of farewells. He died at Madrid in the Calle del Leon on the 23rd of April; he was borne from his house "with his face uncovered," according to the rule of the Tertiaries of St Francis, and on the 24th of April was buried in the church attached to the convent of the Trinitarian nuns in the Calle de Cantarranas. There he rests--the story of his remains being removed in 1633 to the Calle del Humilladero has no foundation in fact--but the exact position of his grave is unknown. Early in 1617 _Persiles y Sigismunda_ was published, and passed through eight editions within two years; but the interest in it soon died away, and it was not reprinted between 1625 and 1719. Cervantes' wife died without issue on the 31st of October 1626; his natural daughter, who survived both the child of her first marriage and her second husband, died on the 20th of September 1652. Cervantes is represented solely by his works. The _Novelas exemplares_ alone would give him the foremost place among Spanish novelists; _Don Quixote_ entitles him to rank with the greatest writers of all time: "children turn its leaves, young people read it, grown men understand it, old folk praise it." It has outlived all changes of literary taste, and is even more popular to-day than it was three centuries ago.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Leopold Rius, _Bibliografia critica de las obras de
Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra_ (Madrid, 1895-1905, 3 vols.); _Obras
completas_ (Madrid, 1863-1864, 12 vols.), edited by Juan Eugenio
Hartzenbusch; _Complete Works_ (Glasgow, 1901-1906, 8 vols. in
progress), edited by James Fitzmaurice-Kelly; _Don Quijote_ (Madrid,
1833-1839, 6 vols.), edited by Diego Clemenciu; _Don Quixote_ (London,
1899-1900, 2 vols.), edited by James Fitzmaurice-Kelly and John
Ormsby; _Don Quijote_ (Madrid, 1905-1906, 2 vols. in progress), edited
by Clemente Cortejon; _Rinconete y Cortadillo_ (Sevilla, 1905), edited
by Francisco Rodriguez Marin; _Epistola a Mateo Vazquez_ (Madrid,
1905), edited by E[milio] C[otarelo]; Julian Apraiz, _Estudio
historico-critico sobre las Novelas ejemplares de Cervantes_ (Madrid,
1901); Francisco A. de Icaza, _Las Novelas ejemplares de Cervantes_
(Madrid, 1901); Francisco Rodriguez Marin, _El Loaysa de "El Celoso
Extremeno"_ (Sevilla, 1901); Narciso Diaz de Escovar, _Apuntes
escenicos cervantinos_ (Madrid, 1905); Manuel Jose Garcia, _Estudio
critico acerca del entremes "El Vizcaino fingido"_ (Madrid, 1905);
Alfred Morel-Fatio, _L'Espagne de Don Quichotte_ in _Etudes sur
l'Espagne_ (Paris, 1895, 2me serie); Julio Puyol y Alonso, _Estado
social que refleja "El Quijote"_ (Madrid, 1905); James
Fitzmaurice-Kelly, _Cervantes in England_ (London, 1905); Raymond
Foulche-Delbose, _Etude sur "La tia fingida,"_ in the _Revue
hispanique_ (Paris, 1899), vol. vi. pp. 256-306; Benedetto Croce, _Due
illustrazioni al "Viage del Parnaso,"_ in the _Homenaje a Menendez y
Pelayo_ (Madrid, 1899), vol. i. pp. 161-193; Paul Groussac, _Une
Enigme litteraire: le Don Quichotte d'Avellaneda_ (Paris, 1903);
Alonso Fernandez de Avellaneda, _El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quixote de
la Mancha_ (Barcelona, [1905]), edited by Marcelino Menendez y Pelayo;
Julio Cejador y Franca, _La Lengua de Cervantes_ (Madrid, 1905, &c.);
Martin Fernandez de Navarrete, _Vida de Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra_
(Madrid, 1819); Cristobal Perez Pastor, _Documentos Cervantinos hasta
ahora ineditos_ (Madrid, 1897-1902, 2 vols.); Emilio Cotardo y Mori,
_Efemerides Cervantinas_ (Madrid, 1905); Francisco Rodriguez Marin,
_Cervantes estudio en Sevilla, 1564-1565_ (Seville, 1905).
(J. F.-K.)

CERVERA, PASCUAL CERVERA Y TOPETE (1839-1909), Spanish admiral, was born at Medina Sidonia on the 18th of February 1839. He showed an early inclination for the sea, and his family sent him to the naval cadet school at the age of twelve. As a sub-lieutenant he took part in the naval operations on the coast of Morocco during the campaign of 1859-60. Then he was for some time engaged in operations in the Sulu Islands and the Philippines. Afterwards he was on the West Indian station during the early part of the first Cuban War (1868-78), returning to Spain in 1873 to serve on the Basque coast against the Carlists. He distinguished himself in defending the Carraca arsenal near Cadiz against the Federals in 1873. He won each step in his promotion up to flag-rank through his steadiness and brilliant conduct in action, and was awarded the crosses of the Orders of Military and Naval Merit, Isabella the Catholic, and St Hermengilde, besides several medals. Cervera had a great reputation for decision, unbending temper and honesty, before he was placed at the head of the Bilbao building-yards. This post he resigned after a few months in order to become minister of marine in 1892, in a cabinet presided over by Sagasta. He withdrew from the cabinet when he found that his colleagues, from political motives, declined to support him in making reforms and, on the other hand, unwisely cut down the naval estimates. When in 1898 the Spanish-American War (q.v.) broke out, he was chosen to command a squadron composed of four first-class cruisers, the "Maria Theresa," his flagship, "Oquendo," "Vizcaya," and "Columbus," and several destroyers. This ill-fated squadron only started upon its reckless cruise across the ocean after its gallant commander had repeatedly warned both the minister of marine and the prime minister, Sagasta, in despatches from Cadiz and from the Canary and Cape Verde Islands, that the ships were insufficiently provided with coal and ammunition. Some of them, indeed, even lacked proper guns. In compliance with the instructions of the government, Admiral Cervera made for the landlocked harbour of Santiago de Cuba, where he co-operated in the defence, landing some guns and a naval brigade. In spite of his energetic representations, Cervera received an order from Madrid, dictated by political considerations, to sally forth. It meant certain destruction. The gallant squadron met forces trebly superior to it, and was totally destroyed. The admiral, three of his captains, and 1800 sailors and marines were taken by the victors to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, U.S.A. After the war, Cervera and his captains were tried before the supreme naval and military court of the realm, which honourably acquitted them all. In 1901 he became vice-admiral, in 1902 was appointed chief of staff of the Spanish navy, and in 1903 was made life senator. He died at Puerto Real on the 3rd of April 1909.

CESAREVICH, or more properly TSESAREVICH, the title of the heir-apparent to the Russian throne. The full official title is _Nasliednik Tsesarevich_, i.e. "heir of Caesar," and in Russia the heir to the throne is commonly called simply _Nasliednik_, the word _Tsesarevich_ never being used alone. _Tsarevich_, a form now much used in England, means simply any "king's son"; it is an antiquated term now out of use in Russia, and was last borne as heir to the throne by the unfortunate Alexius, son of Peter the Great. The style of the wife of the tsesarevich is _Tsesarevna_. The Cesarewitch handicap race at Newmarket, founded in 1839, was named after the prince who was afterwards Alexander II. of Russia, who paid a state visit to England that year.

CESARI, GIUSEPPE, called Il Cavaliere d' Arpino (born in or about 1568 and created a "Cavaliere di Cristo" by Pope Clement VIII.), also named Il Giuseppino, an Italian painter, much encouraged at Rome and munificently rewarded. His father had been a native of Arpino, but Giuseppe himself was born in Rome. Cesari is stigmatized by Lanzi as not less the corrupter of taste in painting than Marino was in poetry; indeed, another of the nicknames of Cesari is "Il Marino de' Pittori" (the pictorial Marino). There was spirit in Cesari's heads of men and horses, and his frescoes in the Capitol (story of Romulus and Remus, &c.), which occupied him at intervals during forty years, are well coloured; but he drew the human form ill. His perspective is faulty, his extremities monotonous, and his chiaroscuro defective. He died in 1640, at the age of seventy-two, or perhaps of eighty, at Rome. Cesari ranks as the head of the "Idealists" of his period, as opposed to the "Naturalists," of whom Michelangelo da Caravaggio was the leading champion,--the so-called "idealism" consisting more in reckless facility, and disregard of the common facts and common-sense of nature, than in anything to which so lofty a name could be properly accorded. He was a man of touchy and irascible character, and rose from penury to the height of opulence. His brother Bernardino assisted in many of his works.

CESAROTTI, MELCHIORE (1730-1808), Italian poet, was born at Padua in 1730, of a noble but impoverished family. At the university of his native place his literary progress procured for him at a very early age the chair of rhetoric, and in 1768 the professorship of Greek and Hebrew. On the invasion of Italy by the French, he gave his pen to their cause, received a pension, and was made knight of the iron crown by Napoleon I., to whom, in consequence, he addressed a bombastic and extravagantly flattering poem called _Pronea_. Cesarotti is best known as the translator of Homer and Ossian. Much praise cannot be given to his version of the _Iliad_, for he has not scrupled to add, omit and modernize. Ossian, which he held to be the finest of poems, he has, on the other hand, considerably improved in translation; and the appearance of his version attracted much attention in Italy and France, and raised up many imitators of the Ossianic style. Cesarotti also produced a number of works in prose, including a _Course of Greek Literature_, and essays _On the Origin and Progress of the Poetic Art_, _On the Sources of the Pleasure derived from Tragedy_, _On the Philosophy of Language_ and _On the Philosophy of Taste_, the last being a defence of his own great eccentricities in criticism. His weakness was a straining after novelty. His style is forcible, but full of Gallicisms.

A complete edition of his works, in 42 vols. 8vo. began to appear at
Pisa in 1800, and was completed in 1813, after his death. See
_Memoirs_, by Barbieri (Padua, 1810), and _Un Filosofo delle lettere_,
by Alemanni (Turin, 1894).

CESENA (anc. _Caesena_), a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Forli, 12 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Forli, on the line between Bologna and Rimini, 144 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1905) 12,245 (town); 43,468 (commune). The town is picturesquely situated at the foot of the slopes of the Apennines, and is crowned by a medieval fortress (Rocca), begun by the emperor Frederick I. (Barbarossa) probably, but altered and added to later. The cathedral has two fine marble altars by the Lombardi of Venice (or their school). The library, built for Domenico Malatesta in 1452 by Matteo Nuzio, is a fine early Renaissance building, and its internal arrangements, with the original desks to which the books are still chained, are especially well preserved (see J.W. Clark, _The Care of Books_, Cambridge, 1901, p. 199). In it are valuable MSS., many of which were used by Aldus Manutius. It also contains a picture gallery with a good "Presentation in the Temple" by Francesco Francia. There are some fine palaces in the town. Three-quarters of a mile south-east on the hill stands the handsome church of S. Maria del Monte, after the style of Bramante, with carved stalls of the 16th century. Wine, hemp and silk are the main articles of trade. About the ancient Caesena little is said in classical authors: it is mentioned as a station on the Via Aemilia and as a fortress in the wars of Theodoric and Narses. During the middle ages it was at first independent. In 1357 it was unsuccessfully defended by the wife of Francesco Ordelaffi, lord of Forli, against the papal troops under Albornoz. In 1377 it was sacked by Cardinal Robert of Geneva (afterwards Clement VII., antipope). It was then held by the Malatesta of Rimini until 1465, when it came under the dominion of the church. Both Pius VI. (1717) and Pius VII. (1742) were born at Cesena. (T. As.)

CESNOLA, LUIGI PALMA DI (1832-1904), Italian-American soldier and archaeologist, was born near Turin on the 29th of July 1832. Having served in the Austrian and Crimean Wars, in 1860 he went to New York, where he taught Italian and French and founded a military school for officers. He took part in the American Civil War as colonel of a cavalry regiment, and at Aldie (June 1863) was wounded and taken prisoner. He was released from Libby prison early in 1864, served in the Wilderness and Petersburg campaigns (1864-65) as a brigadier of cavalry, and at the close of the war was breveted brigadier-general. He was then appointed United States consul at Larnaca in Cyprus (1865-1877). During his stay in the island he carried on excavations, which resulted in the discovery of a large number of antiquities. The collection was purchased by the Metropolitan Museum of New York, and Cesnola became director in 1879. Doubt having been thrown by Gaston L. Feuerdant, in an article in the New York _Herald_ (August 1880), upon the genuineness of his restorations, the matter was referred to a special committee, which pronounced in his favour.[1] He is the author of _Cyprus, its ancient Cities, Tombs and Temples_ (1877), an interesting book of travel and of considerable service to the practical antiquary; and of a _Descriptive Atlas of the Cesnola Collection of Cypriote Antiquities_ (3 vols., 1884-6). He died in New York on the 21st of November 1904. He was a member of several learned societies in Europe and America, and in 1897 he received a Congressional medal of honour for conspicuous military services.

His brother, ALESSANDRO PALMA DI CESNOLA, born in 1839, conducted excavations at Paphos (where he was U.S. vice-consul) and Salamis on behalf of the British government. The results of these are described in _Salaminia_ (1882).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] For the Cesnola controversy see C.D. Cobham's _Attempt at a
Bibliography of Cyprus_ (4th ed., 1900). See also article CYPRUS.

CESPEDES (in Ital. CEDASPE), PABLO DE (1538-1608), Spanish poet, painter, sculptor and architect, was born at Cordova, and was educated at Alcala de Henares, where he studied theology and Oriental languages. On leaving the university, he went to Rome, where he became the pupil and friend of Federigo Zuccaro, under whose direction he studied particularly the works of Raphael and of Michelangelo. In 1560, while yet in Rome, proceedings were taken against him by the Inquisition at Valladolid on account of a letter which, found among the papers of the archbishop of Toledo, had been written by Cespedes during the preceding year, and in which he had spoken with great freedom against the holy office and the inquisitor-general, Fernando de Valdes. Cespedes remained in Rome at this critical moment, and he appears rightly to have treated the prosecution with derision. It is not known how he contrived to bring the proceedings to an end; he returned, however, to Spain a little before 1577, and in that year was installed in a prebend of the cathedral at Cordova, where he resided till his death. Pablo de Cespedes has been called the most _savant_ of Spanish artists. According to his friend Francisco Pacheco, to whom posterity is indebted for the preservation of all of Cespedes's verse that is extant, the school of Seville owes to him its introduction to the practice of chiaroscuro. He was a bold and correct draughtsman, a skilful anatomist, a master of colour and composition; and the influence he exerted to the advantage of early Spanish art was considerable. Cristobal de Vera, Juan de Penalosa and Zambrano were among his pupils. His best picture is a Last Supper at Cordova, but there are good examples of his work at Seville and at Madrid. Cespedes was author of several opuscules in prose on subjects connected with his profession. Of his poem on _The Art of Painting_ enough was preserved by Pacheco to enable us to form an opinion of the whole. It is esteemed the best didactic verse in Spanish; and it has been compared, not disadvantageously, with the _Georgics_. It is written in strong and sonorous octaves, in the majestic declamatory vein of Fernando Herrera, and is not altogether so dull and lifeless as is most didactic verse. It contains a glowing eulogy of Michelangelo, and some excellent advice to young painters, insisting particularly on hard work and on the study of nature. The few fragments yet remaining, amounting in all to some six hundred lines, were first printed by Pacheco in his treatise _Del arte de la pintura_, in 1649.

CESPEDES Y MENESES, GONZALO DE (1585?-1638), Spanish novelist, was born at Madrid about 1585. Nothing positive is known of him before the publication of his celebrated romance, the _Poema tragico del Espanol Gerardo, y desengano del amor lascivo_ (1615-1617); there is evidence that he had been sentenced to eight years at the galleys previous to the 1st of January 1620, and that the penalty had been remitted; but the nature of his offence is not stated. His treatment of political questions in the _Historia apologetica en los sucesos del reyno de Aragon, y su ciudad de Zaragoza, anos de 91 y 92_ (1622), having led to the confiscation of the book, Cespedes took up his residence at Saragossa and Lisbon. While in exile he issued a collection of short stories entitled _Historias peregrinas y exemplares_ (1623), the unfinished romance _Varia fortuna del soldado Pindaro_ (1626), and the first part of his _Historia de Felipe IV._ (1631), a fulsome eulogy which was rewarded by the author's appointment as official historiographer to the Spanish king. Cespedes died on the 27th of January 1638. His novels, though written in a ponderous, affected style, display considerable imagination and insight into character. The _Poema tragico_ has been utilized by Fletcher in _The Spanish Curate_ and in _The Maid of the Mill_.

The _Historias peregrinas_ has been reprinted (1906) with a valuable
introduction by Sr. Cotarelo y Mori.

CESS (a shortened form of "assess"; the spelling is due to a mistaken connexion with "census"), a tax; a term formerly more particularly applied to local taxation, in which sense it still is used in Ireland; otherwise it has been superseded by "rate." In India it is applied, with the qualifying word prefixed, to any taxation, such as "irrigation-cess" and the like, and in Scotland to the land-tax.

CESSIO BONORUM (Latin for a "surrender of goods"), in Roman law, a voluntary surrender of goods by a debtor to his creditors. It did not amount to a discharge unless the property ceded was sufficient for the purpose, but it secured the debtor from personal arrest. The creditors sold the goods in satisfaction, _pro tanto_, of their claims. The procedure of _cessio bonorum_ avoided infamy, and the debtor, though his after-acquired property might be proceeded against, could not be deprived of the bare necessaries of life. The main features of the Roman law of _cessio bonorum_ were adopted in Scots law, and also in the French legal system. (See further BANKRUPTCY.)

CESTI, MARC' ANTONIO (1620?-1669?), Italian musical composer, was born at Florence about 1620. He was a pupil of Carissimi, and after holding a post somewhere in Florence as _maestro di cappella_ entered the papal chapel in 1660. In 1666 he became _Vice-Kapellmeister_ at Vienna, and died at Venice in 1669. Cesti is known principally as a composer of operas, the most celebrated of which were _La Dori_ (Venice, 1663) and _Il Pomo d' oro_ (Vienna, 1668). He was also a composer of chamber-cantatas, and his operas are notable for the pure and delicate style of their airs, more suited to the chamber than to the stage.

CESTIUS, LUCIUS, surnamed Pius, Latin rhetorician, flourished during the reign of Augustus. He was a native of Smyrna, a Greek by birth. According to Jerome, he was teaching Latin at Rome in the year 13 B.C. He must have been living after A.D. 9, since we are told that he taunted the son of Quintilius Varus with his father's defeat in the Teutoburgian forest (Seneca, _Controv._ i. 3, 10). Cestius was a man of great ability, but vain, quarrelsome and sarcastic. Before he left Asia, he was invited to dinner by Cicero's son, then governor of the province. His host, being uncertain as to his identity, asked a slave who Cestius was; and on receiving the answer, "he is the man who said your father was illiterate," ordered him to be flogged (Seneca, _Suasoriae_, vii. 13). As an orator in the schools Cestius enjoyed a great reputation, and was worshipped by his youthful pupils, one of whom imitated him so slavishly that he was nicknamed "my monkey" by his teacher (Seneca, _Controv._ ix. 3, 12). As a public orator, on the other hand, he was a failure. Although a Greek, he always used Latin in his declamations, and, although he was sometimes at a loss for Latin words, he never suffered from lack of ideas. Numerous specimens of his declamations will be found in the works of Seneca the rhetorician.

See the monograph _De Lucio Cestio Pio_, by F.G. Lindner (1858); T.
Brzoska in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iii. 2 (1899);
Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist, of Roman Lit._ (Eng. tr.), S 268, 6; M.
Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen Litteratur_, ii.

CESTUI, CESTUY, an Anglo-French word, meaning "that person," which appears in the legal phrases _cestui que trust_, _use_, or _vie_. It is usually pronounced as "cetty." _Cestui que trust_ means literally "the person for whose benefit the trust" is created. The _cestui que trust_ is the person entitled to the equitable, as opposed to the legal, estate. Thus, if land be granted unto, and to the use of A. in trust for B., B. is _cestui que trust_, and A. trustee. The term, principally owing to its cumbersomeness, is being gradually superseded in modern law by that of "beneficiary." _Cestui que use_ (sometimes _cestui a que use_) means "the person for whose benefit a use" is created (see TRUST). _Cestui que vie_ is "the person for whose life" lands are held by another (see REMAINDER).

CETACEA (from the Gr. [Greek: ketos], a whale), the name of the mammalian order represented by whales, dolphins, porpoises, &c. From their fish-like form, which is manifestly merely an adaptation to their purely aquatic life, these creatures are often regarded as fishes, although they are true mammals, with warm blood, and suckle their young.

The general form is essentially fish-like, the spindle-shaped body passing anteriorly into the head without any distinct neck, and posteriorly tapering gradually towards the extremity of the tail, which is provided with a pair of lateral, pointed expansions of skin supported by fibrous tissue, called "flukes," forming a horizontal triangular propelling organ, notched behind in the middle line. The head is generally large, in some cases attaining more than one-third the entire length; and the mouth is wide, and bounded by stiff, immobile lips. The fore-limbs are reduced to flattened paddles, encased in a continuous skin, showing no external sign of division, and without trace of nails. There are no signs of hind-limbs visible externally. The surface of the skin is smooth and glistening, and devoid of hair, although in many species there are a few bristles in the neighbourhood of the mouth which may persist through life or be present only in the young state. Immediately beneath the skin is a thick layer of fat, held together by a mesh of tissue, constituting the "blubber," which retains the heat of the body. In nearly all species a compressed dorsal fin is present. The eye is small, and not provided with a true lacrymal apparatus. The external ear is a minute aperture in the skin situated at a short distance behind the eye. The nostrils open separately or by a single crescentic aperture, near the vertex of the head.

The bones generally are spongy in texture, the cavities being filled
with oil. In the vertebral column, the cervical region is short and
immobile, and the vertebrae, always seven in number, are in many
species more or less fused together into a solid mass. The odontoid
process of the second cervical vertebra, when that bone is free, is
usually very obtuse, or even obsolete. In a paper on the form and
function of the cervical vertebrae published in the _Jenaische
Zeitschrift_ for 1905, Dr O. Reche points out that the shortening and
soldering is most pronounced in species which, like the right-whales,
live entirely on minute organisms, to capture which there is no
necessity to turn the head at all. Accordingly we find that in these
whales the whole seven cervical vertebrae are fused into an immovable
solid mass, of which the compound elements, with the exception of the
first and second, are but little thicker than plates. On the other
hand, in the finner-whales, several of which live exclusively on fish,
and thus require a certain amount of mobility in the head and neck, we
find all the cervical vertebrae much thicker and entirely separate
from one another. Among the dolphin group the narwhal and the white
whale, or beluga, are distinguished from all other cetaceans by the
great comparative length of their cervical vertebrae, all of which are
completely free. In the case of the narwhal such an abnormal structure
is easily accounted for, seeing that to use effectively the long tusk
with which the male is armed a considerable amount of mobility in the
neck is absolutely essential. The beluga, too, which is believed to
feed on large and active fishes, would likewise seem to require
mobility in the same region in order to effect their capture. On the
other hand, the porpoise preys on herrings, pilchards and mackerel,
which in their densely packed shoals must apparently fall an easy prey
with but little exertion on the part of their captor, and we
accordingly find all the neck-vertebrae very short, and at least six
out of the seven coalesced into a solid immovable mass. None of the
vertebrae are united to form a sacrum. The lumbar and caudal vertebrae
are numerous and large, and, as their arches are not connected by
articular processes (zygapophyses), they are capable of free motion in
all directions. The caps, or epiphyses, at the end of the vertebral
bodies are flattened disks, not uniting until after the animal has
attained its full dimensions. There are largely developed
chevron-bones on the under side of the tail, the presence of which
indicates the distinction between caudal and lumbar vertebrae.

In the skull, the brain-case is short, broad and high, almost
spherical, in fact (fig. 1). The supra-occipital bone rises upwards
and forwards from the foramen magnum, to meet the frontals at the
vertex, completely excluding the parietals from the upper region; and
the frontals are expanded laterally to form the roof of the orbits.
The nasal aperture opens upwards, and has in front of it a more or
less horizontally prolonged beak, formed of the maxillae, premaxillae,
vomer, and mesethmoid cartilage, extending forwards to form the upper
jaw or roof of the mouth.

There are no clavicles. The humerus is freely movable on the scapula
at the shoulder-joint, but beyond this the articulations of the limb
are imperfect; the flattened ends of the bones coming in contact, with
fibrous tissue interposed, allowing of scarcely any motion. The radius
and ulna are distinct, and about equally developed, and much
flattened, as are all the bones of the flippers. There are four, or
more commonly five, digits, and the number of the phalanges of the
second and third always exceeds the normal number in mammals,
sometimes considerably; they present the exceptional character of
having epiphyses at both ends. The pelvis is represented by a pair of
small rod-like bones placed longitudinally, suspended below and at
some distance from the vertebral column at the commencement of the
tail. In some species, to the outer surface of these are fixed other
small bones or cartilages, the rudiments of the hind-limb.

PMx, Premaxilla.
Mx, Maxilla.
ME, Ossified portion of the mesethmoid.
an, Nostrils.
Na, Nasal.
IP, Inter-parietal.
Fr, Frontal.
Pa, Parietal.
SO, Supra-occipital.
ExO, Ex-occipital.
BO, Basi-occipital.
Sq, Squamosal.
Per, Periotic.
AS, Alisphenoid.
PS, Presphenoid.
Pt, Pterygoid.
pn, Posterior nares.
Pl, Palatine.
Vo, Vomer.
s, Symphysis of lower jaw.
id, Inferior dental canal.
cp, Coronoid process of lower jaw.
cd, Condyle.
a, Angle.
sh, Stylo-hyal.
bh, Basi-hyal.
th, Thyro-hyal.]

Teeth are generally present, but exceedingly variable in number. In
existing species, they are of simple, uniform character, with conical
or compressed crowns and single roots, and are never preceded by
milk-teeth. In the whalebone whales teeth are absent (except in the
foetal condition), and the palate is provided with numerous
transversely placed horny plates, forming the "whalebone." Salivary
glands are rudimentary or absent. The stomach is complex, and the
intestine simple, and only in some species provided with a small
caecum. The liver is little fissured, and there is no gall-bladder.
The blood-vascular system is complicated by net-like expansions of
both arteries and veins, or _retia mirabilia_, The larynx is of
peculiar shape, the arytenoid cartilages and the epiglottis being
elongated, and forming a tubular prolongation, which projects into the
posterior nares, and when embraced by the soft palate forms a
continuous passage between the nostrils and the trachea, or wind-pipe,
in a more perfect manner. The brain is relatively large, round in
form, with its surface divided into numerous and complex convolutions.
The kidneys are deeply lobulated; the testes are abdominal; and there
are no vesiculae seminales nor an os penis. The uterus is bicornuate;
the placenta non-deciduate and diffuse. The two teats are placed in
depressions on each side of the genital aperture. The ducts of the
milk-glands are dilated during suckling into large reservoirs, into
which the milk collects, and from which it is injected by the action
of a muscle into the mouth of the young animal, so that sucking under
water is greatly facilitated.

Whales and porpoises are found in all seas, and some dolphins and porpoises are inhabitants of the larger rivers of South America and Asia. Their organization necessitates their passing their life entirely in the water, as on land they are absolutely helpless. They have, however, to rise very frequently to the surface for the purpose of respiration; and, in relation to the upward and downward movement in the water thus necessitated, the principal instrument of motion, the tail, is expanded horizontally. The position of the nostril on the highest part of the head is important for this mode of life, as it is the only part of the body the exposure of which above the surface is absolutely necessary. Of numerous erroneous ideas connected with natural history, few are so widespread as that whales spout through their blow-holes water taken in at the mouth. But the "spouting," or "blowing," of whales is nothing more than the ordinary act of expiration, which, taking place at longer intervals than land-animals, is performed with a greater emphasis. The moment the animal rises to the surface it forcibly expels from its lungs the air taken in at the last inspiration, which is charged with vapour in consequence of the respiratory changes. This rapidly condensing in the cold atmosphere in which the phenomenon is often observed, forms a column of steam or spray, which has been taken for water. It happens, however, especially when the surface of the ocean is agitated into waves, that the animal commences its expiratory puff before the orifice has cleared the top of the water, some of which may thus be driven upwards with the blast, tending to complete the illusion. From photographs of spouting rorquals, it appears that the height and volume of the "spout" of all the species is much less than was supposed to be the case by the older observers; even that of the huge "sulphur-bottom" (_Balaenoptera sibbaldi_) averaging only about 14 ft. in height, although it may occasionally reach 20 ft.

As regards their powers of hearing, the capacity of cetaceans for receiving (and acting upon) sound-waves is demonstrated by the practice of shouting on the part of the fishermen when engaged in driving a shoal of porpoises or black-fish into shallow water, for the purpose of frightening their intended victims. As regards the possession of a voice by cetaceans, it is stated that one species, the "buckelwal" of the Germans, utters during the breeding-season a prolonged scream, comparable to the scream of a steam-siren, and embracing the whole musical scale, from base to treble. In respect of anatomical considerations, it is true that the external ear is much reduced, the "pinna" being absent, and the tube or "meatus" of very small calibre. On the other hand, the internal auditory organs are developed on the plan of those of ordinary mammals, but display certain peculiar modifications (notably the remarkable shell-like form of the tympanic bone) for intensifying and strengthening the sound-waves as they are received from the water. It seems, therefore, perfectly evident that whales must hear when in the water. This inference is confirmed by the comparatively small development of the other sense-organs. The eye, for instance, is very small, and can be of little use even at the comparatively small depths to which whales are now believed to descend. Again, the sense of smell, judging from the rudimentary condition of the olfactory organs, must be in abeyance; and whales have no sense-organs comparable to the lateral-line-system of fishes. Consequently, it would seem that when below the surface of the water they must depend chiefly upon the sense of hearing. Probably this sense is so highly developed as to enable the animals, in the midst of the vibrations made by the screw-like movements of the tail, or flukes, to distinguish the sound (or the vibrations) made by the impact of water against rocks, even in a dead calm, and, in the case of piscivorous species, to recognize by the pulse in the water the presence of a shoal of fish. Failing this explanation, it is difficult to imagine how whales can find their way about in the semi-darkness, and avoid collisions with rocks and rock-bound coasts.

In the Christiania _Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne_, vol.
xxxviii., Dr G. Guldberg has published some observations on the
body-temperature of the Cetacea, in which he shows how extremely
imperfect is our knowledge of this subject. As he remarks, it is a
matter of extreme difficulty to obtain the temperature of living
cetaceans, although this has been taken in the case of a white-whale
and a dolphin, which some years ago were kept in confinement in a pond
in the United States. With the larger whales such a mode of procedure
is, however, obviously quite impracticable, and we have, accordingly,
to rely on _post-mortem_ observations. The layer of blubber by which
all cetaceans are protected from cold renders the _post-mortem_
refrigeration of the blood a much slower process than in most mammals,
so that such observations have a much higher value than might at first
be supposed to be the case. Indeed, the blood-temperature of a
specimen of Sibbald's rorqual three days after death still stood at 34
deg. C. The various observations that have been taken have afforded
the following results in individual cases: Sperm-whale, 40 deg. C.;
Greenland right-whale, 38.8 deg. C.; porpoise, 35.6 deg. C.; liver of
a second individual, 37.8 deg. C.; common rorqual, 35.4 deg. C.;
dolphin, 35.6 deg. C. The average blood-temperature of man is 37 deg.
C., and that of other mammals 39 deg. C.; while that of birds is 42 C.
The record of 40 deg. C. in the case of the sperm-whale seems to
indicate that at least some cetaceans have a relatively high
temperature.

With the possible exception of one West African dolphin, all the Cetacea are predaceous, subsisting on living animal food of some kind. One kind alone (_Orca_) eats other warm-blooded animals, as seals, and even members of its own order, both large and small. Many feed on fish, others on small floating crustaceans, pteropods and jelly-fishes, while the principal staple of the food of many is constituted by cuttle-fishes and squids. In size cetaceans vary much, some of the smaller dolphins scarcely exceeding 4 ft. in length, while whales are the most colossal of all animals. It is true that many statements of their bulk are exaggerated, but the actual dimensions of the larger species exceed those of all other animals, not even excluding the extinct dinosaurian reptiles. With some exceptions, cetaceans are generally timid, inoffensive animals, active in their movements and affectionate in their disposition towards one another, especially the mother towards the young, of which there is usually but one, or at most two at a time. They are generally gregarious, swimming in herds or "schools," sometimes amounting to many thousands in number; though some species are met with either singly or in pairs.

Commercially these animals are of importance on account of the oil yielded by the blubber of all of them; while whalebone, spermaceti and ambergris are still more valuable products yielded by certain species. Within the last few years whalebone has been sold in America for L2900 per ton, while it is also asserted that L3000 per ton has been paid for two and a quarter tons at Aberdeen, although there seems to be some degree of doubt attaching to the statement. Soon after the middle of the last century, the price of this commodity was as low as L150 per ton, but, according to Mr Frank Buckland, it suddenly leapt up to L620 with the introduction of "crinoline" into ladies' costume, and it has apparently been on the rise ever since. Ambergris, which is very largely used in perfumery, is solely a product of the sperm-whale, and appears to be a kind of biliary calculus. It generally contains a number of the horny beaks of the cuttle-fishes and squids upon which these whales chiefly feed. Its market-price is subject to considerable variation, but from L3 to L4 per oz. is the usual average for samples of good quality. In 1898 a merchant in Mincing Lane was the owner of a lump of ambergris weighing 270 lb., which was sold in Paris for about 85 s. per oz., or L18,360.

_Whalebone Whales_.--Existing Cetacea are divisible into two sections,
or suborders, the relationships of which are by no means clearly
apparent. The first section is that of the whalebone whales, or
Mystacoceti, in which no functional teeth are developed, although
there are tooth-germs during foetal life. The palate is furnished with
plates of baleen or whalebone; the skull is symmetrical; and the nasal
bones form a roof to the nasal passages, which are directed upwards
and forwards. The maxilla is produced in front of, but not over, the
orbital process of the frontal. The lacrymal is small and distinct
from the jugal. The tympanic is welded with the periotic, which is
attached to the base of the skull by two strong diverging processes.
The olfactory organ is distinctly developed. The two halves of the
lower jaw are arched outwards, their anterior ends meeting at an
angle, and connected by fibrous tissue without any symphysis. All the
ribs at their upper extremity articulate only with the transverse
processes of the vertebrae; their capitular processes when present not
articulating directly with the bodies of the vertebrae. The sternum is
composed of a single piece, and articulates only with a single pair of
ribs; and there are no ossified sternal ribs. External openings of
nostrils distinct from each other, longitudinal. A short conical
caecum.

When in the foetal state these whales have numerous minute teeth lying
in the dental groove of both upper and lower jaws. They are best
developed about the middle of foetal life, after which they are
absorbed, and no trace of them remains at the time of birth. The
whalebone does not make its appearance until after birth; and consists
of a series of flattened horny plates, between three and four hundred
in number, on each side of the palate, with a bare interval along the
middle line. The plates are placed transversely to the long axis of
the palate, with short intervals between them. Each plate or blade is
somewhat triangular in form, with the base attached to the palate and
the apex hanging downwards. The outer edge of the blade is hard and
smooth, but the inner edge and apex fray out into long bristly fibres,
so that the roof of the whale's mouth looks as if covered with hair,
as described by Aristotle. At the inner edge of each principal blade
are two or three much smaller or subsidiary blades. The principal
blades are longest near the middle of the series, and gradually
diminish towards the front and back of the mouth. The horny plates
grow from a fibrous and vascular matrix, which covers the palatal
surface of the maxillae, and sends out plate-like processes, one of
which penetrates the base of each blade. Moreover, the free edges of
these processes are covered with long vascular thread-like papillae,
one of which forms the central axis of each of the hair-like fibres
mainly composing the blade. A transverse section of fresh whalebone
shows that it is made up of numbers of these soft vascular papillae,
circular in outline, and surrounded by concentrically arranged
epidermic cells, the whole bound together by other epidermic cells,
that constitute the smooth (so-called "enamel") surface of the blade,
which, disintegrating at the free edge, allows the individual fibres
to become loose and assume a hair-like appearance.

Whalebone really consists of modified papillae of the mucous membrane
of the mouth, with an excessive and horny epithelial development. The
blades are supported and bound together for a certain distance from
their base, by a mass of less hardened epithelium, secreted by the
surface of the palatal membrane or matrix of the whalebone in the
intervals of the plate-like processes. This is the "gum" of the
whalers. Whalebone varies much in colour in different species; in some
it is almost jet black, in others slate colour, horn colour, yellow,
or even creamy-white. In some descriptions the blades are variegated
with longitudinal stripes of different hues. It differs also greatly
in other respects, being short, thick, coarse, and stiff in some
cases, and greatly elongated and highly elastic in those species in
which it has attained its fullest development. Its function is to
strain the water from the small marine molluscs, crustaceans, or fish
upon which the whales subsist. In feeding, whales fill the immense
mouth with water containing shoals of these small creatures, and then,
on closing the jaws and raising the tongue, so as to diminish the
cavity of the mouth, the water streams out through the narrow
intervals between the hairy fringe of the whalebone blades, and
escapes through the lips, leaving the living prey to be swallowed.