Chapter III: Part 3

Although sometimes divided into two families, _Balaenidae_ and
_Balaenopteridae_, whalebone-whales are best included in a single
family group under the former name. The typical members of this family
are the so-called right-whales, forming the genus _Balaena_, in which
there are no folds on the throat and chest, and no back-fin; while the
cervical vertebrae are fused into a single mass. The flippers are
short and broad, with five digits; the head is very large and the
whalebone very long and narrow, highly elastic and black; while the
scapula is high, with a distinct coracoid and coronoid process. This
genus contains the well-known Greenland right-whale (_B. mysticetus_)
of the Arctic seas, the whalebone and oil of which are so much valued
in commerce, and also other whales, distinguished by having the head
somewhat smaller in proportion to the body, with shorter whalebone and
a larger number of vertebrae. These inhabit the temperate seas of both
northern and southern hemispheres, and have been divided into species
in accordance with their geographical distribution, such as _B.
biscayensis_ of the North Atlantic, _B. japonica_ of the North
Pacific, _B. australis_ of the South Atlantic, and _B. antipodarum_
and _novae-zelandiae_ of the South Pacific; but the differences
between them are so small that they may probably be regarded as races
of a single species, the black whale (_B. australis_). On the head
these whales carry a peculiar structure which is known to whalers as
the "bonnet." This is a large horny excrescence, worn into hollows
like a much-denuded piece of limestone rock, growing probably in the
neighbourhood of the blow-hole. More than one theory has been
suggested to account for its presence. One suggestion is that it
indicates the descent of whales from rhinoceros-like mammals; another
that this species of whale is in the habit of rubbing against rocks in
order to free itself from barnacles, and thus produces a kind of
corn--although why on the nose alone is not stated. Dr W.G. Ridewood,
however, considers that the structure is due to the fact that the
horny layers which are produced all over the skin are not shed on this
particular spot.

The pigmy whale (_Neobalaena marginata_) represents a genus agreeing
with the right-whales in the absence of throat-flutings, and with the
rorquals in the presence of a dorsal fin. The cervical vertebrae are
united, and there are only 43 vertebrae altogether. The flippers are
small, narrow, and with only four digits. The ribs remarkably expanded
and flattened; the scapula low and broad, with completely developed
acromion and coracoid processes. The whalebone is long, slender,
elastic and white. The species which inhabits the South American,
Australian and New Zealand seas is the smallest of the
whalebone-whales, being not more than 20 ft. in length.

In contrast to the preceding is the great grey whale (_Rachianectes
glaucus_) of the North Pacific, which combines the relatively small
head, elongated shape, and narrow flippers of the fin-whales, with the
smooth throat and absence of a back-fin distinctive of the
right-whales. The whalebone is shorter and coarser than in any other
species. In the skeleton the cervical vertebrae are free, and the
first two ribs on each side expanded and united to form a large bony
shield. In the humpback-whale (_Megaptera longimana_ or _boops_) the
head is of moderate size, the whalebone-plates are short and wide, and
the cervical vertebrae free. The skin of the throat is fluted so as to
form an expansible pouch; there is a low back-fin; and the flippers,
which have four digits each, are extremely long, equalling about
one-fourth the total length of the animal. The acromion and coracoid
processes of the scapula are rudimentary. See HUMPBACK-WHALE.

The right-whales are built for cruising slowly about in search of the
shoals of small floating invertebrates which form their food, and are
consequently broad in beam, with a float-shaped body and immovable
neck. The humpback is of somewhat similar build, but with a smaller
head, and probably attains considerable speed owing to the length of
its flippers. The finners, or rorquals (_Balaenoptera_), which prey
largely on fish, are built entirely for speed, and are the ocean
greyhounds of the group. Their bodies are consequently long and
attenuated, and their necks are partially mobile; while they are
furnished with capacious pouches for storing their food. They chiefly
differ from the humpback by the smaller head, long and slender build,
small, narrow, and pointed flippers, each containing four digits, and
the large acromion and coracoid processes to the low and broad
scapula. Rorquals are found in almost every sea. Among them are the
most gigantic of all animals, _B. sibbaldi_, which attains the length
of 80 ft., and the small _B. rostrata_, which does not exceed 30.
There are certainly four distinct modifications of this genus,
represented by the two just mentioned, and by _B. musculus_ and _B.
borealis_, all inhabitants of British seas, but the question whether
almost identical forms found in the Indian, Southern and Pacific
Oceans are to be regarded as specifically identical or as distinct
awaits future researches, although some of these have already received
distinct names. See RORQUAL.

In the report on the zoology of the "Discovery" expedition, published
in 1907 by the British Museum, E.A. Wilson describes a whale
frequenting the fringe of the Antarctic ice which indicates a new
generic type. Mainly black in colour, these whales measure about 20 or
30 ft. in length, and have a tall dorsal fin like that of a killer.

_Toothed Whales._--The second suborder is represented by the toothed
whales, or Odontoceti, in which there is no whalebone, and teeth,
generally numerous, though sometimes reduced to a single pair, and
occasionally wanting, are normally developed. Unlike that of the
whalebone-whales, the upper surface of the skull is more or less
unsymmetrical. The nasal bones are in the form of nodules or flattened
plates, applied closely to the frontals, and not forming any part of
the roof to the nasal passage, which is directed upwards and
backwards. The olfactory organ is rudimentary or absent. Hinder end of
the maxilla expanded and covering the greater part of the orbital
plate of the frontal bone. Lacrymal bone either inseparable from the
jugal, or, if distinct, large, and forming part of the roof of the
orbit. Tympanic bone not welded with the periotic, which is usually
only attached to the rest of the skull by ligament. Two halves of the
lower jaw nearly straight, expanded in height posteriorly, with a wide
funnel-shaped aperture to the dental canal, and coming in contact in
front by a flat surface of variable length, but constituting a
symphysis. Several of the anterior ribs with well-developed capitular
processes, which articulate with the bodies of the vertebrae. Sternum
almost always composed of several pieces, placed one behind the other,
with which several pairs of ribs are connected by well-developed
cartilaginous or ossified sternal ribs. External respiratory aperture
single, the two nostrils uniting before they reach the surface,
usually in the form of a transverse sub-crescentic valvular aperture,
situated on the top of the head. Flippers with five digits, though the
first and fifth are usually little developed. No caecum, except in
_Platanista_.

The first family, _Physeteridae_, is typified by the sperm-whale, and
characterized by the absence of functional teeth in the upper jaw; the
lower teeth being various, and often much reduced in number. Bones of
the skull raised so as to form an elevated prominence or crest behind
the nostrils. Pterygoid bones thick, produced backwards, meeting in
the middle line, and not involuted to form the outer wall of the
post-palatine air-sinuses, but simply hollowed on their outer side.
Transverse processes of the arches of the dorsal vertebrae, to which
the tubercles of the ribs are attached, ceasing abruptly near the end
of the series, and replaced by processes on the body at a lower level,
and serially homologous anteriorly with the heads of the ribs, and
posteriorly with the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae.
Costal cartilages not ossified.

The first group, or _Physeterinae_, includes the sperm-whale itself
and is characterized by the presence of a full series of lower teeth,
which are set in a groove in place of sockets, the groove being
imperfectly divided by partial septa, and the teeth held in place by
the strong, fibrous gum. No distinct lacrymal bone. Skull strikingly
asymmetrical in the region of the nasal apertures, in consequence of
the left opening greatly exceeding the right in size.

In the sperm-whale (_Physeter macrocephalus_) the upper teeth are
apparently of uncertain number, rudimentary and functionless, being
embedded in the gum. Lower jaw with from 20 to 25 teeth on each side,
stout, conical, recurved and pointed at the apex until they are worn,
without enamel. Upper surface of the skull concave; its posterior and
lateral edges raised into a very high and greatly compressed
semicircular crest or wall (fig. 2). Zygomatic processes of jugal
bones thick and massive. Muzzle greatly elongated, broad at the base,
and gradually tapering to the apex. Lower jaw exceedingly long and
narrow, the symphysis being more than half the length. Vertebrae: C 7,
D 11, L 8, Ca 24; total 50. Atlas, or first vertebra, free; all the
other cervical vertebrae united by their bodies and spines into a
single mass. Eleventh pair of ribs rudimentary. Head about one-third
the length of the body; very massive, high and truncated, and rather
compressed in front; owing its huge size and form mainly to the
accumulation of a mass of fatty tissue filling the large hollow on the
upper surface of the skull and overlying the long muzzle. The single
blow-hole is longitudinal, slightly S-shaped, and placed at the upper
and anterior extremity of the head to the left side of the middle
line. The opening of the mouth is on the under side of the head,
considerably behind the end of the snout. Flippers short, broad and
truncated. Dorsal fin represented by a low protuberance. See
SPERM-WHALE.

In the lesser or pigmy sperm-whale (_Cogia breviceps_) there may be a
pair of rudimentary teeth in the upper jaw, while on each side of the
lower jaw there are from 9 to 12 rather long, slender, pointed and
curved teeth, with a coating of enamel. Upper surface of the skull
concave, with thick, raised, posterior and lateral margins, massive
and rounded at their anterior terminations above the orbits. Muzzle
not longer than the cranial position of the skull, broad at the base,
and rapidly tapering to the apex. Zygomatic process of the jugal
rod-like. Lower jaw with symphysis less than half its length.
Vertebrae: C 7, D 13 or 14, L and Ca 30; total 50 or 51. All the
cervical vertebrae united by their bodies and arches. The head is
about one-sixth of the length of the body, and obtusely pointed in
front; the mouth small and placed far below the apex of the snout; the
blow-hole crescentic, and placed obliquely on the crown of the head in
advance of the eyes and to the left of the middle line; while the
flippers are bluntly sickle-shaped, and the back-fin triangular. This
species attains a length of from 9 to 13 ft.

A second subfamily is represented by the bottle-noses and beaked
whales, and known as the _Ziphiinae_. In this group the lower teeth
are rudimentary and concealed in the gum, except one, or rarely two,
pairs which may be largely developed, especially in the male. There is
a distinct lacrymal bone. Externally the mouth is produced into a
slender rostrum or beak, from above which the rounded eminence formed
by a cushion of fat resting on the cranium in front of the blow-hole
rises somewhat abruptly. The blow-hole is single, crescentic and
median, as in the _Delphinidae_. Flippers small, ovate, with five
digits moderately well developed. A small obtuse dorsal fin situated
considerably behind the middle of the back. Longitudinal grooves on
each side of the skin of the throat, diverging posteriorly, and nearly
meeting in front. In external characters and habits the whales of this
group closely resemble each other. They appear to be almost
exclusively feeders on cuttle-fishes, and occur either singly, in
pairs, or in small herds. By their dental and osteological characters
they are easily separated into four genera.

In the first of these, _Hyperoodon_, or bottle-nose, there is a small
conical pointed tooth at the apex of each half of the lower jaw,
concealed by the gum during life. Skull with the upper ends of the
premaxillae rising suddenly behind the nostrils to the vertex and
expanded laterally, their outer edges curving backwards and their
anterior surfaces arching forwards and overhanging the nostrils; the
right larger than the left. Nasal bones lying in the hollow between
the upper extremities of the premaxillae, strongly concave in the
middle line and in front; their outer edges, especially that of the
right, expanded over the front of the inner border of the maxilla.
Very high longitudinal crests on the maxillae at the base of the beak,
extending backwards almost to the nostrils, approaching each other in
the middle line above; sometimes compressed and sometimes so massive
that their inner edges come almost in contact. Preorbital notch
distinct, and mesethmoid cartilage slightly ossified. Vertebrae: C 7,
D 9, L 10, Ca 19; total 45. All the cervical vertebrae united. Upper
surface of the head in front of the blow-hole very prominent and
rounded, rising abruptly from above the small, distinct snout. Two
species are known. See BOTTLE-NOSE WHALE.

The typical representative of the beaked whales is _Ziphius cuvieri_,
in which there is a single conical tooth of moderate size on each side
close to the anterior extremity of the lower jaw, directed forwards
and upwards. Skull with the premaxillae immediately in front and at
the sides of the nostrils expanded, hollowed, with elevated lateral
margins, the posterior ends rising to the vertex and curving forwards,
the right being considerably more developed than the left. The
conjoint nasals form a pronounced symmetrical eminence at the top of
the skull, projecting forwards over the nostrils, flat above,
prominent and rounded in the middle line in front, and separated by a
notch on each side from the premaxillae. Preorbital notch not
distinct. Rostrum (seen from above) triangular, tapering from the base
to the apex; upper and outer edges of maxillae at base of rostrum
raised into low roughened tuberosities. Mesethmoid cartilage densely
ossified in adult age, and coalescing with the surrounding bones of
the rostrum. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 10, Ca 22; total 49. The three
anterior cervical vertebrae united, the rest free.

In the numerous species of the allied genus _Mesoplodon_ there is a
much-compressed and pointed tooth in each half of the lower jaw,
variously situated, but generally at some distance behind the apex;
its point directed upwards, and often somewhat backwards, occasionally
developed to a great size. In the skull the region round the nostrils
is as in _Hyperoodon_, except that the nasals are narrow and more sunk
between the upper ends of the premaxillae; like those of _Hyperoodon_,
they are concave in the middle line in front and above. No maxillary
tuberosities. Preorbital notch not very distinct. Rostrum long and
narrow. Mesethmoid in the adult ossified in its entire length, and
coalescing with the surrounding bones. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 10 or
11, Ca 19 or 20; total 46 to 48. Two or three anterior cervicals
united, the rest usually free.

Though varying in form, the lower teeth of the different members of
this genus agree in their essential structure, having a small and
pointed enamel-covered crown, composed of dentine, which, instead of
surmounting a root of the ordinary character, is raised upon a solid
mass of osteo-dentine, the continuous growth of which greatly alters
the form and general appearance of the tooth as age advances, as in
the case of _M. layardi_, where the long, narrow, flat, strap-like
teeth, curving inwards at their extremities, meet over the rostrum,
and interfere with the movements of the jaw. In one species (_M.
grayi_) a row of minute, conical, pointed teeth, like those of
ordinary Dolphins, 17 to 19 in number, is present even in the adults,
on each side of the middle part of the upper jaw, but embedded by
their roots only in the gum, and not in bony sockets. This, with the
frequent presence of rudimentary teeth in other species of this genus,
indicates that the beaked whales are derived from ancestral forms with
teeth of normal character in both jaws. The species are distributed in
both northern and southern hemispheres, but most frequent in the
latter. Among them are _M. bidens_, _M. europaeas_, _M. densirostris_,
_M. layardi_, _M. grayi_ and _M. hectori_; but there is still much to
be learned with regard to their characters and distribution. This
group was abundant in the Pliocene age, as attested by the frequency
with which the imperishable long, cylindrical rostrum of the skull, of
more than ivory denseness, is found among the rolled and waterworn
animal remains which compose the "bone-bed" at the base of the Red
Crag of Suffolk.

Finally, in Arnoux's beaked whale (_Berardius arnouxi_), of New
Zealand, which grows to a length of 30 ft., there are two
moderate-sized, compressed, pointed teeth, on each side of the
symphysis of the lower jaw, with their summits directed forwards, the
anterior being the larger of the two and close to the front of the
jaw. Upper ends of the premaxillae nearly symmetrical, moderately
elevated, slightly expanded, and not curved forward over the nostrils.
Nasals broad, massive and rounded, of nearly equal size, forming the
vertex of the skull, flattened in front, most prominent in the middle
line. Preorbital notch distinct. Rostrum long and narrow. Mesethmoid
partially ossified. Small rough eminences on the outer edge of the
upper surface of the maxillae at base of rostrum. Vertebrae: C 7, D
10, L 12, Ca 19; total 48. The three anterior cervicals welded, the
rest free and well developed. Apparently this whale has the power of
thrusting its teeth up and down, exposing them to view when attacked.

In a family by themselves--the _Platinistidae_--are placed three
cetaceans which differ from the members of the preceding and the
following groups in the mode of articulation of the ribs with the
vertebrae, as the tubercular and capitular articulations, distinct at
the commencement of the series, gradually blend together, as in most
mammals. The cervical vertebrae are all free. The lacrymal bone is not
distinct from the jugal. The jaws are long and narrow, with numerous
teeth in both; the symphysis of the lower one exceeding half its
length. Externally the head is divided from the body by a slightly
constricted neck. Pectoral limbs broad and truncated. Dorsal fin small
or obsolete. In habits these dolphins are fluviatile or estuarine. In
the Indian susu, or Ganges dolphin (_Platanista gangetica_), the teeth
number about 30/30 on each side, are set near together, are rather
large, cylindrical, and sharp-pointed in the young, but in old animals
acquire a large laterally compressed base, which in the posterior part
of the series becomes irregularly divided into roots. As the conical
enamel-covered crown wears away, the teeth of the young and old
animals have a totally different appearance. The beak and
tooth-bearing portion of the lower jaw are so narrow that the teeth of
the two sides are almost in contact. Maxillae supporting large,
incurved, compressed bony crests, which overarch the nostrils and base
of the rostrum, and almost meet in the middle line above. Orbits very
small and eyes rudimentary, without crystalline lens. Blow-hole
longitudinal, linear. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 8, Ca 25; total 51. A
small caecum. No pelvic bones. Dorsal fin represented by a low ridge.

The second genus is represented by _Inia geoffroyi_, of the Amazon, in
which the teeth vary from 26 to 33 pairs in each jaw; those at the
posterior part with a distinct tubercle at the inner side of the base
of the crown. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, L 3, Ca 18; total 41. Transverse
processes of lumbar vertebrae very broad. Sternum short and broad, and
consisting of a single segment only. Dorsal fin a mere ridge. The long
cylindrical rostrum externally furnished with scattered, stout and
crisp hairs. The third type is _Stenodelphis blainvillei_, the River
Plate dolphin, a small brown species (fig. 7), with from 50 to 60
pairs of teeth in each jaw, furnished with a cingulum at the base of
the crown. Jaws very long and slender. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 5, Ca
19; total 41. Transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae extremely
broad. Sternum elongated, composed of two segments, with four sternal
ribs attached. Dorsal fin rather small, triangular, pointed. Blow-hole
transverse. In several respects this species connects the two
preceding ones with the _Delphinidae_ (see DOLPHIN).

The last family of existing cetaceans is the above-mentioned
_Delphinidae_, which includes the true dolphins, porpoises, grampuses
and their relatives. As a rule there are numerous teeth in both jaws;
and the pterygoid bones of the skull are short, thin and involuted to
form with a process of the palate bone the outer wall of the
post-palatine air-sinus. Symphysis of lower jaw short, or moderate,
never exceeding one-third the length of the jaw. Lacrymal bone not
distinct from the jugal. Transverse processes of the dorsal vertebrae
gradually transferred from the arches to the bodies of the vertebrae
without any sudden break, and becoming posteriorly continuous serially
with the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae. Anterior ribs
attached to the transverse process by the tubercle, and to the body of
the vertebra by the head; the latter attachment lost in the posterior
ribs. Sternal ribs ossified. The blow-hole is transverse, crescentic,
with the horns of the crescent pointing forwards.

First on the long list is the narwhal, _Monodon monoceros_, in which,
apart from some irregular rudimentary teeth, the dentition is reduced
to a single pair of teeth which lie horizontally in the maxilla, and
in the female remain permanently concealed within the socket, so that
this sex is practically toothless, while in the male (fig. 8), the
right tooth usually remains similarly concealed while the left is
immensely developed, attaining a length equal to more than half that
of the entire animal, projecting horizontally from the head in the
form of a cylindrical, or slightly tapering, pointed tusk, without
enamel, and with the surface marked by spiral grooves and ridges,
running in a sinistral direction. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 6, Ca 26;
total 50. Cervical region comparatively long, and all the vertebrae
distinct, or with irregular unions towards the middle of the series,
the atlas and axis being usually free. Flipper small, short and broad,
with the second and third digits nearly equal, the fourth slightly
shorter. No dorsal fin. See NARWHAL.

Closely allied is the beluga or white-whale (_Delphinapterus leucas_),
of the Arctic seas, in which, however, there are from eight to ten
pairs of teeth in each jaw, occupying the anterior three-fourths of
the rostrum and corresponding portion of the lower jaw, rather small,
conical, and pointed when unworn, but usually become obliquely
truncated, separated by intervals considerably wider than the diameter
of the tooth, and implanted obliquely, the crowns inclining forwards
especially in the upper jaw. Skull rather narrow and elongated,
depressed. Premaxillae convex in front of the nostrils. Rostrum about
equal in length to the cranial portion of the skull, triangular, broad
at the base, and gradually contracting towards the apex, where it is
somewhat curved downwards. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 9, Ca 23; total 50.
Cervical vertebrae free. Flippers broad, short and rounded, all the
digits being tolerably well developed, except the first. Anterior part
of head rounded; no distinct snout. No dorsal fin, but a low ridge in
its place. See BELUGA.

In all the remaining genera of _Delphinidae_ the cervical region of
the vertebral column is very short, and the first two, and usually
more, of the vertebrae are firmly united. The common porpoise
(_Phocaena communis_, or _P. phocaena_) is the typical representative
of the first genus, in which the teeth vary from 18/18 to 25/25, are
small, and occupy nearly the whole length of the rostrum, with
compressed, spade-shaped crowns, separated from the root by a
constricted neck. Rostrum rather shorter than the cranium proper,
broad at the base and tapering towards the apex. Premaxillae raised
into tuberosities in front of the nostrils. The frontal bones form a
somewhat square elevated protuberance in the middle line of the skull
behind the nostrils, rising above the flattened nasals. Symphysis of
lower jaw very short. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, L 14, Ca 30; total 64.
First to sixth cervical vertebrae and sometimes the seventh also,
coalesced. Flippers of moderate size, oval, slightly sickle-shaped,
with the second and third digits nearly equal in length, and the
fourth and fifth well developed, but shorter. Head short, moderately
rounded in front of the blow-hole. Dorsal fin near the middle of the
back, triangular; its height considerably less than the length of the
base; its anterior edge frequently furnished with one or more rows of
conical horny tubercles.

The porpoise, which is so common in British waters and the Atlantic,
seldom enters the Mediterranean, and apparently never resides there.
There is, however, a porpoise in the Black Sea, which, according to Dr
O. Abel, is entitled to rank as a distinct species, with the name of
_Phocaena relicta_. This Black Sea porpoise is readily distinguished
from the Atlantic species by the contour of the profile of the head,
which, in place of forming a continuous curve from the muzzle to what
represents the neck, has a marked prominence above the angle of the
mouth, followed by an equally marked depression. The teeth are also
different in form and number. The absence of porpoises from the
Mediterranean is explained by Dr Abel on account of the greater
saltness of that sea as compared with the ocean in general; his idea
being that these cetaceans are near akin to fresh-water members of the
group, and therefore unsuited to withstand an excessively saline
medium. From the Taman Peninsula, on the north shore of the Black Sea,
the same writer has described an extinct type of ancestral porpoise,
under the name of _Palaeophocaena andrussowi_. Another species is the
wholly black _P. spinipennis_, typically from South America. Black is
also the hue of the Indian porpoise (_Neophocaena phocaenoides_),
which wants a dorsal fin, and has eighteen pairs of teeth rather
larger than those of the ordinary porpoise. (See PORPOISE.)

Next comes the Indo-Malay genus _Orcella_, in which the 12/12 to
14/14, small, conical teeth are pointed, rather closely set, and
occupy nearly the whole length of the rostrum. Skull sub-globular,
high. Rostrum nearly equal in length to the cranial portion of the
skull, tapering. Flippers of moderate size, not elongated, but
somewhat pointed, with all the bones of the digits broader than long,
except the first phalanges of the index and third fingers. Head
globular in front. Dorsal fin rather small, placed behind the middle
of the body. Two species, both of small size--_O. brevirostris_, from
the Bay of Bengal, and _O. fluminalis_, from the Irrawaddy river, from
300 to 900 m. from the sea.

In the grampus, or killer, _Orca gladiator_ (or _O. orca_) the teeth
form about twenty pairs, above and below, occupying nearly the whole
length of the rostrum, very large and stout, with conical recurved
crowns and large roots, expanded laterally and flattened, or rather
hollowed, on the anterior and posterior surfaces. Rostrum about equal
in length to the cranial part of the skull, broad and flattened above,
rounded in front; premaxillae broad and rather concave in front of the
nostrils, contracted at the middle of the rostrum, and expanding again
towards the apex. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11-12, L 10, Ca 23; total 51 or
52; bodies of the first and second and sometimes the third cervical
vertebrae united; the rest free. Flippers very large, ovate, nearly as
broad as long, with all the phalanges and metacarpals broader than
long. General form of body robust. Face short and rounded. Dorsal fin
near the middle of the back, very high and pointed. See GRAMPUS.

The lesser killer or black killer, _Pseudorca crassidens_, has its
8-12/8-12 teeth confined to the anterior half of the rostrum and
corresponding part of the lower jaw; they are small, conical, curved
and sharp-pointed when unworn, but sometimes deciduous in old age.
Skull broad and depressed; with the rostrum and cranial portions about
equal in length. Upper surface of rostrum broad and flat. Premaxillae
concave in front of the nostrils, as wide at the middle of the rostrum
as at the base, and nearly or completely concealing the maxillae in
the anterior half of this region. Vertebrae: C 7, D II, L 12-14, Ca
28-29; total 58 or 59. Bodies of the anterior five or six cervical
vertebrae united. Length of the bodies of the lumbar and anterior
caudal vertebrae about equal to their width. Flippers very long and
narrow, with the second digit the longest, and having as many as 12 or
13 phalanges, the third shorter (with 9 phalanges), the first, fourth
and fifth very short. Fore part of the head round, in consequence of
the great development of a cushion of fat, placed on the rostrum of
the skull in front of the blow-hole. Dorsal fin low and triangular,
the length of its base considerably exceeding its vertical height.

Next comes the ca'ing whale, or black-fish (_Globicephalus melas_),
with about ten pairs of upper and lower teeth. Cranial and dental
characters generally like those of _Orca_, except that the roots of
the teeth are cylindrical. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 9, Ca 24; total 50;
first to sixth or seventh cervical vertebrae united; bodies of the
lumbar vertebrae distinguished from those of the preceding genera by
being more elongated, the length being to the width as 3 to 2.
Flippers of moderate size, narrow and pointed. Dorsal fin situated
near the middle of the back, of moderate size, and sickle-shaped. Head
in front of the blow-hole high, and compressed anteriorly, the snout
truncated. See CA'ING WHALE.

Risso's dolphin, _Grampus griseus_, represents another genus,
characterized by the absence of teeth in the upper and the small
number of these in the lower jaw (3 to 7 on each side, and confined to
the region of the symphysis). Vertebrae: C 7, D 12, L 19, Ca 30; total
68. General external characters much as in _Globicephalus_, but the
fore part of the head less rounded, and the flippers less elongated.
_G. griseus_ is about 13 ft. long, and remarkable for its great
variability of colour. It has been found, though rarely, in the North
Atlantic and Mediterranean.

The common dolphin (_Delphinus delphis_) is the typical representative
of a large group of relatively small species, some of which are wholly
marine, while others are more or less completely fluviatile. They are
divided into a number of genera, such as _Prodelphinus_, _Steno_,
_Lagenorhynchus_, _Cephalorhynchus_, _Tursiops_, &c., best
distinguished from one another by the number and size of the teeth,
the form and relations of the bones on the hinder part of the palate,
the length of the beak and of the union of the two halves of the lower
jaw, and the number of vertebrae. For the distinctive characters of
these genera the reader may refer to one of the works mentioned below;
and it must suffice to state that, collectively, all these dolphins
are characterized by the following features. The teeth are numerous in
both jaws, and more than 20/20 in number, occupying nearly the whole
length of the rostrum, and small, close-set, conical, pointed and
slightly curved. Rostrum more or less elongated, and pointed in front,
usually considerably longer than the cranial portion of the skull.
Vertebrae: C 7, D 12-14, L and Ca variable; total 51 to 90. Flippers
of moderate size, narrow, pointed, somewhat sickle-shaped, with the
first digit rudimentary, the second longest, third nearly equal, and
the fourth and fifth extremely short. Externally the head shows a
distinct beak or pointed snout, marked off from the antenasal fatty
elevation by a V-shaped groove. Dorsal fin rather large, triangular or
sickle-shaped, rarely wanting. A curiously marked brown and white
species, perhaps referable to _Lagenorhynchus_ is found on the fringe
of the Antarctic ice (see report on the zoology of the "Discovery,"
published in 1907 by the British Museum). See DOLPHIN.

_Extinct Cetacea._

At present we are totally in the dark as to the origin of the
whalebone-whales, not being even assured that they are derived from
the same stock as the toothed whales. It is noteworthy, however, that
some of the fossil representatives of the latter have nasal bones of a
type recalling those of the former. Such fossil whalebone-whales as
are known occur in Pliocene, and Miocene formations are either
referable to existing genera, or to more or less nearly related
extinct ones, such as _Plesiocetus_, _Herpetocetus_ and _Cetotherium_.

The toothed whales, on the other hand, are very largely represented in
a fossil state, reaching as low in the geological series as the upper
Cretaceous. Many of these present much more generalized characters
than their modern representatives, while others indicate apparently a
transition towards the still more primitive zeuglodonts, which, as
will be shown later, are themselves derived from the creodont
Carnivora. In the Pliocene deposits of Belgium and England are
preserved the teeth and other remains of a number of cetaceans, such
as _Physodon_, _Encetus_, _Dinoziphius_, _Hoplocetus_, _Balaenodon_
and _Scaldicetus_, more or less nearly related to the sperm-whale, but
presenting several primitive characters. A complete skull of a member
of this group from the Tertiary deposits of Patagonia, at first
referred to _Physodon_, but subsequently to _Scaldicetus_, has a full
series of enamelled teeth in the upper jaw; and it is probable that
the same was the case in other forms. This entails either a
modification of the definition of the _Physeteridae_ as given above,
or the creation of a separate family for these primitive sperm-whales.
In other cases, however, as in the Miocene _Prophyseter_ and
_Placoziphius_, the anterior portion or the whole of the upper jaw had
already become toothless; and these forms are regarded as indicating
the descent of the sperm-whales from the under-mentioned _Squalodon_.
The beaked whales, again, are believed to be independently descended
from the latter type, _Berardius_ being traced into the Miocene
_Mioziphius_, _Anoplonassa_ and _Palaeoziphius_, the last of which
shows signs in its dentition of approximating to the complicated
tooth-structure of the squalodonts.

Another line of descent from the latter, apparently culminating in the
modern _Platanistidae_, is represented by the family
_Eurhinodelphidae_, typified by the European Miocene
_Eurhinodelphis_, but also including the contemporary Patagonian
_Argyrocetus_ and the nearly allied European _Cyrtodelphis_. All these
were very long-beaked dolphins; and in _Argyrocetus_, at all events,
the occipital condyles, instead of being closely pressed to the skull,
are as prominent as in ordinary mammals, while the nasal bones,
instead of forming mere rudimentary nodules, were squared and roofed
over the hind part of the nasal chamber.

In the Miocene _Squalodon_, representing the family _Squalodontidae_,
the dentition is differentiated into incisors, canines and
cheek-teeth, the hinder ones of the latter series having double roots
and compressed crowns carrying serrations on the hinder edge;
generally the dental formula has been given as i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4,
m. 7/7, the single-rooted cheek-teeth being regarded as premolars and
those with double roots as molars. Dr Abel is, however, of opinion
that the formula is better represented as i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. (8 or
9)/9, m. 3/2; the teeth reckoned as molars corresponding to those of
the creodont Carnivora. The single-rooted cheek-teeth are regarded as
due, not to the division of double-rooted ones, but to the fusion of
the two roots of teeth of the latter type. In _Squalodon_ the nasal
bones were of the modern nodular type, but in the Miocene Patagonian
_Prosqualodon_ they partially covered the nasal chamber.

At present there is a gap between the most primitive squalodonts and
the Eocene zeuglodonts (_Zeuglodontidae_), which are regarded by
Messrs Max Weber, O. Abel and C.W. Andrews as the direct forerunners
of the modern-toothed whales, forming the suborder _Archaeoceti_. It
is, however, right to mention that some authorities refuse to admit
the relation of the Archaeoceti to the whales.

In the typical zeuglodonts the long and flat skull has large temporal
fossae, a strong sagittal crest, a long beak formed mainly by the
premaxillae (in place of the maxillae, as in modern whales), and long
nasal bones covering over the nasal chamber, so that the nostrils
opened about half-way down the beak. All the cervical vertebrae were
free. Normally the dentition in the typical genus _Zeuglodon_ (which
is common to the Eocene of North America and Egypt) is i. 3/3, c. 1/1,
p. 4/4, m. 3/3; the cheek-teeth being two-rooted, with compressed
pointed crowns, of which the fore-and-aft edges are coarsely serrated.
In the Egyptian _Zeuglodon osiris_ the number of the molars is,
however, reduced to 2/3, while some of the earlier cheek-teeth have
become single-rooted, as in the squalodonts. The probable transitional
form between the latter and the zeuglodonts is the small
_Microzeuglodon caucasicus_ described by the present writer, from the
Caucasus. As regards the origin of the zeuglodonts themselves, remains
discovered in the Eocene formations of Egypt indicate a practically
complete transition, so far at least as dental characters are
concerned, from these whale-like creatures to the creodont Carnivora.
In the earliest type, _Protocetus_, the skull is practically that of a
zeuglodont, the snout being in fact more elongated than in some of the
earliest representatives of the latter, although the nostrils are
placed nearer the tip. The incisors are unknown, but the cheek-teeth
are essentially those of a creodont, none of them having acquired the
serrated edges distinctive of the typical zeuglodonts; and the hinder
premolars and molars retaining the three roots of the creodonts. In
the somewhat later _Prozeuglodon_ the skull is likewise essentially of
the zeuglodont type, although the nostrils have shifted a little more
backwards; as regards the cheek-teeth, which have acquired serrated
crowns, the premolars at any rate retain the inner buttress supported
by a distinct third root, so that they are precisely intermediate
between _Protocetus_ and _Zeuglodon_. Yet another connecting form is
_Eocetus_, a very large animal from nearly the same horizon as
_Prozeuglodon_; its skull approaching that of _Zeuglodon_ as regards
the backward position of the nostrils, although the cheek-teeth are of
the creodont type, having inner, or third, roots. It is noteworthy
that _Zeuglodon_ apparently occurs in the same beds as these
intermediate types.

It follows from the foregoing that if zeuglodonts are the ancestors of
the true Cetacea--and the probability that they are so is very
great--the latter are derived from primitive Carnivora, and not, as
has been suggested, from herbivorous Ungulata. The idea that the
zeuglodonts were provided with a bony armour does not appear to be
supported by recent discoveries.

AUTHORITIES.--The above article is based on that by Sir W.H. Flower in
the 9th edition of this work. See also W.H. Flower, "On the Characters
and Divisions of the Family Delphinidae," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ (London,
1883); F.W. True, "Review of the Family Delphinidae," _Proc. U.S.
Museum_, No. 36 (1889); R. Lydekker, "Cetacean Skulls from Patagonia,"
_Palaeontol. Argentina_, vol. ii: _An. Mus. La Plata_ (1893); W.
Dames, "Uber Zeuglodonten aus Agypten," _Palaontol. Abhandlungen_,
vol. i. (1894); F.E. Beddard, _A Book of Whales_ (London, 1900); O.
Abel, "Untersuchungen uber die fossilen Platanistiden des Wiener
Beckens," _Denks. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien._, vol. lxviii. (1899); "Les
Dauphins longirostres du Bolerien," _Mem. musee d'hist. nat. belgique_
(1901 and 1902); "Die phylogenetische Entwickelung des
Cetaceengebisses und die systematische Stellung der Physeteriden,"
_Verhandl. deutsch. zool. Gesellschaft_ (1905); E. Fraas, "Neue
Zeuglodonten aus dem unteren Mittelocean vom Mokattam bei Cairo,"
_Geol. und palaontol. Abhandl._ ser. 2, vol. vi. (1904); C.W.
Andrews, "Descriptive Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata of the
Fayum" (British Museum, 1906). (R. L.*)

CETHEGUS, the name of a Roman patrician family of the Cornelian gens. Like the younger Cato its members kept up the old Roman fashion of dispensing with the tunic and leaving the arms bare (Horace, _Ars Poetica_, 50; Lucan, _Pharsalia_, ii. 543). Two individuals are of some importance:--

(1) MARCUS CORNELIUS CETHEGUS, pontifex maximus and curule aedile, 213 B.C. In 211, as praetor, he had charge of Apulia; later, he was sent to Sicily, where he proved a successful administrator. In 209 he was censor, and in 204 consul. In 203 he was proconsul in Upper Italy, where, in conjunction with the praetor P. Quintilius Varus, he gained a hard-won victory over Mago, Hannibal's brother, in Insubrian territory, and obliged him to leave Italy. He died in 196. He had a great reputation as an orator, and is characterized by Ennius as "the quintessence of persuasiveness" (_suadae medulla_). Horace (_Ars Poet._ 50; _Epistles_, ii. 2. 117) calls him an authority on the use of Latin words.

Livy xxv. 2, 41, xxvii. 11, xxix. 11, xxx. 18.

(2) GAIUS CORNELIUS CETHEGUS, the boldest and most dangerous of Catiline's associates. Like many other youthful profligates, he joined the conspiracy in the hope of getting his debts cancelled. When Catiline left Rome in 63 B.C., after Cicero's first speech, Cethegus remained behind as leader of the conspirators with P. Lentulus Sura. He himself undertook to murder Cicero and other prominent men, but was hampered by the dilatoriness of Sura, whose age and rank entitled him to the chief consideration. The discovery of arms in Cethegus's house, and of the letter which he had given to the ambassadors of the Allobroges, who had been invited to co-operate, led to his arrest. He was condemned to death, and executed, with Sura and others, on the night of the 5th of December.

Sallust, _Catilina_, 46-55; Cicero, _In Cat._ iii. 5-7; Appian, _Bell.
Civ._ ii. 2-5; see CATILINE.

CETINA, GUTIERRE DE (1518?-1572?), Spanish poet and soldier, was born at Seville shortly before 1520. He served under Charles V. in Italy and Germany, but retired from the army in 1545 to settle in Seville. Soon afterwards, however, he sailed for Mexico, where he resided for some ten years; he appears to have visited Seville in 1557, and to have returned to Mexico, where he died at some date previous to 1575. A follower of Boscan and Garcilaso de la Vega, a friend of Jeronimo de Urrea and Baltavar del Alcazar, Cetina adopted the doctrines of the Italian school and, under the name of Vandalio, wrote an extensive series of poems in the newly introduced metres; his sonnets are remarkable for elegance of form and sincerity of sentiment, his other productions being in great part adaptations from Petrarch, Ariosto and Ludovico Dolce. His patrons were Antonio de Leyva, prince of Ascoli, Hurtado de Mendoza, and Alva's grandson, the duke de Sessa, but he seems to have profited little by their protection. His works have been well edited by Joaquin Hazanas y la Rua in two volumes published at Seville (1895).

CETTE, a seaport of southern France in the department of Herault, 18 m. S.W. of Montpellier by the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 32,659. After Marseilles it is the principal commercial port on the south coast of France. The older part of Cette occupies the foot and slope of the Mont St Clair (the ancient _Mons Setius_), a hill 590 ft. in height, situated on a tongue of land that lies between the Mediterranean and the lagoon of Thau. This quarter with its wide streets and lofty stone buildings is bounded on the east by the Canal de Cette, which leads from the lagoon of Thau to the Old Basin and the outer harbour. Across the canal lie the newer quarters, which chiefly occupy two islands separated from each other by a wet dock and limited on the east by the Canal Maritime, parallel to the Canal de Cette. A lateral canal unites the northern ends of the two main canals. A breakwater running W.S.W. and E.N.E. protects the entrance to the harbour, which is one of the safest in France. The outer port and the Old Basin are enclosed by a mole to the south and by a jetty to the east. Behind the outer port lies an inner and more recent basin which communicates with the Canal Maritime. The entire area of the harbour, including the canals, is 111 acres with a quayage length of over 8000 yds. The public institutions of Cette include tribunals of commerce and of maritime commerce, councils of arbitration in commercial and fishing affairs, an exchange and chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of France and a large hospital. There are also a communal college, a naval school, and schools of music, commerce and industry, and navigation. Cette is much resorted to for sea-bathing. The town is connected with Lyons by the canal from the Rhone to Cette, and with Bordeaux by the Canal du Midi, and is a junction of the Southern and Paris-Lyon railways. The shipping trade is carried on with South America, the chief ports of the Mediterranean, and especially with Spain. The chief exports are wines and brandy, chemical products, skins and soap; the chief imports are wine, cereals, coal, timber, petroleum, sulphur, tar and chemical substances. In the five years 1901-1905 the average annual value of imports was L3,720,000 (L4,980,000 in years 1896-1900), of exports L1,427,000 (L1,237,000 in 1896-1900). More than 400 small craft are employed in the sardine, tunny, cod and other fisheries. Large quantities of shell-fish are obtained from the lagoon of Thau. There are factories for the pickling of sardines, for the manufacture of liqueurs and casks, and for the treatment of sulphur, phosphates, and nitrate of soda. The Schneider Company of Creusot also have metallurgical works at Cette, and the establishments for making wine give employment to thousands. The port of Cette was created in 1666 by the agency of Colbert, minister of Louis XIV., and according to the plans of Vauban; toward the end of the 17th century its development was aided by the opening of the Canal du Midi.

CETTIGNE (Servian, _Tsetinye_; also written _Cettinje_, _Tzetinje_, and _Tsettinye_), the capital of Montenegro; in a narrow plain deeply sunk in the heart of the limestone mountains, at a height of 2093 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1900) about 3200. The surrounding country is bare and stony, with carefully cultivated patches of rich red soil among the crevices of the rock. In winter it is often so deeply covered with snow as to be well-nigh inaccessible, while in spring and autumn it is frequently flooded by the waters of a small brook which becomes a torrent after rain or a thaw. Cettigne itself is little more than a walled village, consisting of a cluster of whitewashed cottages and some unadorned public buildings. These include a church; a fortified monastery which was founded in 1478, but so often burned and rebuilt as to seem quite modern, and which is visited by pilgrims to the tomb of Peter I. (1782-1830); residences for the archimandrite and the _vladika_ or metropolitan of Cettigne; a palace built in 1863, which accommodates the ministries; the court of appeal, and a school modelled on the gymnasia of Germany and Austria; the newer palaces of the prince and his heir; foreign legations; barracks; a seminary for priests and teachers, established by the tsar Alexander II. (1855-1881), with a very successful girls' school founded and endowed by the tsaritsa Marie; a library and reading-room; a theatre, a museum and a hospital. In an open space near the old palace stood the celebrated plane tree, beneath which Prince Nicholas gave audience to his subjects, and administered justice until the closing years of the 19th century. A zigzag highway, regarded as a triumph of engineering, winds through the mountain passes between Cettigne and the Austrian seaport of Cattaro; and other good roads give access to the richest parts of the interior. There is, however, little trade, though mineral waters are manufactured.

Cettigne owes its origin to Ivan the Black, who was forced, towards the end of the 15th century, to withdraw from Zhabliak, his former capital. It has often been taken and sacked by the Turks, but has seldom been occupied by them for long.

CETUS ("The Whale"), in astronomy, a constellation of the southern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.), and fabled by the Greeks to be the monster sent by Neptune to devour Andromeda, but which was slain by Perseus. Ptolemy catalogued 22 stars in this constellation; Tycho Brahe, 21; and Hevelius, 45. The most remarkable star of this constellation is _o-(Mira) Ceti_, a long-period variable, discovered by the German astronomer Fabricius; its magnitude varies between about 3 to 9, and its period is 331 days. _[tau]-Ceti_ is an irregular variable, its extreme magnitudes being 5 and 7; _[gamma]-Ceti_ is a beautiful double star, consisting of a yellow star of magnitude 3 and a blue of magnitude 6.8; _[nu]-Ceti_ is also a double star.

CETYWAYO ( ?-1884), king of the Zulus, was the eldest son of King Umpande or Panda, and a nephew of the two previous kings, Dingaan and Chaka. Cetywayo was a young man when in 1840 his father was placed on the throne by the aid of the Natal Boers; and three years later Natal became a British colony. Cetywayo had inherited much of the military talent of his uncle Chaka, the organizer of the Zulu military system, and chafed under his father's peaceful policy towards his British and Boer neighbours. Suspecting Panda of favouring a younger son, Umbulazi, as his successor, Cetywayo made war on his brother, whom he defeated and slew at a great battle on the banks of the Tugela in December 1856. In the following year, at an assembly of the Zulus, it was resolved that Panda should retire from the management of the affairs of the nation, which were entrusted to Cetywayo, though the old chief kept the title of king. Cetywayo was, however, suspicious of the Natal government, which afforded protection to two of his brothers. The feeling of distrust was removed in 1861 by a visit from Mr (afterwards Sir) Theophilus Shepstone, secretary for native affairs in Natal, who induced Panda to proclaim Cetywayo publicly as the future king. Friendly relations were then maintained between the Zulus and Natal for many years. In 1872 Panda died, and Cetywayo was declared king, August 1873, in the presence of Shepstone, to whom he made solemn promises to live at peace with his neighbours and to govern his people more humanely. These promises were not kept. Not only were numbers of his own people wantonly slain (Cetywayo returning defiant messages to the governor of Natal when remonstrated with), and the military system of Chaka and Dingaan strengthened, but he had a feud with the Transvaal Boers as to the possession of the territory between the Buffalo and Pongola rivers, and encouraged the chief Sikukuni (Secocoeni) in his struggle against the Boers. This feud with the Boers was inherited by the British government on the annexation of the Transvaal in 1877. Cetywayo's attitude became menacing; he allowed a minor chief to make raids into the Transvaal, and seized natives within the Natal border.

Sir Bartle Frere, who became high commissioner of South Africa in March 1877, found evidence which convinced him that the Kaffir revolt of that year on the eastern border of Cape Colony was part of a design or desire "for a general and simultaneous rising of Kaffirdom against white civilization"; and the Kaffirs undoubtedly looked to Cetywayo and the Zulus as the most redoubtable of their champions. In December 1878 Frere sent the Zulu king an ultimatum, which, while awarding him the territory he claimed from the Boers, required him to make reparation for the outrages committed within the British borders, to receive a British resident, to disband his regiments, and to allow his young men to marry without the necessity of having first "washed their spears." Cetywayo, who had found a defender in Bishop Colenso, vouchsafed no reply, and Lord Chelmsford entered Zululand, at the head of 13,000 troops, on the 11th of January 1879 to enforce the British demands. The disaster of Isandhlwana and the defence of Rorke's Drift signalized the commencement of the campaign, but on the 4th of July the Zulus were utterly routed at Ulundi. Cetywayo became a fugitive, but was captured on the 28th of August. His kingdom was divided among thirteen chiefs and he himself taken to Cape Town, whence he was brought to London in August 1882. He remained in England less than a month, during which time the government (the second Gladstone administration) announced that they had decided upon his restoration. To his great disappointment, however, restoration proved to refer only to a portion of his old kingdom. Even there one of his kinsmen and chief enemies, Usibepu, was allowed to retain the territory allotted to him in 1879. Cetywayo was reinstalled on the 29th of January 1883 by Shepstone, but his enemies, headed by Usibepu, attacked him within a week, and after a struggle of nearly a year's duration he was defeated and his kraal destroyed. He then took refuge in the Native Reserve, where he died on the 8th of February 1884. For a quarter of a century he had been the most conspicuous native figure in South Africa, and had been the cause of long and bitter political controversy in Great Britain.