Chapter XIV: Act 9: Geo. IV. c. 14 (Lord Tenterden's act) requires any promise or (1)

admission of liability to be in writing and signed by the party to be charged, otherwise it will not bar the statute.

Contracts under seal are governed as to limitation by the act of 1883, which provides that actions for rent upon any indenture of demise, or of covenant, or debt or any bond or other specialty, and on recognizances, must be brought within twenty years after cause of action. Actions of debt on an award (the submission being not under seal), or for a copyhold fine, or for money levied on a writ of _fieri facias_, must be brought within six years. With regard to the rights of the crown, the principle obtains that _nullum tempus occurrit regi_, so that no statute of limitation affects the crown without express mention. But by the Crown Suits Act 1769, as amended by the Crown Suits Act 1861, in suits relating to land, the claims of the crown to recover are barred after the lapse of sixty years. For the prosecution of criminal offences generally there is no period of limitation, except where they are punishable on summary conviction. In such case the period is six months by the Summary Jurisdiction Act 1848. But there are various miscellaneous limitations fixed by various acts, of which the following may be noticed. Suits and indictments under penal statutes are limited to two years if the forfeiture is to the crown, to one year if the forfeiture is to the common informer. Penal actions by persons aggrieved are limited to two years by the act of 1833. Prosecutions under the Riot Act can only be sued upon within twelve months after the offence has been committed, and offences against the Customs Acts within three years. By the Public Authorities Protection Act 1893, a prosecution against any person acting in execution of statutory or other public duty must be commenced within six months. Prosecutions under the Criminal Law Amendment Act, as amended by the Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act 1904, must be commenced within six months after the commission of the offence.

Trustees are expressly empowered to plead statutes of limitation by the Trustees Act 1888; indeed, a defence under the statutes of limitations must in general be specially pleaded. Limitation is regarded strictly as a law of procedure. The English courts will therefore apply their own rules to all actions, although the cause of action may have arisen in a country in which different rules of limitation exist. This is also a recognized principle of private international law (see J. A. Foote, _Private International Law_, 3rd ed., 1904, p. 516 seq.).

_United States._--The principle of the statute of limitations has passed with some modification into the statute-books of every state in the Union except Louisiana, whose laws of limitation are essentially the prescriptions of the civil law drawn from the _Partidas_, or "Spanish Code." As to personal actions, it is generally provided that they shall be brought within a certain specified time--usually six years or less--from the time when the cause of action accrues, and not after, while for land the "general if not universal limitation of the right to bring action or to make entry is to twenty years after the right to enter or to bring the action accrues" (Bouvier's _Law Dictionary_, art. "Limitations"). The constitutional provision prohibiting states from passing laws impairing the obligation of contracts is not infringed by a law of limitations, unless it bars a right of action already accrued without giving a reasonable term within which to bring the action.

See Darby and Bosanquet, _Statutes of Limitations_ (1899); Hewitt,
_Statutes of Limitations_ (1893).

LIMOGES, a town of west-central France, capital of the department of Haute-Vienne, formerly capital of the old province of Limousin, 176 m. S. by W. of Orleans on the railway to Toulouse. Pop. (1906) town, 75,906; commune, 88,597. The station is a junction for Poitiers, Angoulême, Périgueux and Clermont-Ferrand. The town occupies a hill on the right bank of the Vienne, and comprises two parts originally distinct, the _Cité_ with narrow streets and old houses occupying the lower slope, and the town proper the summit. In the latter a street known as the Rue de la Boucherie is occupied by a powerful and ancient corporation of butchers. The site of the fortifications which formerly surrounded both quarters is occupied by boulevards, outside which are suburbs with wide streets and spacious squares. The cathedral, the most remarkable building in the Limousin, was begun in 1273. In 1327 the choir was completed, and before the middle of the 16th century the transept, with its fine north portal and the first two bays of the nave; from 1875 to 1890 the construction of the nave was continued, and it was united with the west tower (203 ft. high), the base of which belongs to a previous Romanesque church. In the interior there are a magnificent rood loft of the Renaissance, and the tombs of Jean de Langeac (d. 1541) and other bishops. Of the other churches of Limoges, St Michel des Lions (14th and 15th centuries) and St Pierre du Queyroix (12th and 13th centuries) both contain interesting stained glass. The principal modern buildings are the town hall and the law-courts. The Vienne is crossed by a railway viaduct and four bridges, two of which, the Pont St Étienne and the Pont St Martial, date from the 13th century. Among the chief squares are the Place d'Orsay on the site of a Roman amphitheatre, the Place Jourdan with the statue of Marshal J. B. Jourdan, born at Limoges, and the Place d'Aine with the statue of J. L. Gay-Lussac. President Carnot and Denis Dussoubs, both of whom have statues, were also natives of the town. The museum has a rich ceramic collection and art, numismatic and natural history collections.

Limoges is the headquarters of the XII. army corps and the seat of a bishop, a prefect, a court of appeal and a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade arbitration, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. The educational institutions include a _lycée_ for boys, a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy, a higher theological seminary, a training college, a national school of decorative art and a commercial and industrial school. The manufacture and decoration of porcelain give employment to about 13,000 persons in the town and its vicinity. Shoe-making and the manufacture of clogs occupy over 2000. Other industries are liqueur-distilling, the spinning of wool and cloth-weaving, printing and the manufacture of paper from straw. Enamelling, which flourished at Limoges in the middle ages and during the Renaissance (see ENAMEL), but subsequently died out, was revived at the end of the 19th century. There is an extensive trade in wine and spirits, cattle, cereals and wood. The Vienne is navigable for rafts above Limoges, and the logs brought down by the current are stopped at the entrance of the town by the inhabitants of the Naveix quarter, who form a special gild for this purpose.

Limoges was a place of importance at the time of the Roman conquest, and sent a large force to the defence of Alesia. In 11 B.C. it took the name of Augustus (_Augustoritum_); but in the 4th century it was anew called by the name of the _Lemovices_, whose capital it was. It then contained palaces and baths, had its own senate and the right of coinage. Christianity was introduced by St Martial. In the 5th century Limoges was devastated by the Vandals and the Visigoths, and afterwards suffered in the wars between the Franks and Aquitanians and in the invasions of the Normans. Under the Merovingian kings Limoges was celebrated for its mints and its goldsmiths' work. In the middle ages the town was divided into two distinct parts, each surrounded by walls, forming separate fiefs with a separate system of administration, an arrangement which survived till 1792. Of these the more important, known as the _Château_, which grew up round the tomb of St Martial in the 9th century, and was surrounded with walls in the 10th and again in the 12th, was under the jurisdiction of the viscounts of Limoges, and contained their castle and the monastery of St Martial; the other, the _Cité_, which was under the jurisdiction of the bishop, had but a sparse population, the habitable ground being practically covered by the cathedral, the episcopal palace and other churches and religious buildings. In the Hundred Years' War the bishops sided with the French, while the viscounts were unwilling vassals of the English. In 1370 the _Cité_, which had opened its gates to the French, was taken by the Black Prince and given over to fire and sword.

The religious wars, pestilence and famine desolated Limoges in turn, and the plague of 1630-1631 carried off more than 20,000 persons. The wise administrations of Henri d'Aguesseau, father of the chancellor, and of Turgot enabled Limoges to recover its former prosperity. There have been several great fires, destroying whole quarters of the city, built, as it then was, of wood. That of 1790 lasted for two months, and destroyed 192 houses; and that of 1864 laid under ashes a large area. Limoges celebrates every seven years a curious religious festival (Fête d'Ostension), during which the relics of St Martial are exposed for seven weeks, attracting large numbers of visitors. It dates from the 10th century, and commemorates a pestilence (mal des ardents) which, after destroying 40,000 persons, is believed to have been stayed by the intercession of the saint.

Limoges was the scene of two ecclesiastical councils, in 1029 and 1031. The first proclaimed the title of St Martial as "apostle of Aquitaine"; the second insisted on the observance of the "truce of God." In 1095 Pope Urban II. held a synod of bishops here in connexion with his efforts to organize a crusade, and on this occasion consecrated the basilica of St Martial (pulled down after 1794).

See Célestin Poré, _Limoges_, in Joanne's guides, _De Paris à Ager_
(1867); Ducourtieux, _Limoges d'après ses anciens plans_ (1884) and
_Limoges et ses environs_ (3rd ed., 1894). A very full list of works
on Limoges, the town, viscounty, bishopric, &c., is given by U.
Chevalier in _Répertoire des sources hist. du moyen âge.
Topo-bibliogr._ (Mont Céliard, 1903), t. ii. s.v.

LIMON, or PORT LIMON, the chief Atlantic port of Costa Rica, Central America, and the capital of a district also named Limon, on a bay of the Caribbean Sea, 103 m. E. by N. of San José. Pop. (1904) 3171. Limon was founded in 1871, and is the terminus of the transcontinental railway to Puntarenas which was begun in the same year. The swamps behind the town, and the shallow coral lagoon in front of it, have been filled in. The harbour is protected by a sea-wall built along the low-water line, and an iron pier affords accommodation for large vessels. A breakwater from the harbour to the island of Uvita, about 1200 yds. E. would render Limon a first-class port. There is an excellent water-supply from the hills above the harbour. Almost the entire coffee and banana crops of Costa Rica are sent by rail for shipment at Limon to Europe and the United States. The district (_comarca_) of Limon comprises the whole Atlantic littoral, thus including the Talamanca country inhabited by uncivilized Indians; the richest banana-growing territories in the country; and the valuable forests of the San Juan valley. It is annually visited by Indians from the Mosquito coast of Nicaragua, who come in canoes to fish for turtle. Its chief towns, after Limon, are Reventazon and Matina, both with fewer than 3000 inhabitants.

LIMONITE, or BROWN IRON ORE, a natural ferric hydrate named from the Gr. [Greek: leimôn] (meadow), in allusion to its occurrence as "bog-ore" in meadows and marshes. It is never crystallized, but may have a fibrous or microcrystalline structure, and commonly occurs in concretionary forms or in compact and earthy masses; sometimes mammillated, botryoidal, reniform or stalactitic. The colour presents various shades of brown and yellow, and the streak is always brownish, a character which distinguishes it from haematite with a red, or from magnetite with a black streak. It is sometimes called brown haematite.

Limonite is a ferric hydrate, conforming typically with the formula Fe4O3(OH)6, or 2Fe2O3·3H2O. Its hardness is rather above 5, and its specific gravity varies from 3.5 to 4. In many cases it has been formed from other iron oxides, like haematite and magnetite, or by the alteration of pyrites or chalybite.

By the operation of meteoric agencies, iron pyrites readily pass into
limonite often with retention of external form; and the masses of
"gozzan" or "gossan" on the outcrop of certain mineral-veins consist
of rusty iron ore formed in this way, and associated with cellular
quartz. Many deposits of limonite have been found, on being worked, to
pass downwards into ferrous carbonate; and crystals of chalybite
converted superficially into limonite are well known. Minerals, like
glauconite, which contain ferrous silicate, may in like manner yield
limonite, on weathering. The ferric hydrate is also readily deposited
from ferruginous waters, often by means of organic agencies. Deposits
of brown iron ore of great economic value occur in many sedimentary
rocks, such as the Lias, Oolites and Lower Greensand of various parts
of England. They appear in some cases to be altered limestones and in
others altered glauconitic sandstones. An oolitic structure is
sometimes present, and the ores are generally phosphatic, and may
contain perhaps 30% of iron. The oolitic brown ores of Lorraine and
Luxemburg are known as "minette," a diminutive of the French _mine_
(ore), in allusion to their low content of metal. Granular and
concretionary limonite accumulates by organic action on the floor of
certain lakes in Sweden, forming the curious "lake ore." Larger
concretions formed under other conditions are known as "bean ore."
Limonite often forms a cementing medium in ferruginous sands and
gravels, forming "pan"; and in like manner it is the agglutinating
agent in many conglomerates, like the South African "banket," where it
is auriferous. In iron-shot sands the limonite may form hollow
concretions, known in some cases as "boxes." The "eagle stones" of
older writers were generally concretions of this kind, containing some
substance, like sand, which rattled when the hollow nodule was shaken.
Bog iron ore is an impure limonite, usually formed by the influence of
micro-organisms, and containing silica, phosphoric acid and organic
matter, sometimes with manganese. The various kinds of brown and
yellow ochre are mixtures of limonite with clay and other impurities;
whilst in umber much manganese oxide is present. Argillaceous brown
iron ore is often known in Germany as _Thoneisenstein_; but the
corresponding term in English (clay iron stone) is applied to nodular
forms of impure chalybite. J. C. Ullmann's name of stilpnosiderite,
from the Greek [Greek: stilpnos] (shining) is sometimes applied to
such kinds of limonite as have a pitchy lustre. Deposits of limonite
in cavities may have a rounded surface or even a stalactitic form, and
may present a brilliant lustre, of blackish colour, forming what is
called in Germany _Glaskopf_ (glass head). It often happens that
analyses of brown iron ores reveal a larger proportion of water than
required by the typical formula of limonite, and hence new species
have been recognized. Thus the yellowish brown ore called by E.
Schmidt xanthosiderite, from [Greek: zanthos] (yellow) and [Greek:
sidêros] (iron), contains Fe2O(OH)4, or Fe2O3·2H2O; whilst the bog ore
known as limnite, from [Greek: limnê] (marsh) has the formula Fe(OH)3,
or Fe2O3·3H2O. On the other hand there are certain forms of ferric
hydrate containing less water than limonite and approaching to
haematite in their red colour and streak: such is the mineral which
was called hydrohaematite by A. Breithaupt, and is now generally known
under R. Hermann's name of turgite, from the mines of Turginsk, near
Bogoslovsk in the Ural Mountains. This has the formula Fe4O5(OH)2, or
2Fe2O3·H2O. It probably represents the partial dehydration of
limonite, and by further loss of water may pass into haematite or red
iron ore. When limonite is dehydrated and deoxidized in the presence
of carbonic acid, it may give rise to chalybite.

LIMOUSIN (or LIMOSIN), LÉONARD (c. 1505-c. 1577), French painter, the most famous of a family of seven Limoges enamel painters, was the son of a Limoges innkeeper. He is supposed to have studied under Nardon Pénicaud. He was certainly at the beginning of his career influenced by the German school--indeed, his earliest authenticated work, signed L. L. and dated 1532, is a series of eighteen plaques of the "Passion of the Lord," after Albrecht Dürer, but this influence was counter-balanced by that of the Italian masters of the school of Fontainebleau, Primaticcio, Rosso, Giulio Romano and Solario, from whom he acquired his taste for arabesque ornament and for mythological subjects. Nevertheless the French tradition was sufficiently ingrained in him to save him from becoming an imitator and from losing his personal style. In 1530 he entered the service of Francis I. as painter and _varlet de chambre_, a position which he retained under Henry II. For both these monarchs he executed many portraits in enamel--among them quite a number of plaques depicting Diane de Poitiers in various characters,--plates, vases, ewers, and cups, besides decorative works for the royal palaces, for, though he is best known as an enameller distinguished for rich colour, and for graceful designs in grisaille on black or bright blue backgrounds, he also enjoyed a great reputation as an oil-painter. His last signed works bear the date 1574, but the date of his death is uncertain, though it could not have been later than the beginning of 1577. It is on record that he executed close upon two thousand enamels. He is best represented at the Louvre, which owns his two famous votive tablets for the Sainte Chapelle, each consisting of twenty-three plaques, signed L. L. and dated 1553; "La Chasse," depicting Henry II. on a white horse, Diane de Poitiers behind him on horseback; and many portraits, including the kings by whom he was employed, Marguerite de Valois, the duc de Guise, and the cardinal de Lorraine. Other representative examples are at the Cluny and Limoges museums. In England some magnificent examples of his work are to be found at the Victoria and Albert Museum, the British Museum, and the Wallace Collection. In the collection of Signor Rocchi, in Rome, is an exceptionally interesting plaque representing Frances I. consulting a fortune-teller.

See _Léonard Limousin: peintre de portraits_ (_L'Oeuvre des peintres
émailleurs_), by L. Boudery and E. Lachenaud (Paris, 1897)--a careful
study, with an elaborate catalogue of the known existing examples of
the artist's work. The book deals almost exclusively with the
portraits illustrated. See also Alleaume and Duplessis, _Les Douze
Apôtres--émaux de Léonard Limousin_, &c. (Paris, 1865); L. Boudery,
_Exposition retrospective de Limoges en 1886_ (Limoges, 1886); L.
Boudery, _Léonard Limousin et son oeuvre_ (Limoges, 1895); _Limoges et
le Limousin_ (Limoges, 1865); A. Meyer, _L'Art de l'émail de Limoges,
ancien et moderne_ (Paris, 1896); Émile Molinier, _L'Émaillerie_
(Paris, 1891).

LIMOUSIN (Lat. _Pagus Lemovicinus, ager Lemovicensis, regio Lemovicum, Lemozinum, Limosinium_, &c.), a former province of France. In the time of Julius Caesar the _pagus Lemovicinus_ covered the county now comprised in the departments of Haute-Vienne, Corrèze and Creuse, with the _arrondissements_ of Confolens in Charente and Nontron in Dordogne. These limits it retained until the 10th century, and they survived in those of the diocese of Limoges (except a small part cut off in 1317 to form that of Tulle) until 1790. The break-up into great fiefs in the 10th century, however, tended rapidly to disintegrate the province, until at the close of the 12th century Limousin embraced only the viscounties of Limoges, Turenne and Comborn, with a few ecclesiastical lordships, corresponding roughly to the present _arrondissements_ of Limoges and Saint Yrien in Haute-Vienne and part of the _arrondissements_ of Brive, Tulle and Ussel in Corrèze. In the 17th century Limousin, thus constituted, had become no more than a small _gouvernement_.

Limousin takes its name from the _Lemovices_, a Gallic tribe whose county was included by Augustus in the province of _Aquitania Magna_. Politically its history has little of separate interest; it shared in general the vicissitudes of Aquitaine, whose dukes from 918 onwards were its over-lords at least till 1264, after which it was sometimes under them, sometimes under the counts of Poitiers, until the French kings succeeded in asserting their direct over-lordship. It was, however, until the 14th century, the centre of a civilization of which the enamelling industry (see ENAMEL) was only one expression. The Limousin dialect, now a mere _patois_, was regarded by the troubadours as the purest form of Provençal.

See A. Leroeux, _Géographie et histoire du Limousin_ (Limoges, 1892).
Detailed bibliography in Chevalier, _Répertoire des sources.
Topo-bibliogr._ (Montbéliard, 1902), t. ii. s.v.

LIMPOPO, or CROCODILE, a river of S.E. Africa over 1000 m. in length, next to the Zambezi the largest river of Africa entering the Indian Ocean. Its head streams rise on the northern slopes of the Witwatersrand less than 300 m. due W. of the sea, but the river makes a great semicircular sweep across the high plateau first N.W., then N.E. and finally S.E. It is joined early in its course by the Marico and Notwani, streams which rise along the westward continuation of the Witwatersrand, the ridge forming the water-parting between the Vaal and the Limpopo basins. For a great part of its course the Limpopo forms the north-west and north frontiers of the Transvaal. Its banks are well wooded and present many picturesque views. In descending the escarpment of the plateau the river passes through rocky ravines, piercing the Zoutpansberg near the north-east corner of the Transvaal at the Toli Azimé Falls. In the low country it receives its chief affluent, the Olifants river (450 m. long), which, rising in the high veld of the Transvaal east of the sources of the Limpopo, takes a more direct N.E. course than the main stream. The Limpopo enters the ocean in 25° 15´ S. The mouth, about 1000 ft. wide, is obstructed by sandbanks. In the rainy season the Limpopo loses a good deal of its water in the swampy region along its lower course. High-water level is 24 ft. above low-water level, when the depth in the shallowest part does not exceed 3 ft. The river is navigable all the year round by shallow-draught vessels from its mouth for about 100 m., to a spot known as Gungunyana's Ford. In flood time there is water communication south with the river Komati (q.v.). At this season stretches of the Limpopo above Gungunyana's Ford are navigable. The river valley is generally unhealthy.

The basin of the Limpopo includes the northern part of the Transvaal,
the eastern portion of Bechuanaland, southern Matabeleland and a large
area of Portuguese territory north of Delagoa Bay. Its chief
tributary, the Olifants, has been mentioned. Of its many other
affluents, the Macloutsie, the Shashi and the Tuli are the most
distant north-west feeders. In this direction the Matoppos and other
hills of Matabeleland separate the Limpopo basin from the valley of
the Zambezi. A little above the Tuli confluence is Rhodes's Drift, the
usual crossing-place from the northern Transvaal into Matabeleland.
Among the streams which, flowing north through the Transvaal, join the
Limpopo is the Nylstroom, so named by Boers trekking from the south in
the belief that they had reached the river Nile. In the coast region
the river has one considerable affluent from the north, the Chengane,
which is navigable for some distance.

The Limpopo is a river of many names. In its upper course called the
Crocodile that name is also applied to the whole river, which figures
on old Portuguese maps as the Oori (or Oira) and Bembe. Though
claiming the territory through which it ran the Portuguese made no
attempt to trace the river. This was first done by Captain J. F.
Elton, who in 1870 travelling from the Tati goldfields sought to open
a road to the sea via the Limpopo. He voyaged down the river from the
Shashi confluence to the Toli Azimé Falls, which he discovered,
following the stream thence on foot to the low country. The lower
course of the river had been explored 1868-1869 by another British
traveller--St Vincent Whitshed Erskine. It was first navigated by a
sea-going craft in 1884, when G. A. Chaddock of the British mercantile
service succeeded in crossing the bar, while its lower course was
accurately surveyed by Portuguese officers in 1895-1896. At the
junction of the Lotsani, one of the Bechuanaland affluents, with the
Limpopo, are ruins of the period of the Zimbabwes.

LINACRE (or LYNAKER), THOMAS (c. 1460-1524), English humanist and physician, was probably born at Canterbury. Of his parentage or descent nothing certain is known. He received his early education at the cathedral school of Canterbury, then under the direction of William Celling (William Tilly of Selling), who became prior of Canterbury in 1472. Celling was an ardent scholar, and one of the earliest in England who cultivated Greek learning. From him Linacre must have received his first incentive to this study. Linacre entered Oxford about the year 1480, and in 1484 was elected a fellow of All Souls' College. Shortly afterwards he visited Italy in the train of Celling, who was sent by Henry VIII. as an envoy to the papal court, and he accompanied his patron as far as Bologna. There he became the pupil of Angelo Poliziano, and afterwards shared the instruction which that great scholar imparted at Florence to the sons of Lorenzo de' Medici. The younger of these princes became Pope Leo X., and was in after years mindful of his old companionship with Linacre. Among his other teachers and friends in Italy were Demetrius Chalcondylas, Hermolaus Barbaras, Aldus Romanus the printer of Venice, and Nicolaus Leonicenus of Vicenza. Linacre took the degree of doctor of medicine with great distinction at Padua. On his return to Oxford, full of the learning and imbued with the spirit of the Italian Renaissance, he formed one of the brilliant circle of Oxford scholars, including John Colet, William Grocyn and William Latimer, who are mentioned with so much warm eulogy in the letters of Erasmus.

Linacre does not appear to have practised or taught medicine in Oxford. About the year 1501 he was called to court as tutor of the young prince Arthur. On the accession of Henry VIII. he was appointed the king's physician, an office at that time of considerable influence and importance, and practised medicine in London, having among his patients most of the great statesmen and prelates of the time, as Cardinal Wolsey, Archbishop Warham and Bishop Fox.

After some years of professional activity, and when in advanced life, Linacre received priest's orders in 1520, though he had for some years previously held several clerical benefices. There is no doubt that his ordination was connected with his retirement from active life. Literary labours, and the cares of the foundation which owed its existence chiefly to him, the Royal College of Physicians, occupied Linacre's remaining years till his death on the 20th of October 1524.

Linacre was more of a scholar than a man of letters, and rather a man of learning than a scientific investigator. It is difficult now to judge of his practical skill in his profession, but it was evidently highly esteemed in his own day. He took no part in political or theological questions, and died too soon to have to declare himself on either side in the formidable controversies which were even in his lifetime beginning to arise. But his career as a scholar was one eminently characteristic of the critical period in the history of learning through which he lived. He was one of the first Englishmen who studied Greek in Italy, whence he brought back to his native country and his own university the lessons of the "New Learning." His teachers were some of the greatest scholars of the day. Among his pupils was one--Erasmus--whose name alone would suffice to preserve the memory of his instructor in Greek, and others of note in letters and politics, such as Sir Thomas More, Prince Arthur and Queen Mary. Colet, Grocyn, William Lilye and other eminent scholars were his intimate friends, and he was esteemed by a still wider circle of literary correspondents in all parts of Europe.

Linacre's literary activity was displayed in two directions, in pure
scholarship and in translation from the Greek. In the domain of
scholarship he was known by the rudiments of (Latin) grammar
(_Progymnasmata Grammatices vulgaria_), composed in English, a revised
version of which was made for the use of the Princess Mary, and
afterwards translated into Latin by Robert Buchanan. He also wrote a
work on Latin composition, _De emendata structura Latini sermonis_,
which was published in London in 1524 and many times reprinted on the
continent of Europe.

Linacre's only medical works were his translations. He desired to make
the works of Galen (and indeed those of Aristotle also) accessible to
all readers of Latin. What he effected in the case of the first,
though not trifling in itself, is inconsiderable as compared with the
whole mass of Galen's writings; and of his translations from
Aristotle, some of which are known to have been completed, nothing has
survived. The following are the works of Galen translated by Linacre:
(1) _De sanitate tuenda_, printed at Paris in 1517; (2) _Methodus
medendi_ (Paris, 1519); (3) _De temperamentis et de Inaequali
Intemperie_ (Cambridge, 1521); (4) _De naturalibus facultatibus_
(London, 1523); (5) _De symptomatum differentiis et causis_ (London,
1524); (6) _De pulsuum Usu_ (London, without date). He also translated
for the use of Prince Arthur an astronomical treatise of Proclus, _De
sphaera_, which was printed at Venice by Aldus in 1499. The accuracy
of these translations and their elegance of style were universally
admitted. They have been generally accepted as the standard versions
of those parts of Galen's writings, and frequently reprinted, either
as a part of the collected works or separately.

But the most important service which Linacre conferred upon his own
profession and science was not by his writings. To him was chiefly
owing the foundation by royal charter of the College of Physicians in
London, and he was the first president of the new college, which he
further aided by conveying to it his own house, and by the gift of his
library. Shortly before his death Linacre obtained from the king
letters patent for the establishment of readerships in medicine at
Oxford and Cambridge, and placed valuable estates in the hands of
trustees for their endowment. Two readerships were founded in Merton
College, Oxford, and one in St John's College, Cambridge, but owing to
neglect and bad management of the funds, they fell into uselessness
and obscurity. The Oxford foundation was revived by the university
commissioners in 1856 in the form of the Linacre professorship of
anatomy. Posterity has done justice to the generosity and public
spirit which prompted these foundations; and it is impossible not to
recognize a strong constructive genius in the scheme of the College of
Physicians, by which Linacre not only first organized the medical
profession in England, but impressed upon it for some centuries the
stamp of his own individuality.

The intellectual fastidiousness of Linacre, and his habits of minute
accuracy were, as Erasmus suggests, the chief cause why he left no
more permanent literary memorials. It will be found, perhaps,
difficult to justify by any extant work the extremely high reputation
which he enjoyed among the scholars of his time. His Latin style was
so much admired that, according to the flattering eulogium of Erasmus,
Galen spoke better Latin in the version of Linacre than he had before
spoken Greek; and even Aristotle displayed a grace which he hardly
attained to in his native tongue. Erasmus praises also Linacre's
critical judgment ("vir non exacti tantum sed severi judicii").
According to others it was hard to say whether he were more
distinguished as a grammarian or a rhetorician. Of Greek he was
regarded as a consummate master; and he was equally eminent as a
"philosopher," that is, as learned in the works of the ancient
philosophers and naturalists. In this there may have been some
exaggeration; but all have acknowledged the elevation of Linacre's
character, and the fine moral qualities summed up in the epitaph
written by John Caius: "Fraudes dolosque mire perosus; fidus amicis;
omnibus ordinibus juxta carus."

The materials for Linacre's biography are to a large extent contained
in the older biographical collections of George Lilly (in Paulus
Jovius, _Descriptio Britanniae_), Bale, Leland and Pits, in Wood's
_Athenae Oxonienses_ and in the _Biographia Britannica_; but all are
completely collected in the _Life of Thomas Linacre_, by Dr Noble
Johnson (London, 1835). Reference may also be made to Dr Munk's _Roll
of the Royal College of Physicians_ (2nd ed., London, 1878); and the
Introduction, by Dr J. F. Payne, to a facsimile reproduction of
Linacre's version of _Galen de temperamentis_ (Cambridge, 1881). With
the exception of this treatise, none of Linacre's works or
translations has been reprinted in modern times.

LINARES, an inland province of central Chile, between Talca on the N. and Nuble on the S., bounded E. by Argentina and W. by the province of Maule. Pop. (1895) 101,858; area, 3942 sq. m. The river Maule forms its northern boundary and drains its northern and north-eastern regions. The province belongs partly to the great central valley of Chile and partly to the western slopes of the Andes, the S. Pedro volcano rising to a height of 11,800 ft. not far from the sources of the Maule. The northern part is fertile, as are the valleys of the Andean foothills, but arid conditions prevail throughout the central districts, and irrigation is necessary for the production of crops. The vine is cultivated to some extent, and good pasturage is found on the Andean slopes. The province is traversed from N. to S. by the Chilean Central railway, and the river Maule gives access to the small port of Constitucion, at its mouth. From Parral, near the southern boundary, a branch railway extends westward to Cauquenes, the capital of Maule. The capital, Linares, is centrally situated, on an open plain, about 20 m. S. of the river Maule. It had a population of 7331 in 1895 (which an official estimate of 1902 reduced to 7256). Parral (pop. 8586 in 1895; est. 10,219 in 1902) is a railway junction and manufacturing town.

LINARES, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Jaen, among the southern foothills of the Sierra Morena, 1375 ft. above sea-level and 3 m. N.W. of the river Guadalimar. Pop. (1900) 38,245. It is connected by four branch railways with the important argentiferous lead mines on the north-west, and with the main railways from Madrid to Seville, Granada and the principal ports on the south coast. The town was greatly improved in the second half of the 19th century, when the town hall, bull-ring, theatre and many other handsome buildings were erected; it contains little of antiquarian interest save a fine fountain of Roman origin. Its population is chiefly engaged in the lead-mines, and in such allied industries as the manufacture of gunpowder, dynamite, match for blasting purposes, rope and the like. The mining plant is entirely imported, principally from England; and smelting, desilverizing and the manufacture of lead sheets, pipes, &c., are carried on by British firms, which also purchase most of the ore raised. Linares lead is unsurpassed in quality, but the output tends to decrease. There is a thriving local trade in grain, wine and oil. About 2 m. S. is the village of Cazlona, which shows some remains of the ancient _Castulo_. The ancient mines some 5 m. N., which are now known as Los Pozos de Anibal, may possibly date from the 3rd century B.C., when this part of Spain was ruled by the Carthaginians.

LINCOLN, EARLS OF. The first earl of Lincoln was probably William de Roumare (c. 1095-c. 1155), who was created earl about 1140, although it is possible that William de Albini, earl of Arundel, had previously held the earldom. Roumare's grandson, another William de Roumare (c. 1150-c. 1198), is sometimes called earl of Lincoln, but he was never recognized as such, and about 1148 King Stephen granted the earldom to one of his supporters, Gilbert de Gand (d. 1156), who was related to the former earl. After Gilbert's death the earldom was dormant for about sixty years; then in 1216 it was given to another Gilbert de Gand, and later it was claimed by the great earl of Chester, Ranulf, or Randulph, de Blundevill (d. 1232). From Ranulf the title to the earldom passed through his sister Hawise to the family of Lacy, John de Lacy (d. 1240) being made earl of Lincoln in 1232. He was son of Roger de Lacy (d. 1212), justiciar of England and constable of Chester. It was held by the Lacys until the death of Henry, the 3rd earl. Henry served Edward I. in Wales, France and Scotland, both as a soldier and a diplomatist. He went to France with Edmund, earl of Lancaster, in 1296, and when Edmund died in June of this year, succeeded him as commander of the English forces in Gascony; but he did not experience any great success in this capacity and returned to England early in 1298. The earl fought at the battle of Falkirk in July 1298, and took some part in the subsequent conquest of Scotland. He was then employed by Edward to negotiate successively with popes Boniface VIII. and Clement V., and also with Philip IV. of France; and was present at the death of the English king in July 1307. For a short time Lincoln was friendly with the new king, Edward II., and his favourite, Piers Gaveston; but quickly changing his attitude, he joined earl Thomas of Lancaster and the baronial party, was one of the "ordainers" appointed in 1310 and was regent of the kingdom during the king's absence in Scotland in the same year. He died in London on the 5th of February 1311, and was buried in St Paul's Cathedral. He married Margaret (d. 1309), granddaughter and heiress of William Longsword, 2nd earl of Salisbury, and his only surviving child, Alice (1283-1348), became the wife of Thomas, earl of Lancaster, who thus inherited his father-in-law's earldoms of Lincoln and Salisbury. Lincoln's Inn in London gets its name from the earl, whose London residence occupied this site. He founded Whalley Abbey in Lancashire, and built Denbigh Castle.

In 1349 Henry Plantagenet, earl (afterwards duke) of Lancaster, a nephew of Earl Thomas, was created earl of Lincoln; and when his grandson Henry became king of England as Henry IV. in 1399 the title merged in the crown. In 1467 John de la Pole (c. 1464-1487), a nephew of Edward IV., was made earl of Lincoln, and the same dignity was conferred in 1525 upon Henry Brandon (1516-1545), son of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk. Both died without sons, and the next family to hold the earldom was that of Clinton.

EDWARD FIENNES CLINTON, 9th Lord Clinton (1512-1585), lord high admiral and the husband of Henry VIII.'s mistress, Elizabeth Blount, was created earl of Lincoln in 1572. Before his elevation he had rendered very valuable services both on sea and land to Edward VI., to Mary and to Elizabeth, and he was in the confidence of the leading men of these reigns, including William Cecil, Lord Burghley. From 1572 until the present day the title has been held by Clinton's descendants. In 1768 Henry Clinton, the 9th earl (1720-1794), succeeded his uncle Thomas Pelham as 2nd duke of Newcastle-under-Lyne, and since this date the title of earl of Lincoln has been the courtesy title of the eldest son of the duke of Newcastle.

See G. E. C.(okayne), _Complete Peerage_, vol. v. (1893).

LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (1809-1865), sixteenth president of the United States of America, was born on "Rock Spring" farm, 3 m. from Hodgenville, in Hardin (now Larue) county, Kentucky, on the 12th of February 1809.[1] His grandfather,[2] Abraham Lincoln, settled in Kentucky about 1780 and was killed by Indians in 1784. His father, Thomas (1778-1851), was born in Rockingham (then Augusta) county, Virginia; he was hospitable, shiftless, restless and unsuccessful, working now as a carpenter and now as a farmer, and could not read or write before his marriage, in Washington county, Kentucky, on the 12th of June 1806, to Nancy Hanks (1783-1818), who was, like him, a native of Virginia, but had much more strength of character and native ability, and seemed to have been, in intellect and character, distinctly above the social class in which she was born. The Lincolns had removed from Elizabethtown, Hardin county, their first home, to the Rock Spring farm, only a short time before Abraham's birth; about 1813 they removed to a farm of 238 acres on Knob Creek, about 6 m. from Hodgenville; and in 1816 they crossed the Ohio river and settled on a quarter-section, 1½ m. E. of the present village of Gentryville, in Spencer county, Indiana. There Abraham's mother died on the 5th of October 1818. In December 1819 his father married, at his old home, Elizabethtown, Mrs Sarah (Bush) Johnston (d. 1869), whom he had courted years before, whose thrift greatly improved conditions in the home, and who exerted a great influence over her stepson. Spencer county was still a wilderness, and the boy grew up in pioneer surroundings, living in a rude log-cabin, enduring many hardships and knowing only the primitive manners, conversation and ambitions of sparsely settled backwoods communities. Schools were rare, and teachers qualified only to impart the merest rudiments. "Of course when I came of age I did not know much," wrote he years afterward, "still somehow I could read, write and cipher to the rule of three, but that was all. I have not been to school since. The little advance I now have upon this store of education I have picked up from time to time under the pressure of necessity." His entire schooling, in five different schools, amounted to less than a twelvemonth; but he became a good speller and an excellent penman. His own mother taught him to read, and his stepmother urged him to study. He read and re-read in early boyhood the Bible, Aesop, _Robinson Crusoe_, _Pilgrim's Progress_, Weems's _Life of Washington_ and a history of the United States; and later read every book he could borrow from the neighbours, Burns and Shakespeare becoming favourites. He wrote rude, coarse satires, crude verse, and compositions on the American government, temperance, &c. At the age of seventeen he had attained his full height, and began to be known as a wrestler, runner and lifter of great weights. When nineteen he made a journey as a hired hand on a flatboat to New Orleans.

In March 1830 his father emigrated to Macon county, Illinois (near the present Decatur), and soon afterward removed to Coles county. Being now twenty-one years of age, Abraham hired himself to Denton Offutt, a migratory trader and storekeeper then of Sangamon county, and he helped Offutt to build a flatboat and float it down the Sangamon, Illinois and Mississippi rivers to New Orleans. In 1831 Offutt made him clerk of his country store at New Salem, a small and unsuccessful settlement in Menard county; this gave him moments of leisure to devote to self-education. He borrowed a grammar and other books, sought explanations from the village schoolmaster and began to read law. In this frontier community law and politics claimed a large proportion of the stronger and the more ambitious men; the law early appealed to Lincoln and his general popularity encouraged him as early as 1832 to enter politics. In this year Offutt failed and Lincoln was thus left without employment. He became a candidate for the Illinois House of Representatives; and on the 9th of March 1832 issued an address "To the people of Sangamon county" which betokens talent and education far beyond mere ability to "read, write and cipher," though in its preparation he seems to have had the help of a friend. Before the election the Black Hawk Indian War broke out; Lincoln volunteered in one of the Sangamon county companies on the 21st of April and was elected captain by the members of the company. It is said that the oath of allegiance was administered to Lincoln at this time by Lieut. Jefferson Davis. The company, a part of the 4th Illinois, was mustered out after the five weeks' service for which it volunteered, and Lincoln re-enlisted as a private on the 29th of May, and was finally mustered out on the 16th of June by Lieut. Robert Anderson, who in 1861 commanded the Union troops at Fort Sumter. As captain Lincoln was twice in disgrace, once for firing a pistol near camp and again because nearly his entire company was intoxicated. He was in no battle, and always spoke lightly of his military record. He was defeated in his campaign for the legislature in 1832, partly because of his unpopular adherence to Clay and the American system, but in his own election precinct, he received nearly all the votes cast. With a friend, William Berry, he then bought a small country store, which soon failed chiefly because of the drunken habits of Berry and because Lincoln preferred to read and to tell stories--he early gained local celebrity as a story-teller--rather than sell; about this time he got hold of a set of Blackstone. In the spring of 1833 the store's stock was sold to satisfy its creditors, and Lincoln assumed the firm's debts, which he did not fully pay off for fifteen years. In May 1833, local friendship, disregarding politics, procured his appointment as postmaster of New Salem, but this paid him very little, and in the same year the county surveyor of Sangamon county opportunely offered to make him one of his deputies. He hastily qualified himself by study, and entered upon the practical duties of surveying farm lines, roads and town sites. "This," to use his own words, "procured bread, and kept body and soul together."

In 1834 Lincoln was elected (second of four successful candidates, with only 14 fewer votes than the first) a member of the Illinois House of Representatives, to which he was re-elected in 1836, 1838 and 1840, serving until 1842. In his announcement of his candidacy in 1836 he promised to vote for Hugh L. White of Tennessee (a vigorous opponent of Andrew Jackson in Tennessee politics) for president, and said: "I go for all sharing the privileges of the government who assist in bearing its burdens. Consequently, I go for admitting all whites to the right of suffrage, who pay taxes or bear arms (by no means excluding females)"--a sentiment frequently quoted to prove Lincoln a believer in woman's suffrage. In this election he led the poll in Sangamon county. In the legislature, like the other representatives of that county, who were called the "Long Nine," because of their stature, he worked for internal improvements, for which lavish appropriations were made, and for the division of Sangamon county and the choice of Springfield as the state capital, instead of Vandalia. He and his party colleagues followed Stephen A. Douglas in adopting the convention system, to which Lincoln had been strongly opposed. In 1837 with one other representative from Sangamon county, named Dan Stone, he protested against a series of resolutions, adopted by the Illinois General Assembly, expressing disapproval of the formation of abolition societies and asserting, among other things, that "the right of property in slaves is sacred to the slave holding states under the Federal Constitution"; and Lincoln and Stone put out a paper in which they expressed their belief "that the institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but that the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils," "that the Congress of the United States has no power under the Constitution to interfere with the institution of slavery in the different states," "that the Congress of the United States has the power, under the Constitution, to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia, but that the power ought not to be exercised unless at the request of the people of the District." Lincoln was very popular among his fellow legislators, and in 1838 and in 1840 he received the complimentary vote of his minority colleagues for the speakership of the state House of Representatives. In 1842 he declined a renomination to the state legislature and attempted unsuccessfully to secure a nomination to Congress. In the same year he became interested in the Washingtonian temperance movement.

In 1846 he was elected a member of the National House of Representatives by a majority of 1511 over his Democratic opponent, Peter Cartwright, the Methodist preacher. Lincoln was the only Whig member of Congress elected in Illinois in 1846. In the House of Representatives on the 22nd of December 1847 he introduced the "Spot Resolutions," which quoted statements in the president's messages of the 11th of May 1846 and the 7th and 8th of December that Mexican troops had invaded the territory of the United States, and asked the president to tell the precise "spot" of invasion; he made a speech on these resolutions in the House on the 12th of January 1848. His attitude toward the war and especially his vote for George Ashmun's amendment to the supply bill at this session, declaring that the Mexican War was "unnecessarily and unconstitutionally commenced by the President," greatly displeased his constituents. He later introduced a bill regarding slavery in the District of Columbia, which (in accordance with his statement of 1837) was to be submitted to the vote of the District for approval, and which provided for compensated emancipation, forbade the bringing of slaves into the District of Columbia, except by government officials from slave states, and the selling of slaves away from the District, and arranged for the emancipation after a period of apprenticeship of all slave children born after the 1st of January 1850. While he was in Congress he voted repeatedly for the principle of the Wilmot Proviso. At the close of his term in 1848 he declined an appointment as governor of the newly organized Territory of Oregon and for a time worked, without success, for an appointment as Commissioner of the General Land Office. During the presidential campaign he made speeches in Illinois, and in Massachusetts he spoke before the Whig State Convention at Worcester on the 12th of September, and in the next ten days at Lowell, Dedham, Roxbury, Chelsea, Cambridge and Boston. He had become an eloquent and influential public speaker, and in 1840 and 1844 was a candidate on the Whig ticket for presidential elector.