Chapter IX: Front Matter (9)

In the Church of England the practice has been less consistent. The first Prayer-book of Edward VI. directed two lights to be placed on the altar. This direction was omitted in the second Prayer-book; but the "Ornaments Rubric" of Queen Elizabeth's Prayer-book seemed again to make them obligatory. The question of how far this did so is a much-disputed one and is connected with the whole problem of the meaning and scope of the rubric (see VESTMENTS). An equal uncertainty reigns with regard to the actual usage of the Church of England from the Reformation onwards. Lighted candles certainly continued to decorate the holy table in Queen Elizabeth's chapel, to the scandal of Protestant zealots. They also seem to have been retained, at least for a while, in certain cathedral and collegiate churches. There is, however, no mention of ceremonial candles in the detailed account of the services of the Church of England given by William Harrison (_Description of England_, 1570); and the attitude of the Church towards their use, until the ritualistic movement of the 17th century, would seem to be authoritatively expressed in the _Third Part of the Sermon against Peril of Idolatry_, which quotes with approval the views of Lactantius and compares "our Candle Religion" with the "Gentiles Idolators." This pronouncement, indeed, though it certainly condemns the use of ceremonial lights in most of its later developments, and especially the conception of them as votive offerings whether to God or to the saints, does not necessarily exclude, though it undoubtedly discourages, their purely symbolical use.[20] In this connexion it is worth pointing out that the homily against idolatry was reprinted, without alteration and by the king's authority, long after altar lights had been restored under the influence of the high church party supreme at court. Illegal under the Act of Uniformity they seem never to have been. The use of "wax lights and tapers" formed one of the indictments brought by P. Smart, a Puritan prebendary of Durham, against Dr Burgoyne, Cosin and others for setting up "superstitious ceremonies" in the cathedral "contrary to the Act of Uniformity." The indictments were dismissed in 1628 by Sir James Whitelocke, chief justice of Chester and a judge of the King's Bench, and in 1629 by Sir Henry Yelverton, a judge of Common Pleas and himself a strong Puritan (see _Hierurgia Anglicana_, ii pp. 230 seq.). The use of ceremonial lights was among the indictments in the impeachment of Laud and other bishops by the House of Commons, but these were not based on the Act of Uniformity. From the Restoration onwards the use of ceremonial lights, though far from universal, was not unusual in cathedrals and collegiate churches.[21] It was not, however, till the ritual revival of the 19th century that their use was at all widely extended in parish churches. The growing custom met with fierce opposition; the law was appealed to, and in 1872 the Privy Council declared altar lights to be illegal (_Martin_ v. _Mackonochie_). This judgment, founded as was afterwards admitted on insufficient knowledge, produced no effect; and, in the absence of any authoritative pronouncement, advantage was taken of the ambiguous language of the Ornaments Rubric to introduce into many churches practically the whole ceremonial use of lights as practised in the pre-Reformation Church. The matter was again raised in the case of _Read and others_ v. _the Bishop of Lincoln_ (see LINCOLN JUDGMENT), one of the counts of the indictment being that the bishop had, during the celebration of Holy Communion, allowed two candles to be alight on a shelf or retable behind the communion table when they were not necessary for giving light. The archbishop of Canterbury, in whose court the case was heard (1889), decided that the mere presence of two candles on the table, burning during the service but lit before it began, was lawful under the first Prayer-Book of Edward VI. and had never been made unlawful. On the case being appealed to the Privy Council, this particular indictment was dismissed on the ground that the vicar, not the bishop, was responsible for the presence of the lights, the general question of the legality of altar lights being discreetly left open.

The custom of placing lighted candles round the bodies of the dead, especially when "lying in state," has never wholly died out in Protestant countries, though their significance has long been lost sight of.[22] In the 18th century, moreover, it was still customary in England to accompany a funeral with lighted tapers. Picart (_op. cit._ 1737) gives a plate representing a funeral cortège preceded and accompanied by boys, each carrying four lighted candles in a branched candlestick. There seems to be no record of candles having been carried in other processions in England since the Reformation. The usage in this respect in some "ritualistic" churches is a revival of pre-Reformation ceremonial.

See the article "Lucerna," by J. Toutain in Daremberg and Saglio's
_Dict. des antiquités grecques et romaines_ (Paris, 1904); J.
Marquardt, "Römische Privatalterthümer" (vol. v. of Becker's _Röm.
Alterthümer_), ii. 238-301; article "Cièrges et lampes," in the Abbé
J. A. Martigny's _Dict. des Antiquités Chrétiennes_ (Paris, 1865); the
articles "Lichter" and "Koimetarien" (pp. 834 seq.) in Herzog-Hauck's
_Realencyklopädie_ (3rd ed., Leipzig. 1901); the article "Licht" in
Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_ (Freiburg-i.-B., 1882-1901), an
excellent exposition of the symbolism from the Catholic point of view,
also "Kerze" and "Lichter"; W. Smith and S. Cheetham, _Dict. of Chr.
Antiquities_ (London, 1875-1880), i. 939 seq.; in all these numerous
further references will be found. See also Mühlbauer, _Gesch. u.
Bedeutung der Wachslichter bei den kirchlichen Funktionen_ (Augsburg,
1874); V. Thalhofer, _Handbuch der Katholischen Liturgik_
(Freiburg-i.-B., 1887), i. 666 seq.; and, for the post-Reformation use
in the Church of England, _Hierurgia Anglicana_, new ed. by Vernon
Staley (London, 1903). (W. A. P.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] "O Fire, thou knowest all things!" See A. Bourquin,
"Brahma-karma, ou rites sacrés des Brahmans," in the _Annales du
Musée Guimet_ (Paris, 1884, t. vii.).

[2] J. Toutain, in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire, s.v._
"Lucerna."

[3] This is quoted with approval by Bishop Jewel in the homily
_Against Peril of Idolatry_ (see below).

[4] This symbolism--whatever it was--was not pagan, i.e. the lamps
were not placed in the graves as part of the furniture of the
dead--in the Catacombs they are found only in the niches of the
galleries and the arcosolia--nor can they have been votive in the
sense popularized later.

[5] "Clara coronantur densis altaria lychnis" (_Poem. De S. Felice
natalitium_, xiv. 99, in Migne, _Patr. lat._ lxi. 467).

[6] "Continuum scyphus est argenteus aptus ad usum."

[7] "Sal, ignis et oleum" (Lib. i. Tract. xiv. 4, in Migne, xi. 358).

[8] _In sanct. Pasch._ c. 2; Migne, _Patr. graeca_, xxxvi. 624.

[9] [Greek: phôta t' ephapsantes kyklô epi skeuôn chrysôn, thaumaston
theama tois horôsi pareichon] (_Vita Constantini_, iv. 66).

[10] "Cum alii Pontifices lampadàs cereosque proferrent, alii choras
psallentium ducerent" (Ep. cviii. _ad Eustochium virginem_, in
Migne).

[11] This may be the paschal candle only. In some codices the text
runs: "Per parochias concessit licentiam benedicendi Cereum
Paschalem" (Du Cange, _Glossarium, s.v._ "Cereum Paschale"). In the
three variants of the notice of Zosimus given in Duchesne's edition
of the _Lib. pontif._ (1886-1892) the word _cera_ is, however, alone
used. Nor does the text imply that he gave to the suburbican churches
a privilege hitherto exercised by the metropolitan church. The
passage runs: "Hic constituit ut diaconi leva tecta haberent de
palleis linostimis per parrochias et ut cera benedicatur," &c. _Per
parrochias_ here obviously refers to the head-gear of the deacons,
not to the candles.

[12] See also the _Peregrinatio Sylviae_ (386), 86, &c., for the use
of lights at Jerusalem, and Isidore of Seville (_Etym._ vii. 12; xx.
10) for the usage in the West. That even in the 7th century the
blessing of candles was by no means universal is proved by the 9th
canon of the council of Toledo (671), "De benedicendo cereo et
lucerna in privilegiis Paschae." This canon states that candles and
lamps are not blessed in some churches, and that inquiries have been
made why _we_ do it. In reply, the council decides that it should be
done to celebrate the mystery of Christ's resurrection. See Isidore
of Seville, _Conc._, in Migne, _Pat. lat._ lxxxiv. 369.

[13] Du Cange, _Glossarium, s.v._ "Candela."

[14] Bees were believed, like fish, to be sexless.

[15] "Venerandis compactam elementis facem tibi, Domine, mancipamus:
in qua trium copula munerum primum de impari numero complacebit: quae
quod gratis Deo veniat auctoribus, non habetur incertum: unum quod de
fetibus fluminum accedunt nutrimenta flammarum: aliud quod apum
tribuit intemerata fecunditas, in quarum partibus nulla partitur
damna virginitas: ignis etiam coelo infusus adhibetur" (_Opusc._ x.
in Migne, _Patr. lat._ t. lxiii.).

[16] All three conceptions are brought out in the prayers for the
blessing of candles on the Feast of the Purification of the B.V.M.
(Candlemas, q.v.). (1) "O holy Lord, ... who ... by the command didst
cause this liquid to come by the labour of bees to the perfection of
wax, ... we beseech thee ... to bless and sanctify these candles for
the use of men, and the health of bodies and souls...." (2) "...
these candles, which we thy servants desire to carry lighted to
magnify thy name; that by offering them to thee, being worthily
inflamed with the holy fire of thy most sweet charity, we may
deserve," &c. (3) "O Lord Jesus Christ, the true light, ...
mercifully grant, that as these lights enkindled with visible fire
dispel nocturnal darkness, so our hearts illumined by invisible
fire," &c. (_Missale Rom._). In the form for the blessing of candles
_extra diem Purificationis B. Mariae Virg._ the virtue of the
consecrated candles in discomfiting demons is specially brought out:
"that in whatever places they may be lighted, or placed, the princes
of darkness may depart, and tremble, and may fly terror-stricken with
all their ministers from those habitations, nor presume further to
disquiet and molest those who serve thee, Almighty God" (_Rituale
Rom._).

[17] Altar candlesticks consist of five parts: the foot, stem, knob
in the centre, bowl to catch the drippings, and pricket (a sharp
point on which the candle is fixed). It is permissible to use a long
tube, pointed to imitate a candle, in which is a small taper forced
to the top by a spring (_Cong. Rit._, 11th May 1878).

[18] This is common to the Eastern Church also. Pilgrims from all
parts of the East flock to Jerusalem to obtain the "new fire" on
Easter Eve at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Here the fire is
supposed to be miraculously sent from heaven. The rush of the
pilgrims to kindle their lights at it is so great, that order is
maintained with difficulty by Mahommedan soldiers.

[19] The origin of the Paschal Candle is lost in the mists of
antiquity. According to the abbé Châtelain (quoted in Diderot's
_Encyclopédie, s.v._ "Cièrge") the Paschal Candle was not originally
a candle at all, but a wax column on which the dates of the movable
feasts were inscribed. These were later written on paper and fixed to
the Paschal Candle, a custom which in his day survived in the Cluniac
churches.

[20] This homily, written by Bishop Jewel, is largely founded on
Bullinger's _De origine erroris in Divinorum et sacrorum cultu_
(1528, 1539).

[21] A copper-plate in Bernard Picart's _Ceremonies and Religious
Customs of the Various Nations_ (Eng. trans., London, 1737), vi. pt.
1, p. 78, illustrating an Anglican Communion service at St Paul's,
shows two lighted candles on the holy table.

[22] In some parts of Scotland it is still customary to place two
lighted candles on a table beside a corpse on the day of burial.

LIGNE, CHARLES JOSEPH, PRINCE DE (1735-1814), soldier and writer, came of a princely family of Hainaut, and was born at Brussels in 1735. As an Austrian subject he entered the imperial army at an early age. He distinguished himself by his valour in the Seven Years' War, notably at Breslau, Leuthen, Hochkirch and Maxen, and after the war rose rapidly to the rank of lieutenant field marshal. He became the intimate friend and counsellor of the emperor Joseph II., and, inheriting his father's vast estates, lived in the greatest splendour and luxury till the War of the Bavarian Succession brought him again into active service. This war was short and uneventful, and the prince then travelled in England, Germany, Italy, Switzerland and France, devoting himself impartially to the courts, the camps, the salons and the learned assemblies of philosophers and scientists in each country. In 1784 he was again employed in military work, and was promoted to Feldzeugmeister. In 1787 he was with Catherine II. in Russia, accompanied her in her journey to the Crimea, and was made a Russian field marshal by the empress. In 1788 he was present at the siege of Belgrade. Shortly after this he was invited to place himself at the head of the Belgian revolutionary movement, in which one of his sons and many of his relatives were prominent, but declined with great courtesy, saying that "he never revolted in the winter." Though suspected by Joseph of collusion with the rebels, the two friends were not long estranged, and after the death of the emperor the prince remained in Vienna. His Brabant estates were overrun by the French in 1792-1793, and his eldest son killed in action at La Croix-du-Bois in the Argonne (September 14, 1792). He was given the rank of field marshal (1809) and an honorary command at court, living in spite of the loss of his estates in comparative luxury and devoting himself to literary work. He lived long enough to characterize the proceedings of the congress of Vienna with the famous _mot_: "Le Congrès danse mais ne marche pas." He died at Vienna on the 13th of December 1814. His grandson, Eugene Lamoral de Ligne (1804-1880), was a distinguished Belgian statesman.

His collected works appeared in thirty-four volumes at Vienna during
the last years of his life (_Mélanges militaires_, _littéraires_,
_sentimentaires_), and he bequeathed his manuscripts to the emperor's
Trabant Guard, of which he was captain (_Oeuvres posthumes_, Dresden
and Vienna, 1817). Selections were published in French and German
(_Oeuvres choisies de M. le prince de Ligne_ (Paris, 1809); _Lettres
et pensées du Maréchal Prince de Ligne_, ed. by Madame de Staël
(1809); _Oeuvres historiques, littéraires ... correspondance et
poésies diverses_ (Brussels, 1859); _Des Prinzen Karl von Ligne
militärische Werke_, ed. Count Pappenheim (Sulzbach, 1814). The most
important of his numerous works on all military subjects is the
_Fantaisies et préjugés militaires_, which originally appeared in
1780. A modern edition is that published by J. Dumaine (Paris, 1879).
A German version (_Militärische Vorurtheile und Phantasien_, &c.)
appeared as early as 1783. This work, though it deals lightly and
cavalierly with the most important subjects (the prince even proposes
to found an international academy of the art of war, wherein the
reputation of generals could be impartially weighed), is a military
classic, and indispensable to the students of the post-Frederician
period. On the whole, it may be said that the prince adhered to the
school of Guibert (q.v.), and a full discussion will be found in Max
Jähns' _Gesch. d. Kriegswissenschaften_, iii. 2091 et seq. Another
very celebrated work by the prince is the mock autobiography of Prince
Eugene (1809).

See _Revue de Bruxelles_ (October 1839); Reiffenberg, "Le Feldmaréchal
Prince Charles Joseph de Ligne," _Mémoires de l'académie de
Bruxelles_, vol. xix.; Peetermans, _Le Prince de Ligne, ou un écrivain
grand seigneur_ (Liége, 1857), _Études et notices historiques
concernant l'histoire des Pays Bas_, vol. iii. (Brussels, 1890);
_Mémoires et publications de la Société des Sciences, &c. du
Hainault_, vol. iii., 5th series; Dublet _Le Prince de Ligne et ses
contemporains_ (Paris, 1889), Wurzbach, _Biogr. Lexikon d. Kaiserth.
Österr_. (Vienna, 1858); Hirtenfeld, _Der
Militär-Maria-Theresien-Orden_, vol. i. (Vienna, 1857), Ritter von
Rettersberg, _Biogr. d. ausgezeichnetsten Feldherren_ (Prague, 1829);
Schweigerd, _Österr. Helden_, vol. iii. (Vienna, 1854); Thürheim, _F.
M. Karl Joseph Fürst de Ligne_ (Vienna, 1877).

LIGNITE (Lat. _lignum_, wood), an imperfectly formed coal, usually brownish in colour, and always showing the structure of the wood from which it was derived (see COAL).

LIGONIER, JOHN (JEAN LOUIS) LIGONIER, EARL (1680-1770), British Field Marshal, came of a Huguenot family of Castres in the south of France, members of which emigrated to England at the close of the 17th century. He entered the army as a volunteer under Marlborough. From 1702 to 1710 he was engaged, with distinction, in nearly every important battle and siege of the war. He was one of the first to mount the breach at the siege of Liége, commanded a company at the Schellenberg and at Blenheim, and was present at Menin (where he led the storming of the covered way), Ramillies, Oudenarde and Malplaquet (where he received twenty-three bullets through his clothing and remained unhurt). In 1712 he became governor of Fort St Philip, Minorca, and in 1718 was adjutant-general of the troops employed in the Vigo expedition, where he led the stormers of Fort Marin. Two years later he became colonel of the "Black Horse" (now 7th Dragoon Guards), a command which he retained for 29 years. His regiment soon attained an extraordinary degree of efficiency. He was made brigadier-general in 1735, major-general in 1739, and accompanied Lord Stair in the Rhine Campaign of 1742-1743. George II. made him a Knight of the Bath on the field of Dettingen. At Fontenoy Ligonier commanded the British foot, and acted throughout the battle as adviser to the duke of Cumberland. During the "Forty-Five" he was called home to command the British army in the Midlands, but in January 1746 was placed at the head of the British and British-paid contingents of the Allied army in the Low Countries. He was present at Roucoux (11th Oct. 1746), and, as general of horse, at Val (1st July 1747), where he led the last charge of the British cavalry. In this encounter his horse was killed, and he was taken prisoner, but was exchanged in a few days. With the close of the campaign ended Ligonier's active career, but (with a brief interval in 1756-1757) he occupied various high civil and military posts to the close of his life. In 1757 he was made, in rapid succession, commander-in-chief, colonel of the 1st Foot Guards (now Grenadier Guards), and a peer of Ireland under the title of Viscount Ligonier of Enniskillen, a title changed in 1762 for that of Clonmell. From 1759 to 1762 he was master-general of the Ordnance, and in 1763 he became Baron, and in 1766 Earl, in the English peerage. In the latter year he became field marshal. He died in 1770. His younger brother, Francis, was also a distinguished soldier; and his son succeeded to the Irish peerage of Lord Ligonier.

See Combes, _J. L. Ligonier, une étude_ (Castres, 1866), and the
histories of the 7th Dragoon Guards and Grenadier Guards.

LIGUORI, ALFONSO MARIA DEI (1696-1787), saint and doctor of the Church of Rome, was born at Marianella, near Naples, on the 27th of September 1696, being the son of Giuseppe dei Liguori, a Neapolitan noble. He began life at the bar, where he obtained considerable practice; but the loss of an important suit, in which he was counsel for a Neapolitan noble against the grand duke of Tuscany, and in which he had entirely mistaken the force of a leading document, so mortified him that he withdrew from the legal world. In 1726 he entered the Congregation of Missions as a novice, and became a priest in 1726. In 1732 he founded the "Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer" at Scala, near Salerno; the headquarters of the Order were afterwards transferred to Nocera dei Pagani. Its members, popularly called Liguorians or Redemptorists, devote themselves to the religious instruction of the poor, more especially in country districts; Liguori specially forbade them to undertake secular educational work. In 1750 appeared his celebrated devotional book on the _Glories of Mary_; three years later came his still more celebrated treatise on moral theology. In 1755 this was much enlarged and translated into Latin under the title of _Homo Apostolicus_. In 1762, at the express desire of the pope, he accepted the bishopric of Sant' Agata dei Goti, a small town in the province of Benevent; though he had previously refused the archbishopric of Palermo. Here he worked diligently at practical reforms, being specially anxious to raise the standard of clerical life and work. In 1775 he resigned his bishopric on the plea of enfeebled health; he retired to his Redemptorists at Nocera, and died there in 1787. In 1796 Pius VI. declared him "venerable"; he was beatified by Pius VII. in 1816, canonized by Gregory XVI. in 1839, and finally declared one of the nineteen "Doctors of the Church" by Pius IX. in 1871.

Liguori is the chief representative of a school of casuistry and devotional theology still abundantly represented within the Roman Church. Not that he was in any sense its founder. He was simply a fair representative of the Italian piety of his day--amiable, ascetic in his personal habits, indefatigable in many forms of activity, and of more than respectable abilities; though the emotional side of his character had the predominance over his intellect. He was learned, as learning was understood among the Italian clergy of the 18th century; but he was destitute of critical faculty, and the inaccuracy of his quotations is proverbial. In his casuistical works he was a diligent compiler, whose avowed design was to take a middle course between the two current extremes of severity and laxity. In practice, he leant constantly towards laxity. Eighteenth-century Italy looked on religion with apathetic indifference, and Liguori convinced himself that only the gentlest and most lenient treatment could win back the alienated laity; hence he was always willing to excuse errors on the side of laxity as due to an excess of zeal in winning over penitents. Severity, on the other hand, seemed to him not only inexpedient, but positively wrong. By making religion hard it made it odious, and thus prepared the way for unbelief. Like all casuists, he took for granted that morality was a recondite science, beyond the reach of all but the learned. When a layman found himself in doubt, his duty was not to consult his conscience, but to take the advice of his confessor; while the confessor himself was bound to follow the rules laid down by the casuistical experts, who delivered themselves of a kind of "counsel's opinion" on all knotty points of practical morality. But experts proverbially differ: what was to be done when they disagreed? Suppose, for instance, that some casuists held it wrong to dance on Sunday, while others held it perfectly lawful. In Liguori's time there were four ways of answering the question. Strict moralists--called rigorists, or "tutiorists"--maintained that the austerer opinion ought always to be followed; dancing on Sundays was certainly wrong, if any good authorities had declared it to be so. Probabiliorists maintained that the more general opinion ought to prevail, irrespectively of whether it was the stricter or the laxer; dancing on Sunday was perfectly lawful, if the majority of casuists approved it. Probabilists argued that any opinion might be followed, if it could show good authority on its side, even if there was still better authority against it; dancing on Sunday must be innocent, if it could show a fair sprinkling of eminent names in its favour. The fourth and last school--the "laxists"--carried this principle a step farther, and held that a practice must be unobjectionable, if it could prove that any one "grave Doctor" had defended it; even if dancing on Sunday had hitherto lain under the ban of the church, a single casuist could legitimate it by one stroke of his pen. Liguori's great achievement lay in steering a middle course between these various extremes. The gist of his system, which is known as "equi-probabilism," is that the more indulgent opinion may always be followed, whenever the authorities in its favour are as good, or nearly as good, as those on the other side. In this way he claimed that he had secured liberty in its rights without allowing it to degenerate into licence. However much they might personally disapprove, zealous priests could not forbid their parishioners to dance on Sunday, if the practice had won widespread toleration; on the other hand, they could not relax the usual discipline of the church on the strength of a few unguarded opinions of too indulgent casuists. Thus the Liguorian system surpassed all its predecessors in securing uniformity in the confessional on a basis of established usage, two advantages amply sufficient to ensure its speedy general adoption within the Church of Rome.

_Lives_ by A. M. Tannoja, a pupil of Liguori's (3 vols., Naples,
1798-1802); new ed., Turin, 1857; French trans., Paris, 1842; P. v. A.
Giattini (Rome, 1815: Ger. trans., Vienna, 1835); F. W. Faber (4
vols., London, 1848-1849); M. A. Hugues (Münster, 1857); O. Gisler
(Einsiedeln, 1887); K. Dilgskron (2 vols., Regensburg, 1887), perhaps
the best; A. Capecelatro (2 vols., Rome, 1893); A. des Retours (Paris,
1903); A. C. Berthe (St Louis, 1906).

_Works_ (a) Collected editions. Italian: (Monza, 1819, 1828; Venice,
1830; Naples, 1840 ff.; Turin, 1887, ff.). French: (Tournai, 1855 ff.,
new ed., 1895 ff.) German: (Regensburg, 1842-1847). English: (22
vols., New York, 1887-1895). Editions of the _Theologia Moralis_ and
other separate works are very numerous. (b) _Letters_: (2 vols.,
Monza, 1831; 3 vols., Rome, 1887 ff.). See also Meyrick, _Moral and
Devotional Theology of the Church of Rome, according to the Teaching
of S. Alfonso de Liguori_ (London, 1857), and art. CASUISTRY.
(St. C.)

LIGURES BAEBIANI, in ancient geography, a settlement of Ligurians in Samnium, Italy. The towns of Taurasia and Cisauna in Samnium had been captured in 298 B.C. by the consul L. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, and the territory of the former remained Roman state domain. In 180 B.C. 47,000 Ligurians from the neighbourhood of Luna (Ligures Apuani), with women and children, were transferred to this district, and two settlements were formed taking their names from the consuls of 181 B.C., the Ligures Baebiani and the Ligures Corneliani. The site of the former town lies 15 m. N. of Beneventum, on the road to Saepinum and Aesernia. In its ruins several inscriptions have been found, notably a large bronze tablet discovered in a public building in the Forum bearing the date A.D. 101, and relating to the alimentary institution founded by Trajan here (see VELEIA). A sum of money was lent to landed proprietors of the district (whose names and estates are specified in the inscription), and the interest which it produced formed the income of the institution, which, on the model of that of Veleia, would have served to support a little over one hundred children. The capital was 401,800 sesterces, and the annual interest probably at 5%, i.e. 20,090 sesterces (£4018 and £201 respectively). The site of the other settlement--that of the Ligures Corneliani--is unknown.

See T. Mommsen in _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ ix. (Berlin, 1883), 125 sqq.
(T. As.)

LIGURIA, a modern territorial division of Italy, lying between the Ligurian Alps and the Apennines on the N., and the Mediterranean on the S. and extending from the frontier of France on the W. to the Gulf of Spezia on the E. Its northern limits touch Piedmont and Lombardy, while Emilia and Tuscany fringe its eastern borders, the dividing line following as a rule the summits of the mountains. Its area is 2037 sq. m. The railway from Pisa skirts the entire coast of the territory, throwing off lines to Parma from Sarzana and Spezia, to Milan and Turin from Genoa, and to Turin from Savona, and there is a line from Ventimiglia to Cuneo and Turin by the Col di Tenda. Liguria embraces the two provinces of Genoa and Porto Maurizio (Imperia), which once formed the republic of Genoa. Its sparsely-peopled mountains slope gently northward towards the Po, descending, however, abruptly into the sea at several points; the narrow coast district, famous under the name of the Riviera (q.v.), is divided at Genoa into the Riviera di Ponente towards France, and the Riviera di Levante towards the east. Its principal products are wheat, maize, wine, oranges, lemons, fruits, olives and potatoes, though the olive groves are being rapidly supplanted by flower-gardens, which grow flowers for export. Copper and iron pyrites are mined. The principal industries are iron-works, foundries, iron shipbuilding, engineering, and boiler works (Genoa, Spezia, Sampierdarena, Sestri Ponente, &c.), the production of cocoons, and the manufacture of cottons and woollens. Owing to the sheltered situation and the mildness of their climate, many of the coast towns are chosen by thousands of foreigners for winter residence, while the Italians frequent them in summer for sea-bathing. The inhabitants have always been adventurous seamen--Columbus and Amerigo Vespucci were Genoese,--and the coast has several good harbours, Genoa, Spezia and Savona being the best. In educational and general development, Liguria stands high among the regions of Italy. The populations of the respective provinces and their chief towns are, according to the census of 1901 (_popolazione residente_ or _legale_)--province of Genoa, pop. 931,156; number of communes 197; chief towns--Genoa (219,507), Spezia (66,263), Savona (38,648), Sampierdarena (34,084), Sestri Ponente (17,225). Province of Porto Maurizio, pop. 144,604, number of communes 106; chief towns--Porto Maurizio (7207), S. Remo (20,027), Ventimiglia (11,468), Oneglia (8252). Total for Liguria, 1,075,760.

The Ligurian coast became gradually subject to the Romans, and the road along it must have been correspondingly prolonged: up to the end of the Hannibalic war the regular starting-point for Spain by sea was Pisae, in 195 B.C. it was the harbour of Luna (Gulf of Spezia),[1] though Genua must have become Roman a little before this time, while, in 137 B.C., C. Hostilius Mancinus marched as far as Portus Herculis (Villafranca), and in 121 B.C. the province of Gallia Narbonensis was formed and the coast-road prolonged to the Pyrenees. In 14 B.C. Augustus restored the whole road from Placentia to Dertona (Via Postumia), and thence to Vada Sabatia (Via Aemilia²) and the River Varus (Var), so that it thenceforth took the name of Via Julia Augusta (see AEMILIA, VIA²). The other chief roads of Liguria were the portion of the Via Postumia from Dertona to Genua, a road from above Vada through Augusta Bagiennorum and Pollentia to Augusta Taurinorum, and another from Augusta Taurinorum to Hasta and Valentia. The names of the villages--Quarto, Quinto, &c.--on the south-east side and Pontedecimo on the north of Genoa allude to their distance along the Roman roads. The Roman Liguria, forming the ninth region of Augustus, was thus far more extensive than the modern, including the country on the north slopes of the Apennines and Maritime Alps between the Trebia and the Po, and extending a little beyond Albintimilium. On the west Augustus formed the provinces of the Alpes Maritimae and the Alpes Cottiae. Towns of importance were few, owing to the nature of the country. Dertona was the only colony, and Alba Pompeia, Augusta Bagiennorum, Pollentia, Hasta, Aquae Statiellae, and Genua may also be mentioned; but the Ligurians dwelt entirely in villages, and were organized as tribes. The mountainous character of Liguria made the spread of culture difficult; it remained a forest district, producing timber, cattle, ponies, mules, sheep, &c. Oil and wine had to be imported, and when the cultivation of the olive began is not known.

The arrangement made by Augustus lasted until the time of Diocletian, when the two Alpine provinces were abolished, and the watershed became the boundary between Italy and Gaul. At this time we find the name Liguria extended as far as Milan, while in the 6th century the old Liguria was separated from it, and under the Lombards formed the fifth Italian province under the name of Alpes Cottiae. In the middle ages the ancient Liguria north of the Apennines fell to Piedmont and Lombardy, while that to the south, with the coast strip, belonged to the republic of Genoa. (T. As.)

_Archaeology and Philology._--It is clear that in earlier times the Ligurians occupied a much more extensive area than the Augustan region; for instance Strabo (i. 2, 92; iv. 1, 7) gives earlier authorities for their possession of the land on which the Greek colony of Massalia (Marseilles) was founded; and Thucydides (vi. 2) speaks of a settlement of Ligurians in Spain who expelled the Sicani thence. Southward their domain extended as far as Pisa on the coast of Etruria and Arretium inland in the time of Polybius (ii. 6), and a somewhat vague reference in Lycophron (line 1351) to the Ligurians as enemies of the founders of Agylla (i.e. Caere) suggests that they once occupied even a larger tract to the south. Seneca (_Cons. ad Helv._ vii. 9), states that the population of Corsica was partly Ligurian. By combining traditions recorded by Dionysius (i. 22; xiv. 37) and others (e.g. Serv. _ad. Aen._ xi. 317) as having been held by Cato the Censor and by Philistus of Syracuse (385 B.C.) respectively, Professor Ridgeway (_Who were the Romans?_ London, 1908, p. 3) decides in favour of identifying the Ligurians with a tribe called the Aborigines who occupy a large place in the early traditions of Italy (see Dionysius i. cc. 10 ff.); and who may at all events be regarded with reasonable certainty as constituting an early pre-Roman and pre-Tuscan stratum in the population of Central Italy (see LATIUM). For a discussion of this question see VOLSCI. Ridgeway holds that the language of the Ligurians, as well as their antiquities, was identical with that of the early Latins, and with that of the Plebeians of Rome (as contrasted with that of the Patrician or Sabine element), see ROME: _History_ (_ad. init._). The archaeological side of this important question is difficult. Although great progress has been made with the study of the different strata of remains in prehistoric Italy and of those of Liguria itself (see for instance the excellent _Introduction à l'histoire romaine_ by Basile Modestov (Paris, 1907, p. 122 ff.) and W. Ridgeway's _Early Age of Greece_, p. 240 ff.) no general agreement has been reached among archaeologists as to the particular races who are to be identified as the authors of the early strata, earlier, that is, than that stratum which represents the Etruscans.

On the linguistic side some fairly certain conclusions have been reached. D'Arbois de Jubainville (_Les Premiers habitants de l'Europe_, ed. 2, Paris, 1880-1894) pointed out the great frequency of the suffix -_asco_- (and -_usco_-) both in ancient and in modern Ligurian districts, and as far north as _Caranusca_ near Metz, and also in the eastern Alps and in Spain. He pointed out also, what can scarcely be doubted, that the great mass of the Ligurian proper names (e.g. the streams _Vinelasca_, _Porcobera_, _Comberanea_; _mons Tuledo_; _Venascum_), have a definite Indo-European character. Farther Karl Müllenhof in vol. iii. of his _Deutsche Alterthumskunde_ (Berlin, 1898) made a careful collection of the proper names reserved in Latin inscriptions of the Ligurian districts, such as the _Tabula Genuatium_ (_C.I.L._ i. 99) of 117 B.C. A complete collection of all Ligurian place and personal names known has been made by S. Elizabeth Jackson, B.A., and the collection is to be combined with the inscriptional remains of the district in _The Pre-Italic Dialects_, edited by R. S. Conway (see _The Proceedings of the British Academy_). Following Kretschmer _Kuhn's Zeitschrift_ (xxxviii. 97), who discussed several inscriptions found near Ornavasso (Lago Maggiore) and concluded that they showed an Indo-European language, Conway, though holding that the inscriptions are more Celtic than Ligurian, pointed out strong evidence in the ancient place names of Liguria that the language spoken there in the period which preceded the Roman conquest was Indo-European, and belonged to a definite group, namely, languages which preserved the original _q_ as Latin did, and did not convert it into _p_ as did the Umbro-Safine tribes. The same is probably true of Venetia (see VENETI), and of an Indo-European language preserved on inscriptions found at Coligny and commonly referred to the Sequani (see _Comptes Rendus de l'Ac. d'Insc._, Paris, 1897, 703; E. B. Nicholson, _Sequanian_, London, 1898; Thurneysen, _Zeitschr. f. Kelt. Phil._, 1899, 523). Typically Ligurian names are _Quiamelius_, which contains the characteristic Ligurian word _melo_- "stone" as in _mons Blustiemelus_ (_C.I.L._ v. 7749), _Intimelium_ and the modern _Vintimiglia_. The tribal names _Soliceli_, _Stoniceli_, clearly contain the same element as Lat. _aequi-coli_ (dwellers on the plain), _sati-cola_, &c., namely _quel_-, cf. Lat. _in-quil-inus_, _colo_, Gr. [Greek: polein, tellesthai]. And it should be added that the Ligurian ethnica show the prevailing use of the two suffixes -_co_- and -_ati_-, which there is reason to refer to the pre-Roman stratum of population in Italy (see VOLSCI).

Besides the authorities already cited the student may be referred to
C. Pauli, _Altitalische Studien_, vol. i., especially for the alphabet
of the insc.; W. Ridgeway, _Who were the Romans?_ (followed by the
abstract of a paper by the present writer) in _The Proceedings of the
British Academy_, vol. iii. p. 42; and to W. H. Hall's, _The Romans on
the Riviera and the Rhône_ (London, 1898); Issel's _La Liguria
geologica e preistorica_ (Genoa, 1892). A further batch of
Celto-Ligurian inscriptions from Giubiasco near Bellinzona (Canton
Ticino) is published by G. Herbig, in the _Anzeiger f. Schweizer.
Altertumskunde_, vii. (1905-1906), p. 187; and one of the same class
by Elia Lattes, _Di un' Iscriz. ante-Romana trovata a Carcegna sul
Lago d' Orta_ (_Atti d. r. Accad. d. Scienze di Torino_, xxxix., Feb.
1904). (R. S. C.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The dividing line between Liguria and Etruria was the lower
course of the river Macra (Magra), so that, while the harbour of Luna
was in the former, Luna itself was in the latter.

LI HUNG CHANG (1823-1901), Chinese statesman, was born on the 16th of February 1823 at Hofei, in Ngan-hui. From his earliest youth he showed marked ability, and when quite young he took his bachelor degree. In 1847 he became a Tsin-shi, or graduate of the highest order, and two years later was admitted into the imperial Hanlin college. Shortly after this the central provinces of the empire were invaded by the Taiping rebels, and in defence of his native district he raised a regiment of militia, with which he did such good service to the imperial cause that he attracted the attention of Tsêng Kuo-fan, the generalissimo in command. In 1859 he was transferred to the province of Fu-kien, where he was given the rank of taotai, or intendant of circuit. But Tsêng had not forgotten him, and at his request Li was recalled to take part against the rebels. He found his cause supported by the "Ever Victorious Army," which, after having been raised by an American named Ward, was finally placed under the command of Charles George Gordon. With this support Li gained numerous victories leading to the surrender of Suchow and the capture of Nanking. For these exploits he was made governor of Kiangsu, was decorated with a yellow jacket, and was created an earl. An incident connected with the surrender of Suchow, however, left a lasting stain upon his character. By an arrangement with Gordon the rebel wangs, or princes, yielded Nanking on condition that their lives should be spared. In spite of the assurance given them by Gordon, Li ordered their instant execution. This breach of faith so aroused Gordon's indignation that he seized a rifle, intending to shoot the falsifier of his word, and would have done so had not Li saved himself by flight. On the suppression of the rebellion (1864) Li took up his duties as governor, but was not long allowed to remain in civil life. On the outbreak of the rebellion of the Nienfei, a remnant of the Taipings, in Ho-nan and Shan-tung (1866) he was ordered again to take the field, and after some misadventures he succeeded in suppressing the movement. A year later he was appointed viceroy of Hukwang, where he remained until 1870, when the Tientsin massacre necessitated his transfer to the scene of the outrage. He was, as a natural consequence, appointed to the viceroyalty of the metropolitan province of Chihli, and justified his appointment by the energy with which he suppressed all attempts to keep alive the anti-foreign sentiment among the people. For his services he was made imperial tutor and member of the grand council of the empire, and was decorated with many-eyed peacocks' feathers.

To his duties as viceroy were added those of the superintendent of trade, and from that time until his death, with a few intervals of retirement, he practically conducted the foreign policy of China. He concluded the Chifu convention with Sir Thomas Wade (1876), and thus ended the difficulty caused by the murder of Mr Margary in Yunnan; he arranged treaties with Peru and Japan, and he actively directed the Chinese policy in Korea. On the death of the emperor T'ungchi in 1875 he, by suddenly introducing a large armed force into the capital, effected a _coup d'état_ by which the emperor Kwang Sü was put on the throne under the tutelage of the two dowager empresses; and in 1886, on the conclusion of the Franco-Chinese war, he arranged a treaty with France. Li was always strongly impressed with the necessity of strengthening the empire, and when viceroy of Chihli he raised a large well-drilled and well-armed force, and spent vast sums both in fortifying Port Arthur and the Taku forts and in increasing the navy. For years he had watched the successful reforms effected in Japan and had a well-founded dread of coming into conflict with that empire. But in 1894 events forced his hand, and in consequence of a dispute as to the relative influence of China and Japan in Korea, war broke out. The result proved the wisdom of Li's fears. Both on land and at sea the Chinese forces were ignominiously routed, and in 1895, on the fall of Wei-hai-wei, the emperor sued for peace. With characteristic subterfuge his advisers suggested as peace envoys persons whom the mikado very properly and promptly refused to accept, and finally Li was sent to represent his imperial master at the council assembled at Shimonoseki. With great diplomatic skill Li pleaded the cause of his country, but finally had to agree to the cession of Formosa, the Pescadores, and the Liaotung peninsula to the conquerors, and to the payment of an indemnity of 200,000,000 taels. By a subsequent arrangement the Liaotung peninsula was restored to China, in exchange for an increased indemnity. During the peace discussions at Shimonoseki, as Li was being borne through the narrow streets of the town, a would-be assassin fired a pistol point-blank in his face. The wound inflicted was not serious, and after a few days' rest Li was able to take up again the suspended negotiations. In 1896 he represented the emperor at the coronation of the tsar, and visited Germany, Belgium, France, England, and the United States of America. For some time after his return to China his services were demanded at Peking, where he was virtually constituted minister for foreign affairs; but in 1900 he was transferred to Canton as viceroy of the two Kwangs. The Boxer movement, however, induced the emperor to recall him to the capital, and it was mainly owing to his exertions that, at the conclusion of the outbreak, a protocol of peace was signed in September 1901. For many months his health had been failing, and he died on the 7th of November 1901. He left three sons and one daughter. (R. K. D.)

LILAC,[1] or PIPE TREE (_Syringa vulgaris_), a tree of the olive family, Oleaceae. The genus contains about ten species of ornamental hardy deciduous shrubs native in eastern Europe and temperate Asia. They have opposite, generally entire leaves and large panicles of small regular flowers, with a bell-shaped calyx and a 4-lobed cylindrical corolla, with the two stamens characteristic of the order attached at the mouth of the tube. The common lilac is said to have come from Persia in the 16th century, but is doubtfully indigenous in Hungary, the borders of Moldavia, &c. Two kinds of _Syringa_, viz. _alba_ and _caerulea_, are figured and described by Gerard (_Herball_, 1597), which he calls the white and the blue pipe privets. The former is the common privet, _Ligustrum vulgare_, which, and the ash tree, _Fraxinus excelsior_, are the only members of the family native in Great Britain. The latter is the lilac, as both figure and description agree accurately with it. It was carried by the European colonists to north-east America, and is still grown in gardens of the northern and middle states.

There are many fine varieties of lilac, both with single and double
flowers; they are among the commonest and most beautiful of
spring-flowering shrubs. The so-called Persian lilac of gardens (_S.
dubia_, _S. chinensis_ var. _Rothomagensis_), also known as the
Chinese or Rouen lilac, a small shrub 4 to 6 ft. high with intense
violet flowers appearing in May and June, is considered to be a hybrid
between _S. vulgaris_ and _S. persica_--the true Persian lilac, a
native of Persia and Afghanistan, a shrub 4 to 7 ft. high with
bluish-purple or white flowers. Of other species, _S. Josikaea_, from
Transylvania, has scentless bluish-purple flowers; _S. Emodi_, a
native of the Himalayas, is a handsome shrub with large ovate leaves
and dense panicles of purple or white strongly scented flowers. Lilacs
grow freely and flower profusely in almost any soil and situation, but
when neglected are apt to become choked with suckers which shoot up in
great numbers from the base. They are readily propagated by means of
these suckers.

Syringa is also a common name for the mock-orange _Philadelphus
coronarius_ (nat. ord. _Saxifragaceae_), a handsome shrub 2 to 10 ft.
high, with smooth ovate leaves and clusters of white flowers which
have a strong orange-like scent. It is a native of western Asia, and
perhaps some parts of southern Europe.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The Span. _lilac_, Fr. _lilac_, mod. lilas, are adapted from
Arab. _lilak_, Pers. _lilak_, variant of _milak_, of a blue color,
_mil_, blue, the indigo-plant.

LILBURNE, JOHN (c. 1614-1657), English political agitator, was the younger son of a gentleman of good family in the county of Durham. At the age of twelve he was apprenticed to a clothier in London, but he appears to have early addicted himself to the "contention, novelties, opposition of government, and violent and bitter expressions" for which he afterwards became so conspicuous as to provoke the saying of Harry Marten (the regicide) that, "if the world was emptied of all but John Lilburn, Lilburn would quarrel with John, and John with Lilburn." He appears at one time to have been law-clerk to William Prynne. In February 1638, for the part he had taken in importing and circulating _The Litany_ and other publications of John Bastwick and Prynne, offensive to the bishops, he was sentenced by the Star Chamber to be publicly whipped from the Fleet prison to Palace Yard, Westminster, there to stand for two hours in the pillory, and afterwards to be kept in gaol until a fine of £500 had been paid. He devoted his enforced leisure to his favourite form of literary activity, and did not regain his liberty until November 1640, one of the earliest recorded speeches of Oliver Cromwell being made in support of his petition to the House of Commons (Nov. 9, 1640). In 1641 he received an indemnity of £3000. He now entered the army, and in 1642 was taken prisoner at Brentford and tried for his life; sentence would no doubt have been executed had not the parliament by threatening reprisals forced his exchange. He soon rose to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, but in April 1645, having become dissatisfied with the predominance of Presbyterianism, and refusing to take the covenant, he resigned his commission, presenting at the same time to the Commons a petition for considerable arrears of pay. His violent language in Westminster Hall about the speaker and other public men led in the following July to his arrest and committal to Newgate, whence he was discharged, however, without trial, by order of the House, in October. In January 1647 he was committed to the Tower for accusations against Cromwell, but was again set at liberty in time to become a disappointed spectator of the failure of the "Levellers" or ultrademocratic party in the army at the Ware rendezvous in the following November. The scene produced a deep impression on his mind, and in February 1649 he along with other petitioners presented to the House of Commons a paper entitled _The Serious Apprehensions of a part of the People on behalf of the Commonwealth_, which he followed up with a pamphlet, _England's New Chains Discovered_, criticizing Ireton, and another exposing the conduct of Cromwell, Ireton and other leaders of the army since June 1647 (_The Hunting of the Foxes from Newmarket and Triploe Heath to Whitehall by Five Small Beagles_, the "beagles" being Lilburne, Richard Overton, William Walwyn, Prince and another). Finally, the _Second Part of England's New Chains Discovered_, a violent outburst against "the dominion of a council of state, and a constitution of a new and unexperienced nature," became the subject of discussion in the House, and led anew to the imprisonment of its author in the Tower on the 11th of April. His trial in the following October, on a charge of seditious and scandalous practices against the state, resulted in his unanimous acquittal, followed by his release in November. In 1650 he was advocating the release of trade from the restrictions of chartered companies and monopolists.

In January 1652, for printing and publishing a petition against Sir Arthur Hesilrige and the Haberdashers' Hall for what he conceived to have been an injury done to his uncle George Lilburne in 1649, he was sentenced to pay fines amounting to £7000, and to be banished the Commonwealth, with prohibition of return under the pain of death. In June 1653 he nevertheless came back from the Low Countries, where he had busied himself in pamphleteering and such other agitation as was possible, and was immediately arrested; the trial, which was protracted from the 13th of July to the 20th of August, issued in his acquittal, to the great joy of London, but it was nevertheless thought proper to keep him in captivity for "the peace of the nation." He was detained successively in the Tower, in Jersey, in Guernsey and in Dover Castle. At Dover he came under Quaker influence, and signified his readiness at last to be done with "carnal sword fightings and fleshly bustlings and contests"; and in 1655, on giving security for his good behaviour, he was set free. He now settled at Eltham in Kent, frequently preaching at Quaker meetings in the neighbourhood during the brief remainder of his troubled life. He died on the 29th of August 1657.

His brother, Colonel Robert Lilburne, was among those who signed the death-warrant of Charles I. In 1656 he was M.P. for the East Riding of Yorkshire, and at the restoration was sentenced to lifelong imprisonment.

See D. Masson, _Life of Milton_ (iv. 120); Clement Walker (_History of
Independency_, ii. 247); W. Godwin (_Commonwealth_, iii. 163-177), and
Robert Bisset (_Omitted Chapters of the History of England_, 191-251).

LILIACEAE, in botany, a natural order of Monocotyledons belonging to the series Liliiflorae, and generally regarded as representing the typical order of Monocotyledons. The plants are generally perennial herbs growing from a bulb or rhizome, sometimes shrubby as in butcher's broom (_Ruscus_) or tree-like as in species of _Dracaena, Yucca_ or _Aloe_. The flowers are with few exceptions hermaphrodite, and regular with parts in threes (fig. 5), the perianth which is generally petaloid occupying the two outer whorls, followed by two whorls of stamens, with a superior ovary of three carpels in the centre of the flower; the ovary is generally three-chambered and contains an indefinite number of anatropous ovules on axile placentas (see fig. 2). The fruit is a capsule splitting along the septa (septicidal) (fig. 1), or between them (loculicidal), or a berry (fig. 6, 3); the seeds contain a small embryo in a copious fleshy or cartilaginous endosperm. Liliaceae is one of the larger orders of flowering plants containing about 2500 species in 200 genera; it is of world-wide distribution. The plants show great diversity in vegetative structure, which together with the character and mode of dehiscence of the fruit afford a basis for the subdivision of the order into tribes, eleven of which are recognized. The following are the most important tribes.