Chapter XIX: Act 9: Geo. IV. c. 14 (Lord Tenterden's act) requires any promise or (6)

Linen fabrics have several advantages over cotton, resulting
principally from the microscopic structure and length of the flax
fibre. The cloth is much smoother and more lustrous than cotton cloth;
and, presenting a less "woolly" surface, it does not soil so readily,
nor absorb and retain moisture so freely, as the more spongy cotton;
and it is at once a cool, clean and healthful material for
bed-sheeting and clothing. Bleached linen, starched and dressed,
possesses that unequalled purity, gloss and smoothness which make it
alone the material suitable for shirt-fronts, collars and wristbands;
and the gossamer delicacy, yet strength, of the thread it may be spun
into fits it for the fine lace-making to which it is devoted. Flax is
a slightly heavier material than cotton, while its strength is about
double.

As regards the actual number of spindles and power-looms engaged in
linen manufacture, the following particulars are taken from the report
of the Flax Supply Association for 1905:--

+------------------+------+----------+------+------------+
| | | Number of| | Number of |
| Country. | Year.| Spindles | Year.| Power-looms|
| | | for Flax | | for Linen |
| | | Spinning.| | Weaving. |
|------------------+------+----------+------+------------+
| Austria-Hungary | 1903 | 280,414 | 1895 | 3357 |
| Belgium | 1902 | 280,000 | 1900 | 3400 |
| England and Wales| 1905 | 49,941 | 1905 | 4424 |
| France | 1902 | 455,838 | 1891 | 18,083 |
| Germany | 1902 | 295,796 | 1895 | 7557 |
| Holland | 1896 | 8000 | 1891 | 1200 |
| Ireland | 1905 | 851,388 | 1905 | 34,498 |
| Italy | 1902 | 77,000 | 1902 | 3500 |
| Norway | .. | .. | 1880 | 120 |
| Russia | 1902 | 300,000 | 1889 | 7312 |
| Scotland | 1905 | 160,085 | 1905 | 17,185 |
| Spain | .. | .. | 1876 | 1000 |
| Sweden | .. | .. | 1884 | 286 |
+------------------+------+----------+------+------------+

_British Exports of Linen Yarn and Cloth._

+---------------------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+
| | 1891. | 1896. | 1901. | 1906. |
+---------------------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+
| Weight of linen yarn | | | | |
| in pounds | 14,859,900 | 18,462,300 | 12,971,100 | 14,978,200 |
| Length in yards of linen | | | | |
| piece goods, plain, | | | | |
| bleached or unbleached |144,416,700 |150,849,300 |137,521,000 |173,334,200 |
| Length in yards of linen | | | | |
| piece goods, checked, | | | | |
| dyed or printed, also | | | | |
| damask and diaper | 11,807,600 | 17,986,100 | 8,007,600 | 13,372,100 |
| Length in yards of sail- | | | | |
| cloth | 3,233,400 | 5,372,600 | 4,686,700 | 4,251,400 |
| Total length in yards of | | | | |
| all kinds of linen cloth|159,457,700 |174,208,000 |150,215,300 |190,957,700 |
| Weight in pounds of linen | | | | |
| thread for sewing | 2,474,100 | 2,240,300 | 1,721,000 | 2,181,100 |
+---------------------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+

AUTHORITIES.--History of the trade, &c.: Warden's _Linen Trade,
Ancient and Modern_. Spinning: Peter Sharp, _Flax, Tow and Jute
Spinning_ (Dundee); H. R. Carter, _Spinning and Twisting of Long
Vegetable Fibres_ (London). Weaving: Woodhouse and Milne, _Jute and
Linen Weaving_, part i., Mechanism, part ii., Calculations and Cloth
Structure (Manchester); and Woodhouse and Milne, _Textile Design: Pure
and Applied_ (London). (T. Wo.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See Sir Arthur Mitchell's _The Past in the Present_ (Edinburgh,
1880).

[2] The preparation of tow for spinning differs in essential features
from the processes above described. Tow from different sources, such
as scutching tow, hackle tow, &c. differs considerably in quality and
value, some being very impure, filled with woody shives &c., while
other kinds are comparatively open and clean. A preliminary opening
and cleaning is necessary for the dirty much-matted tows, and in
general thereafter they are passed through two carding engines called
respectively the breaker and the finisher cards till the slivers from
their processes are ready for the drawing and roving frames. In the
case of fine clean tows, on the other hand, passing through a single
carding engine may be sufficient. The processes which follow the
carding do not differ materially from those followed in the
preparation of rove from line flax.

LINEN-PRESS, a contrivance, usually of oak, for pressing sheets, table-napkins and other linen articles, resembling a modern office copying-press. Linen presses were made chiefly in the 17th and 18th centuries, and are now chiefly interesting as curiosities of antique furniture. Usually quite plain, they were occasionally carved with characteristic Jacobean designs.

LINER, or LINE OF BATTLE SHIP, the name formerly given to a vessel considered large enough to take part in a naval battle. The practice of distinguishing between vessels fit, and those not fit, to "lie in a line of battle," arose towards the end of the 17th century. In the early 18th century all vessels of 50 guns and upwards were considered fit to lie in a line. After the Seven Years' War (1756-63) the 50-gun ships were rejected as too small. When the great revolutionary wars broke out the smallest line of battle ship was of 64 guns. These also came to be considered as too small, and later the line of battle-ships began with those of 74 guns. The term is now replaced by "battleship"; "liner" being the colloquial name given to the great passenger ships used on the main lines of sea transport.

LING, PER HENRIK (1776-1839), Swedish medical-gymnastic practitioner, son of a minister, was born at Ljunga in the south of Sweden in 1776. He studied divinity, and took his degree in 1797, but then went abroad for some years, first to Copenhagen, where he taught modern languages, and then to Germany, France and England. Pecuniary straits injured his health, and he suffered much from rheumatism, but he had acquired meanwhile considerable proficiency in gymnastics and fencing. In 1804 he returned to Sweden, and established himself as a teacher in these arts at Lund, being appointed in 1805 fencing-master to the university. He found that his daily exercises had completely restored his bodily health, and his thoughts now turned towards applying this experience for the benefit of others. He attended the classes on anatomy and physiology, and went through the entire curriculum for the training of a doctor; he then elaborated a system of gymnastics, divided into four branches, (1) pedagogical, (2) medical, (3) military, (4) aesthetic, which carried out his theories. After several attempts to interest the Swedish government, Ling at last in 1813 obtained their co-operation, and the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute, for the training of gymnastic instructors, was opened in Stockholm, with himself as principal. The orthodox medical practitioners were naturally opposed to the larger claims made by Ling and his pupils respecting the cure of diseases--so far at least as anything more than the occasional benefit of some form of skilfully applied "massage" was concerned; but the fact that in 1831 Ling was elected a member of the Swedish General Medical Association shows that in his own country at all events his methods were regarded as consistent with professional recognition. Ling died in 1839, having previously named as the repositories of his teaching his pupils Lars Gabriel Branting (1799-1881), who succeeded him as principal of the Institute, and Karl Augustus Georgii, who became sub-director; his son, Hjalmar Ling (1820-1886), being for many years associated with them. All these, together with Major Thure Brandt, who from about 1861 specialized in the treatment of women (gynecological gymnastics), are regarded as the pioneers of Swedish medical gymnastics.

It may be convenient to summarize here the later history of Ling's system of medical gymnastics. A _Gymnastic Orthopaedic Institute_ at Stockholm was founded in 1822 by Dr Nils Åkerman, and after 1827 received a government grant; and Dr Gustaf Zander elaborated a medico-mechanical system of gymnastics, known by his name, about 1857, and started his Zander Institute at Stockholm in 1865. At the Stockholm Gymnastic Central Institute qualified medical men have supervised the medical department since 1864; the course is three years (one year for qualified doctors). Broadly speaking, there have been two streams of development in the Swedish gymnastics founded on Ling's beginnings--either in a conservative direction, making certain forms of gymnastic exercises subsidiary to the prescriptions of orthodox medical science, or else in an extremely progressive direction, making these exercises a substitute for any other treatment, and claiming them as a cure for disease by themselves. Modern medical science recognizes fully the importance of properly selected exercises in preserving the body from many ailments; but the more extreme claim, which rules out the use of drugs in disease altogether, has naturally not been admitted. Modern professed disciples of Ling are divided, the representative of the more extreme section being Henrik Kellgren (b. 1837), who has a special school and following.

Ling and his earlier assistants left no proper written account of
their treatment, and most of the literature on the subject is
repudiated by one set or other of the gymnastic practitioners. Dr
Anders Wide, M.D., of Stockholm, has published a _Handbook of Medical
Gymnastics_ (English edition, 1899), representing the more
conservative practice. Henrik Kellgren's system, which, though based
on Ling's, admittedly goes beyond it, is described in _The Elements of
Kellgren's Manual Treatment_ (1903), by Edgar F. Cyriax, who before
taking the M.D. degree at Edinburgh had passed out of the Stockholm
Institute as a "gymnastic director." See also the encyclopaedic work
on _Sweden: its People and Industry_ (1904), p. 348, edited by G.
Sundbärg for the Swedish government.

LING[1] (_Molva vulgaris_), a fish of the family Gadidae, which is readily recognized by its long body, two dorsal fins (of which the anterior is much shorter than the posterior), single long anal fin, separate caudal fin, a barbel on the chin and large teeth in the lower jaw and on the palate. Its usual length is from 3 to 4 ft., but individuals of 5 or 6 ft. in length, and some 70 lb. in weight, have been taken. The ling is found in the North Atlantic, from Spitzbergen and Iceland southwards to the coast of Portugal. Its proper home is the North Sea, especially on the coasts of Norway, Denmark, Great Britain and Ireland, it occurs in great abundance, generally at some distance from the land, in depths varying between 50 and 100 fathoms. During the winter months it approaches the shores, when great numbers are caught by means of long lines. On the American side of the Atlantic it is less common, although generally distributed along the south coast of Greenland and on the banks of Newfoundland. Ling is one of the most valuable species of the cod-fish family; a certain number are consumed fresh, but by far the greater portion are prepared for exportation to various countries (Germany, Spain, Italy). They are either salted and sold as "salt-fish," or split from head to tail and dried, forming, with similarly prepared cod and coal-fish, the article of which during Lent immense quantities are consumed in Germany and elsewhere under the name of "stock-fish." The oil is frequently extracted from the liver and used by the poorer classes of the coast population for the lamp or as medicine.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] As the name of the fish, "ling" is found in other Teut.
languages; cf. Dutch and Ger. _Leng_, Norw. _langa_, &c. It is
generally connected in origin with "long," from the length of its
body. As the name of the common heather, _Calluna vulgaris_ (see
HEATH) the word is Scandinavian; cf. Dutch and Dan. _lyng_, Swed.
_ljung_.

LINGARD, JOHN (1771-1851), English historian, was born on the 5th of February 1771 at Winchester, where his father, of an ancient Lincolnshire peasant stock, had established himself as a carpenter. The boy's talents attracted attention, and in 1782 he was sent to the English college at Douai, where he continued until shortly after the declaration of war by England (1793). He then lived as tutor in the family of Lord Stourton, but in October 1794 he settled along with seven other former members of the old Douai college at Crook Hall near Durham, where on the completion of his theological course he became vice-president of the reorganized seminary. In 1795 he was ordained priest, and soon afterwards undertook the charge of the chairs of natural and moral philosophy. In 1808 he accompanied the community of Crook Hall to the new college at Ushaw, Durham, but in 1811, after declining the presidency of the college at Maynooth, he withdrew to the secluded mission at Hornby in Lancashire, where for the rest of his life he devoted himself to literary pursuits. In 1817 he visited Rome, where he made researches in the Vatican Library. In 1821 Pope Pius VII. created him doctor of divinity and of canon and civil law; and in 1825 Leo XII. is said to have made him cardinal _in petto_. He died at Hornby on the 17th of July 1851.

Lingard wrote _The Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church_ (1806), of
which a third and greatly enlarged addition appeared in 1845 under the
title _The History and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church;
containing an account of its origin, government, doctrines, worship,
revenues, and clerical and monastic institutions_; but the work with
which his name is chiefly associated is _A History of England, from
the first invasion by the Romans to the commencement of the reign of
William III._, which appeared originally in 8 vols. at intervals
between 1819 and 1830. Three successive subsequent editions had the
benefit of extensive revision by the author; a fifth edition in 10
vols. 8vo appeared in 1849, and a sixth, with life of the author by
Tierney prefixed to vol. x., in 1854-1855. Soon after its appearance
it was translated into French, German and Italian. It is a work of
ability and research; and, though Cardinal Wiseman's claim for its
author that he was "the only impartial historian of our country" may
be disregarded, the book remains interesting as representing the view
taken of certain events in English history by a devout, but able and
learned, Roman Catholic in the earlier part of the 19th century.

LINGAYAT (from _linga_, the emblem of Siva), the name of a peculiar sect of Siva worshippers in southern India, who call themselves _Vira-Saivas_ (see HINDUISM). They carry on the person a stone _linga_ (phallus) in a silver casket. The founder of the sect is said to have been Basava, a Brahman prime minister of a Jain king in the 12th century. The Lingayats are specially numerous in the Kanarese country, and to them the Kanarese language owes its cultivation as literature. Their priests are called Jangamas. In 1901 the total number of Lingayats in all India was returned as more than 2½ millions, mostly in Mysore and the adjoining districts of Bombay, Madras and Hyderabad.

LINGAYEN, a town and the capital of the province of Pangasinán, Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 110 m. N. by W. of Manila, on the S. shore of the Gulf of Lingayen, and on a low and fertile island in the delta of the Agno river. Pop. (1903) 21,529. It has good government buildings, a fine church and plaza, the provincial high school and a girls' school conducted by Spanish Dominican friars. The climate is cool and healthy. The chief industries are the cultivation of rice (the most important crop of the surrounding country), fishing and the making of nipa-wine from the juice of the nipa palm, which grows abundantly in the neighbouring swamps. The principal language is Pangasinán; Ilocano is also spoken.

LINGEN, RALPH ROBERT WHEELER LINGEN, BARON (1819-1905), English civil servant, was born in February 1819 at Birmingham, where his father, who came of an old Hertfordshire family, with Royalist traditions, was in business. He became a scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1837; won the Ireland (1838) and Hertford (1839) scholarships; and after taking a first-class in _Literae Humaniores_ (1840), was elected a fellow of Balliol (1841). He subsequently won the Chancellor's Latin Essay (1843) and the Eldon Law scholarship (1846). After taking his degree in 1840, he became a student of Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the bar in 1847; but instead of practising as a barrister, he accepted an appointment in the Education Office, and after a short period was chosen in 1849 to succeed Sir J. Kay Shuttleworth as its secretary or chief permanent official. He retained this position till 1869. The Education Office of that day had to administer a somewhat chaotic system of government grants to local schools, and Lingen was conspicuous for his fearless discrimination and rigid economy, qualities which characterized his whole career. When Robert Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) became, as vice-president of the council, his parliamentary chief, Lingen worked congenially with him in producing the Revised Code of 1862 which incorporated "payment by results"; but the education department encountered adverse criticism, and in 1864 the vote of censure in parliament which caused Lowe's resignation, founded (but erroneously) on an alleged "editing" of the school inspectors' reports, was inspired by a certain antagonism to Lingen's as well as to Lowe's methods. Shortly before the introduction of Forster's Education Act of 1870, he was transferred to the post of permanent secretary of the treasury. In this office, which he held till 1885, he proved a most efficient guardian of the public purse, and he was a tower of strength to successive chancellors of the exchequer. It used to be said that the best recommendation for a secretary of the treasury was to be able to say "No" so disagreeably that nobody would court a repetition. Lingen was at all events a most successful resister of importunate claims, and his undoubted talents as a financier were most prominently displayed in the direction of parsimony. In 1885 he retired. He had been made a C.B. in 1869 and a K.C.B. in 1878, and on his retirement he was created Baron Lingen. In 1889 he was made one of the first aldermen of the new London County Council, but he resigned in 1892. He died on the 22nd of July 1905. He had married in 1852, but left no issue.

LINGEN, a town in the Prussian province of Hanover, on the Ems canal, 43 m. N.N.W. of Münster by rail. Pop. 7500. It has iron foundries, machinery factories, railway workshops and a considerable trade in cattle, and among its other industries are weaving and malting and the manufacture of cloth. Lingen was the seat of a university from 1685 to 1819.

The county of Lingen, of which this town was the capital, was united in the middle ages with the county of Treklenburg. In 1508, however, it was separated from this and was divided into an upper and a lower county, but the two were united in 1541. A little, later Lingen was sold to the emperor Charles V., from whom it passed to his son, Philip II. of Spain, who ceded it in 1507 to Maurice, prince of Orange. After the death of the English king, William III., in 1702, it passed to Frederick I., king of Prussia, and in 1815 the lower county was transferred to Hanover, only to be united again with Prussia in 1866.

See Möller, _Geschichte der vormaligen Grafschaft Lingen_ (Lingen,
1874); Herrmann, _Die Erwerbung der Stadt und Grafschaft Lingen durch
die Krone Preussen_ (Lingen, 1902); and Schriever, _Geschichte des
Kreiges Lingen_ (Lingen, 1905).

LINGUET, SIMON NICHOLAS HENRI (1736-1794), French journalist and advocate, was born on the 14th of July 1736, at Reims, whither his father, the assistant principal in the Collège de Beauvais of Paris, had recently been exiled by _lettre de cachet_ for engaging in the Jansenist controversy. He attended the Collège de Beauvais and won the three highest prizes there in 1751. He accompanied the count palatine of Zweibrücken to Poland, and on his return to Paris he devoted himself to writing. He published partial French translations of Calderon and Lope de Vega, and wrote parodies for the _Opéra Comique_ and pamphlets in favour of the Jesuits. Received at first in the ranks of the _philosophes_, he soon went over to their opponents, possibly more from contempt than from conviction, the immediate occasion for his change being a quarrel with d'Alembert in 1762. Thenceforth he violently attacked whatever was considered modern and enlightened, and while he delighted society with his numerous sensational pamphlets, he aroused the fear and hatred of his opponents by his stinging wit. He was admitted to the bar in 1764, and soon became one of the most famous pleaders of his century. But in spite of his brilliant ability and his record of having lost but two cases, the bitter attacks which he directed against his fellow advocates, especially against Gerbier (1725-1788), caused his dismissal from the bar in 1775. He then turned to journalism and began the _Journal de politique et de littérature_, which he employed for two years in literary, philosophical and legal criticisms. But a sarcastic article on the French Academy compelled him to turn over the Journal to La Harpe and seek refuge abroad. Linguet, however, continued his career of free lance, now attacking and now supporting the government, in the _Annales politiques, civiles et littéraires_, published from 1777 to 1792, first at London, then at Brussels and finally at Paris. Attempting to return to France in 1780 he was arrested for a caustic attack on the duc de Duras (1715-1789), an academician and marshal of France, and imprisoned nearly two years in the Bastille. He then went to London, and thence to Brussels, where, for his support of the reforms of Joseph II., he was ennobled and granted an honorarium of one thousand ducats. In 1786 he was permitted by Vergennes to return to France as an Austrian counsellor of state, and to sue the duc d'Aiguillon (1730-1798), the former minister of Louis XV., for fees due him for legal services rendered some fifteen years earlier. He obtained judgment to the amount of 24,000 livres. Linguet received the support of Marie Antoinette; his fame at the time surpassed that of his rival Beaumarchais, and almost excelled that of Voltaire. Shortly afterwards he visited the emperor at Vienna to plead the case of Van der Noot and the rebels of Brabant. During the early years of the Revolution he issued several pamphlets against Mirabeau, who returned his ill-will with interest, calling him "the ignorant and bombastic M. Linguet, advocate of Neros, sultans and viziers." On his return to Paris in 1791 he defended the rights of San Domingo before the National Assembly. His last work was a defence of Louis XVI. He retired to Marnes near Ville d'Avray to escape the Terror, but was sought out and summarily condemned to death "for having flattered the despots of Vienna and London." He was guillotined at Paris on the 27th of June 1794.

Linguet was a prolific writer in many fields. Examples of his
attempted historical writing are _Histoire du siècle d'Alexandre le
Grand_ (Amsterdam, 1762), and _Histoire impartiale des Jésuites_
(Madrid, 1768), the latter condemned to be burned. His opposition to
the _philosophes_ had its strongest expressions in _Fanatisme des
philosophes_ (Geneva and Paris, 1764) and _Histoire des révolutions
de l'empire romain_ (Paris, 1766-1768). His _Théorie des lois
civiles_ (London, 1767) is a vigorous defence of absolutism and attack
on the politics of Montesquieu. His best legal treatise is _Mémoire
pour le comte de Morangies_ (Paris, 1772); Linguet's imprisonment in
the Bastille afforded him the opportunity of writing his _Mémoires sur
la Bastille_, first published in London in 1789; it has been
translated into English (Dublin, 1783, and Edinburgh, 1884-1887), and
is the best of his works though untrustworthy.

See A. Devérité, _Notice pour servir à l'histoire de la vie et des
écrits de S. N. H. Linguet_ (Liége, 1782); Gardoz, _Essai historique
sur la vie et les ouvrages de Linguet_ (Lyon, 1808); J. F. Barrière,
_Mémoire de Linguet et de Latude_ (Paris, 1884); Ch. Monselet, _Les
Oubliés et les dédaignés_ (Paris, 1885), pp. 1-41; H. Monin "Notice
sur Linguet," in the 1889 edition of _Mémoires sur la Bastille_; J.
Cruppi, _Un avocat journaliste au 18^e siècle, Linguet_ (Paris,
1895); A. Philipp. _Linguet, ein Nationalökonom des XVIII Jahrhunderts
in seinen rechtlichen, socialen und volkswirtschaftlichen
Anschauungen_ (Zürich, 1896); A. Lichtenberger, _Le Socialisme
utopique_ (1898), pp. 77-131.

LINK. (1) (Of Scandinavian origin; cf. Swed. _länk_, Dan. _laenke_; cognate with "flank," and Ger. _Gelenk_, joint), one of the loops of which a chain is composed; used as a measure of length in surveying, being (1/100)th part of a "chain." In Gunter's chain, a "link" = 7.92 in.; the chain used by American engineers consists of 100 links of a foot each in length (for "link work" and "link motions" see MECHANICS: § _Applied_, and STEAM ENGINE). The term is also applied to anything used for connecting or binding together, metaphorically or absolutely. (2) (O. Eng. _hlinc_, possibly from the root which appears in "to lean"), a bank or ridge of rising ground; in Scots dialect, in the plural, applied to the ground bordering on the sea-shore, characterized by sand and coarse grass; hence a course for playing golf. (3) A torch made of pitch or tow formerly carried in the streets to light passengers, by men or boys called "link-boys" who plied for hire with them. Iron link-stands supporting a ring in which the link might be placed may still be seen at the doorways of old London houses. The word is of doubtful origin. It has been referred to a Med. Lat. _lichinus_, which occurs in the form _linchinus_ (see Du Cange, _Glossarium_); this, according to a 15th-century glossary, meant a wick or match. It is an adaptation of Gr. [Greek: luchnos], lamp. Another suggestion connects it with a supposed derivation of "linstock," from "lint." _The New English Dictionary_ thinks the likeliest suggestion is to identify the word with the "link" of a chain. The tow and pitch may have been manufactured in lengths, and then cut into sections or "links."

LINKÖPING, a city of Sweden, the seat of a bishop, and chief town of the district (_län_) of Östergötland. Pop. (1900) 14,552. It is situated in a fertile plain 142 m. by rail S.W. of Stockholm, and communicates with Lake Roxen (½ m. to the north) and the Göta and Kinda canals by means of the navigable Stångå. The cathedral (1150-1499), a Romanesque building with a beautiful south portal and a Gothic choir, is, next to the cathedral of Upsala, the largest church in Sweden. It contains an altarpiece by Martin Heemskerck (d. 1574), which is said to have been bought by John II. for twelve hundred measures of wheat. In the church of St Lars are some paintings by Per Horberg (1746-1816), the Swedish peasant artist. Other buildings of note are the massive episcopal palace (1470-1500), afterwards a royal palace, and the old gymnasium founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1627, which contains the valuable library of old books and manuscripts belonging to the diocese and state college, and collection of coins and antiquities. There is also the Östergötland Museum, with an art collection. The town has manufactures of tobacco, cloth and hosiery. It is the headquarters of the second army division.

Linköping early became a place of mark, and was already a bishop's see in 1082. It was at a council held in the town in 1153 that the payment of Peter's pence was agreed to at the instigation of Nicholas Breakspeare, afterwards Adrian IV. The coronation of Birger Jarlsson Valdemar took place in the cathedral in 1251; and in the reign of Gustavus Vasa several important diets were held in the town. At Stångåbro (Stångå Bridge), close by, an obelisk (1898) commemorates the battle of Stångåbro (1598), when Duke Charles (Protestant) defeated the Roman Catholic Sigismund. A circle of stones in the Iron Market of Linköping marks the spot where Sigismund's adherents were beheaded in 1600.

LINLEY, THOMAS (1732-1795), English musician, was born at Wells, Somerset, and studied music at Bath, where he settled as a singing-master and conductor of the concerts. From 1774 he was engaged in the management at Drury Lane theatre, London, composing or compiling the music of many of the pieces produced there, besides songs and madrigals, which rank high among English compositions. He died in London on the 19th of November 1795. His eldest son THOMAS (1756-1778) was a remarkable violinist, and also a composer, who assisted his father; and he became a warm friend of Mozart. His works, with some of his father's, were published in two volumes, and these contain some lovely madrigals and songs. Another son, WILLIAM (1771-1835), who held a writership at Madras, was devoted to literature and music and composed glees and songs. Three daughters were similarly gifted, and were remarkable both for singing and beauty; the eldest of them ELIZABETH ANN (1754-1792), married Richard Brinsley Sheridan in 1773, and thus linked the fortunes of her family with his career.

LINLITHGOW, JOHN ADRIAN LOUIS HOPE, 1ST MARQUESS OF (1860-1908), British administrator, was the son of the 6th earl of Hopetoun. The Hope family traced their descent to John de Hope, who accompanied James V.'s queen Madeleine of Valois from France to Scotland in 1537, and of whose great-grandchildren Sir Thomas Hope (d. 1646), lord advocate of Scotland, was ancestor of the earls of Hopetoun, while Henry Hope settled in Amsterdam, and was the ancestor of the famous Dutch bankers of that name, and of the later Hopes of Bedgebury, Kent. Sir Thomas's son, Sir James Hope of Hopetoun (1614-1661), Scottish lord of session, was grandfather of Charles, 1st earl of Hopetoun in the Scots peerage (1681-1742), who was created earl in 1703; and his grandson, the 3rd earl, was in 1809 made a baron of the United Kingdom. John, the 4th earl (1765-1823), brother of the 3rd earl, was a distinguished soldier, who for his services in the Peninsular War was created Baron Niddry in 1814 before succeeding to the earldom. The marquessate of Linlithgow was bestowed on the 7th earl of Hopetoun in 1902, in recognition of his success as first governor (1900-1902) of the commonwealth of Australia; he died on the 1st of March 1908, being succeeded as 2nd marquess by his eldest son (b. 1887).

An earldom of Linlithgow was in existence from 1600 to 1716, this
being held by the Livingstones, a Scottish family descended from Sir
William Livingstone. Sir William obtained the barony of Callendar in
1346, and his descendant, Sir Alexander Livingstone (d. c. 1450), and
other members of this family were specially prominent during the
minority of King James II. Alexander Livingstone, 7th Lord Livingstone
(d. 1623), the eldest son of William, the 6th lord (d. c. 1580), a
supporter of Mary, queen of Scots, was a leading Scottish noble during
the reign of James VI. and was created earl of Linlithgow in 1600.
Alexander's grandson, George, 3rd earl of Linlithgow (1616-1690), and
the latter's son, George, the 4th earl (c. 1652-1695), were both
engaged against the Covenanters during the reign of Charles II. When
the 4th earl died without sons in August 1695 the earldom passed to
his nephew, James Livingstone, 4th earl of Callendar. James, who then
became the 5th earl of Linlithgow, joined the Stuart rising in 1715;
in 1716 he was attainted, being thus deprived of all his honours, and
he died without sons in Rome in April 1723.

The earldom of Callendar, which was thus united with that of
Linlithgow, was bestowed in 1641 upon James Livingstone, the third son
of the 1st earl of Linlithgow. Having seen military service in Germany
and the Netherlands, James was created Lord Livingstone of Almond in
1633 by Charles I., and eight years later the king wished to make him
lord high treasurer of Scotland. Before this, however, Almond had
acted with the Covenanters, and during the short war between England
and Scotland in 1640 he served under General Alexander Leslie,
afterwards earl of Leven. But the trust reposed in him by the
Covenanters did not prevent him in 1640 from signing the "band of
Cumbernauld," an association for defence against Argyll, or from being
in some way mixed up with the "Incident," a plot for the seizure of
the Covenanting leaders, Hamilton and Argyll. In 1641 Almond became an
earl, and, having declined the offer of a high position in the army
raised by Charles I., he led a division of the Scottish forces into
England in 1644 and helped Leven to capture Newcastle. In 1645
Callendar, who often imagined himself slighted, left the army, and in
1647 he was one of the promoters of the "engagement" for the release
of the king. In 1648, when the Scots marched into England, he served
as lieutenant-general under the duke of Hamilton, but the duke found
him as difficult to work with as Leven had done previously, and his
advice was mainly responsible for the defeat at Preston. After this
battle he escaped to Holland. In 1650 he was allowed to return to
Scotland, but in 1654 his estates were seized and he was imprisoned;
he came into prominence once more at the Restoration. Callendar died
on March 1674, leaving no children, and, according to a special
remainder, he was succeeded in the earldom by his nephew Alexander (d.
1685), the second son of the 2nd earl of Linlithgow; and he again was
succeeded by his nephew Alexander (d. 1692), the second son of the 3rd
earl of Linlithgow. The 3rd earl's son, James, the 4th earl, then
became 5th earl of Linlithgow (see _supra_).

LINLITHGOW, a royal, municipal and police burgh and county town of Linlithgowshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 4279. It lies in a valley on the south side of a loch, 17½ m. W. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. It long preserved an antique and picturesque appearance, with gardens running down to the lake, or climbing the lower slopes of the rising ground, but in the 19th century much of it was rebuilt. About 4 m. S. by W. lies the old village of Torphichen (pop. 540), where the Knights of St John of Jerusalem had their chief Scottish preceptory. The parish kirk is built on the site of the nave of the church of the establishment, but the ruins of the transept and of part of the choir still exist. Linlithgow belongs to the Falkirk district group of parliamentary burghs with Falkirk, Airdrie, Hamilton and Lanark. The industries include shoe-making, tanning and currying, manufactures of paper, glue and soap, and distilling. An old tower-like structure near the railway station is traditionally regarded as a mansion of the Knights Templar. Other public buildings are the first town house (erected in 1668 and restored in 1848 after a fire); the town hall, built in 1888; the county buildings and the burgh school, dating from the pre-Reformation period. There are some fine fountains. The Cross Well in front of the town house, a striking piece of grotesque work carved in stone, originally built in the reign of James V., was rebuilt in 1807. Another fountain is surmounted by the figure of St Michael, the patron-saint of the burgh. Linlithgow Palace is perhaps the finest ruin of its kind in Scotland. Heavy but effective, the sombre walls rise above the green knolls of the promontory which divides the lake into two nearly equal portions. In plan it is almost square (168 ft. by 174 ft.), enclosing a court (91 ft. by 88 ft.), in the centre of which stands the ruined fountain of which an exquisite copy was erected in front of Holyrood Palace by the Prince Consort. At each corner there is a tower with an internal spiral staircase, that of the north-west angle being crowned by a little octagonal turret known as "Queen Margaret's Bower," from the tradition that it was there that the consort of James IV. watched and waited for his return from Flodden. The west side, whose massive masonry, hardly broken by a single window, is supposed to date in part from the time of James III., who later took refuge in one of its vaults from his disloyal nobles; but the larger part of the south and east side belongs to the period of James V., about 1535; and the north side was rebuilt in 1619-1620 by James VI. Of James V.'s portion, architecturally the richest, the main apartments are the Lyon chamber or parliament hall and the chapel royal. The grand entrance, approached by a drawbridge, was on the east side; above the gateway are still some weather-worn remains of rich allegorical designs. The palace was reduced to ruins by General Hawley's dragoons, who set fire to it in 1746. Government grants have stayed further dilapidation. A few yards to the south of the palace is the church of St Michael, a Gothic (Scottish Decorated) building (180 ft. long internally excluding the apse, by 62 ft. in breadth excluding the transepts), probably founded by David I. in 1242, but mainly built by George Crichton, bishop of Dunkeld (1528-1536). The central west front steeple was till 1821 topped by a crown like that of St Giles', Edinburgh. The chief features of the church are the embattled and pinnacled tower, with the fine doorway below, the nave, the north porch and the flamboyant window in the south transept. The church contains some fine stained glass, including a window to the memory of Sir Charles Wyville Thomson (1830-1882), the naturalist, who was born in the parish.

Linlithgow (wrongly identified with the Roman _Lindum_) was made a royal burgh by David I. Edward I. encamped here the night before the battle of Falkirk (1298), wintered here in 1301, and next year built "a pele [castle] mekill and strong," which in 1313 was captured by the Scots through the assistance of William Bunnock, or Binning, and his hay-cart. In 1369 the customs of Linlithgow yielded more than those of any other town in Scotland, except Edinburgh; and the burgh was taken with Lanark to supply the place of Berwick and Roxburgh in the court of the Four Burghs (1368). Robert II. granted it a charter of immunities in 1384. The palace became a favourite residence of the kings of Scotland, and often formed part of the marriage settlement of their consorts (Mary of Guelders, 1449; Margaret of Denmark, 1468; Margaret of England, 1503). James V. was born within its walls in 1512, and his daughter Mary on the 7th of December 1542. In 1570 the Regent Moray was assassinated in the High Street by James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh. The university of Edinburgh took refuge at Linlithgow from the plague in 1645-1646; in the same year the national parliament, which had often sat in the palace, was held there for the last time. In 1661 the Covenant was publicly burned here, and in 1745 Prince Charles Edward passed through the town. In 1859 the burgh was deprived by the House of Lords of its claim to levy bridge toll and custom from the railway company.

LINLITHGOWSHIRE, or WEST LOTHIAN, a south-eastern county of Scotland, bounded N. by the Firth of Forth, E. and S.E. by Edinburghshire, S.W. by Lanarkshire and N.W. by Stirlingshire. It has an area of 76,861 acres, or 120 sq. m., and a coast line of 17 m. The surface rises very gradually from the Firth to the hilly district in the south. A few miles from the Forth a valley stretches from east to west. Between the county town and Bathgate are several hills, the chief being Knock (1017 ft.), Cairnpapple, or Cairnnaple (1000), Cocklerue (said to be a corruption of Cuckold-le-Roi, 912), Riccarton Hills (832) terminating eastwards in Binny Craig, a striking eminence similar to those of Stirling and Edinburgh, Torphichen Hills (777) and Bowden (749). In the coast district a few bold rocks are found, such as Dalmeny, Dundas (well wooded and with a precipitous front), the Binns and a rounded eminence of 559 ft. named Glower-o'er-'em or Bonnytoun, bearing on its summit a monument to General Adrian Hope, who fell in the Indian Mutiny. The river Almond, rising in Lanarkshire and pursuing a north-easterly direction, enters the Firth at Cramond after a course of 24 m., during a great part of which it forms the boundary between West and Mid Lothian. Its right-hand tributary, Breich Water, constitutes another portion of the line dividing the same counties. The Avon, rising in the detached portion of Dumbartonshire, flows eastwards across south Stirlingshire and then, following in the main a northerly direction, passes the county town on the west and reaches the Firth about midway between Grangemouth and Bo'ness, having served as the boundary of Stirlingshire, during rather more than the latter half of its course. The only loch is Linlithgow Lake (102 acres), immediately adjoining the county town on the north, a favourite resort of curlers and skaters. It is 10 ft. deep at the east end and 48 ft. at the west. Eels, perch and braise (a species of roach) are abundant.

_Geology._--The rocks of Linlithgowshire belong almost without
exception to the Carboniferous system. At the base is the Calciferous
Sandstone series, most of which lies between the Bathgate Hills and
the eastern boundary of the county. In this series are the Queensferry
limestone, the equivalent of the Burdiehouse limestone of Edinburgh,
and the Binny sandstone group with shales and clays and the Houston
coal bed. At more than one horizon in this series oil shales are
found. The Bathgate Hills are formed of basaltic lavas and tuffs--an
interbedded volcanic group possibly 2000 ft. thick in the Calciferous
Sandstone and Carboniferous Limestone series. A peculiar serpentinous
variety of the prevailing rock is quarried at Blackburn for oven
floors; it is known as "lakestone." Binns Hill is the site of one of
the volcanic cones of the period. The Carboniferous Limestone series
consists of an upper and lower limestone group--including the
Petershill, Index, Dykeneuk and Craigenbuck limestones--and a middle
group of shales, ironstones and coals; the Smithy, Easter Main, Foul,
Red and Splint coals belong to this horizon. Above the Carboniferous
Limestone the Millstone grit series crops in a belt which may be
traced from the mouth of the Avon southwards to Whitburn. This is
followed by the true coal-measures with the Boghead or Torbanehill
coal, the Colinburn, Main, Ball, Mill and Upper Cannel or Shotts gas
coals of Armadale, Torbanehill and Fauldhouse.

_Climate and Agriculture._--The average rainfall for the year is 29.9
in., and the average temperature 47.5° F. (January 38° F.; July 59.5°
F.). More than three-fourths of the county, the agriculture of which
is highly developed, is under cultivation. The best land is found
along the coast, as at Carriden and Dalmeny. The farming is mostly
arable, permanent pasture being practically stationary (at about
22,000 acres). Oats is the principal grain crop, but barley and wheat
are also cultivated. Farms between 100 and 300 acres are the most
common. Turnips and potatoes are the leading green crops. Much land
has been reclaimed; the parish of Livingston, for example, which in
the beginning of the 18th century was covered with heath and juniper,
is now under rotation. In Torphichen and Bathgate, however, patches of
peat moss and swamp occur, and in the south there are extensive moors
at Fauldhouse and Polkemmet. Live stock does not count for so much in
West Lothian as in other Scottish counties, though a considerable
number of cattle are fattened and dairy farming is followed
successfully, the fresh butter and milk finding a market in Edinburgh.
There is some sheep-farming, and horses and pigs are reared. The
wooded land occurs principally in the parks and "policies" surrounding
the many noblemen's mansions and private estates.

_Other Industries._--The shale-oil trade flourishes at Bathgate,
Broxburn, Armadale, Uphall, Winchburgh, Philpstoun and Dalmeny. There
are important iron-works with blast furnaces at Bo'ness, Kinneil,
Whitburn and Bathgate, and coal is also largely mined at these places.
Coal-mining is supposed to have been followed since Roman times, and
the earliest document extant regarding coalpits in Scotland is a
charter granted about the end of the 12th century to William Oldbridge
of Carriden. Fire-clay is extensively worked in connexion with the
coal, and ironstone employs many hands. Limestone, freestone and
whinstone are all quarried. Binny freestone was used for the Royal
Institution and the National Gallery in Edinburgh, and many important
buildings in Glasgow. Some fishing is carried on from Queensferry, and
Bo'ness is the principal port.

_Communications._--The North British Railway Company's line from
Edinburgh to Glasgow runs across the north of the county, it controls
the approaches to the Forth Bridge, and serves the rich mineral
district around Airdrie and Coatbridge in Lanarkshire via Bathgate.
The Caledonian Railway Company's line from Glasgow to Edinburgh
touches the extreme south of the shire. The Union Canal, constructed
in 1818-1822 to connect Edinburgh with the Forth and Clyde Canal near
Camelon in Stirlingshire, crosses the county, roughly following the
N.B.R. line to Falkirk. The Union Canal, which is 31 m. long and
belongs to the North British railway, is carried across the Almond and
Avon on aqueducts designed by Thomas Telford, and near Falkirk is
conveyed through a tunnel 2100 ft. long.

_Population and Administration._--In 1891 the population amounted to 52,808, and in 1901 to 65,708, showing an increase of 24.43% in the decennial period, the highest of any Scottish county for that decade, and a density of 547 persons to the sq. m. In 1901 five persons spoke Gaelic only, and 575 Gaelic and English. The chief towns, with populations in 1901, are Bathgate (7549), Borrowstounness (9306), Broxburn (7099) and Linlithgow (4279). The shire returns one member to parliament. Linlithgowshire is part of the sheriffdom of the Lothians and Peebles, and a resident sheriff-substitute sits at Linlithgow and Bathgate. The county is under school-board jurisdiction, and there are academies at Linlithgow, Bathgate and Bo'ness. The local authorities entrust the bulk of the "residue" grant to the County Secondary Education Committee, which subsidizes elementary technical classes (cookery, laundry and dairy) and science and art and technological classes, including their equipment.

_History._--Traces of the Pictish inhabitants still exist. Near Inveravon is an accumulation of shells--mostly oysters, which have long ceased to be found so far up the Forth--considered by geologists to be a natural bed, but pronounced by antiquaries to be a kitchen midden. Stone cists have been discovered at Carlowrie, Dalmeny, Newliston and elsewhere; on Cairnnaple is a circular structure of remote but unknown date; and at Kipps is a cromlech that was once surrounded by stones. The wall of Antoninus lies for several miles in the shire. The discovery of a fine legionary tablet at Bridgeness in 1868 is held by some to be conclusive evidence that the great rampart terminated at that point and not at Carriden. Roman camps can be distinguished at several spots. On the hill of Bowden is an earthwork, which J. Stuart Glennie and others connect with the struggle of the ancient Britons against the Saxons of Northumbria. The historical associations of the county mainly cluster round the town of Linlithgow (q.v.). Kingscavil (pop. 629) disputes with Stonehouse in Lanarkshire the honour of being the birthplace of Patrick Hamilton, the martyr (1504-1528).

See Sir R. Sibbald, _History of the Sheriffdoms of Linlithgow and
Stirlingshire_ (Edinburgh, 1710); G. Waldie, _Walks along the Northern
Roman Wall_ (Linlithgow, 1883); R. J. H. Cunningham, _Geology of the
Lothians_ (Edinburgh, 1838).

LINNAEUS, the name usually given to CARL VON LINNÉ (1707-1778), Swedish botanist, who was born on the 13th of May, O.S. (May 23, N.S.) 1707 at Råshult, in the province of Småland, Sweden, and was the eldest child of Nils Linnaeus the comminister, afterwards pastor, of the parish, and Christina Brodersonia, the daughter of the previous incumbent. In 1717 he was sent to the primary school at Wexiö, and in 1724 he passed to the gymnasium. His interests were centred on botany, and his progress in the studies considered necessary for admission to holy orders, for which he was intended, was so slight that in 1726 his father was recommended to apprentice him to a tailor or shoemaker. He was saved from this fate through Dr Rothman, a physician in the town, who expressed the belief that he would yet distinguish himself in medicine and natural history, and who further instructed him in physiology. In 1727 he entered the university of Lund, but removed in the following year to that of Upsala. There, through lack of means, he had a hard struggle until, in 1729, he made the acquaintance of Dr Olaf Celsius (1670-1756), professor of theology, at that time working at his _Hierobotanicon_, which saw the light nearly twenty years later. Celsius, impressed with Linnaeus's knowledge and botanical collections, and finding him necessitous, offered him board and lodging.

During this period, he came upon a critique which ultimately led to the establishment of his artificial system of plant classification. This was a review of Sébastien Vaillant's _Sermo de Structura Florum_ (Leiden, 1718), a thin quarto in French and Latin; it set him upon examining the stamens and pistils of flowers, and, becoming convinced of the paramount importance of these organs, he formed the idea of basing a system of arrangement upon them. Another work by Wallin, [Greek: Gamos phytôn], _sive Nuptiae Arborum Dissertatio_ (Upsala, 1729), having fallen into his hands, he drew up a short treatise on the sexes of plants, which was placed in the hands of the younger Olaf Rudbeck (1660-1740), the professor of botany in the university. In the following year Rudbeck, whose advanced age compelled him to lecture by deputy, appointed Linnaeus his adjunctus; in the spring of 1730, therefore, the latter began his lectures. The academic garden was entirely remodelled under his auspices, and furnished with many rare species. In the preceding year he had solicited appointment to the vacant post of gardener, which was refused him on the ground of his capacity for better things.

In 1732 he undertook to explore Lapland, at the cost of the Academy of Sciences of Upsala; he traversed upwards of 4600 m., and the cost of the journey is given at 530 copper dollars, or about £25 sterling. His own account was published in English by Sir J. E. Smith, under the title _Lachesis Lapponica_, in 1811; the scientific results were published in his _Flora Lapponica_ (Amsterdam, 1737). In 1733 Linnaeus was engaged at Upsala in teaching the methods of assaying ores, but was prevented from delivering lectures on botany for academic reasons. At this juncture the governor of Dalecarlia invited him to travel through his province, as he had done through Lapland. Whilst on this journey, he lectured at Fahlun to large audiences; and J. Browallius (1707-1755), the chaplain there, afterwards bishop of Åbo, strongly urged him to go abroad and take his degree of M.D. at a foreign university, by which means he could afterwards settle where he pleased. Accordingly he left Sweden in 1735. Travelling by Lübeck and Hamburg, he proceeded to Harderwijk, where he went through the requisite examinations, and defended his thesis on the cause of intermittent fever. His scanty funds were now nearly spent, but he passed on through Haarlem to Leiden; there he called on Jan Fredrik Gronovius (1600-1762), who, returning the visit, was shown the _Systema naturae_ in MS., and was so greatly astonished at it that he sent it to press at his own expense. This famous system, which, artificial as it was, substituted order for confusion, largely made its way on account of the lucid and admirable laws, and comments on them, which were issued almost at the same time (see BOTANY). H. Boerhaave, whom Linnaeus saw after waiting eight days for admission, recommended him to J. Burman (1707-1780), the professor of botany at Amsterdam, with whom he stayed a twelvemonth. While there he issued his _Fundamenta Botanica_, an unassuming small octavo, which exercised immense influence. For some time also he lived with the wealthy banker, G. Clifford (1685-1750), who had a magnificent garden at Hartecamp, near Haarlem.

In 1736 Linnaeus visited England. He was warmly recommended by Boerhaave to Sir Hans Sloane, who seems to have received him coldly. At Oxford Dr Thomas Shaw welcomed him cordially; J. J. Dillenius, the professor of botany, was cold at first, but afterwards changed completely, kept him a month, and even offered to share the emoluments of the chair with him. He saw Philip Miller (1691-1771), the _Hortulanorum Princeps_, at Chelsea Physic Garden, and took some plants thence to Clifford; but certain other stories which are current about his visit to England are of very doubtful authenticity.