Chapter XVII: Act 9: Geo. IV. c. 14 (Lord Tenterden's act) requires any promise or (4)

In the struggles of the reign of Stephen, castles at Newark and Sleaford were raised by Alexander, bishop of Lincoln, against the king, while Ranulf "Gernons," earl of Chester, in 1140 garrisoned Lincoln for the empress. The seizure of Lincoln by Stephen in 1141 was accompanied with fearful butchery and devastation, and by an accord at Stamford William of Roumare received Kirton in Lindsey, and his tenure of Gainsborough Castle was confirmed. In the baronial outbreak of 1173 Roger Mowbray, who had inherited the Isle of Axholme from Nigel d'Albini, garrisoned Ferry East, or Kinnard's Ferry, and Axholme against the king, and, after the destruction of their more northern fortresses in this campaign, Epworth in Axholme became the principal seat of the Mowbrays. In the struggles between John and his barons Lincoln in 1216 made peace with the king by surrendering hostages for the payment of a fine of 1000 marks, but after the landing of Louis the city was captured by Gilbert de Gant, then earl of Lincoln. After his disastrous march to Swineshead Abbey, John journeyed through Sleaford to Newark, where he died, and in the battle of Lincoln in 1217 Gilbert de Gant was captured and the city sacked. At the time of the Wars of the Roses the county, owing to territorial influence, was mainly Lancastrian, and in 1461 the Yorkist strongholds of Grantham and Stamford were sacked to such effect that the latter never recovered. The Lincolnshire rising of 1470 was crushed by the defeat of the rebels in the skirmish known as "Losecoat Field" near Stamford. In the Civil War of the 17th century, Lindsey for the most part declared for the king, and the Royalist cause was warmly supported by the earl of Lindsey, Viscount Newark, Sir Peregrine Bertie and the families of Dymoke, Heneage and Thorold. Lord Willoughby of Parham was a prominent Parliamentary leader, and the Isle of Axholme and the Puritan yeomanry of Holland declared for the parliament. In 1643 Cromwell won a small victory near Grantham, and the Royalist garrisons at Lynn and Lincoln surrendered to Manchester. In 1644, however, Newark, Gainsborough, Lincoln, Sleaford and Crowland were all in Royalist hands, and Newark only surrendered in 1646. Among other historic families connected with Lincolnshire were the Wakes of Bourne and the d'Eyncourts, who flourished at Blankney from the Conquest to the reign of Henry VI.; Belvoir Castle was founded by the Toenis, from whom it passed by the Daubeneys, then to the Barons Ros and later to the Manners, earls of Rutland. In the Lindsey Survey of 1115-1118 the name of Roger Marmion, ancestor of the Marmion family, who had inherited the fief of Robert Despenser, appears for the first time.

At the time of the Domesday Survey there were between 400 and 500 mills in Lincolnshire; 2111 fisheries producing large quantities of eels; 361 salt-works; and iron forges at Stow, St Mary and at Bytham. Lincoln and Stamford were flourishing centres of industry, and markets existed at Kirton-in-Lindsey, Louth, Old Bolingbroke, Spalding, Barton and Partney. The early manufactures of the county are all connected with the woollen trade, Lincoln being noted for its scarlet cloth in the 13th century, while an important export trade in the raw material sprang up at Boston. The disafforesting of Kesteven in 1230 brought large areas under cultivation, and the same period is marked by the growth of the maritime and fishing towns, especially Boston (which had a famous fish-market), Grimsby, Barton, Saltfleet, Wainfleet and Wrangle. The Lincolnshire towns suffered from the general decay of trade in the eastern counties which marked the 15th century, but agriculture was steadily improving, and with the gradual drainage of the fen-districts culminating in the vast operations of the 17th century, over 330,000 acres in the county were brought under cultivation, including more than two-thirds of Holland. The fen-drainage resulted in the extinction of many local industries, such as the trade in goose-feathers and the export of wild fowl to the London markets, a 17th-century writer terming this county "the aviary of England, 3000 mallards with other birds having been caught sometimes in August at one draught." Other historic industries of Lincolnshire are the breeding of horses and dogs and rabbit-snaring; the Witham was noted for its pike; and ironstone was worked in the south, now chiefly in the north and west.

As early as 1295 two knights were returned to parliament for the shire of Lincoln, and two burgesses each for Lincoln, Grimsby and Stamford. In the 14th century Lincoln and Stamford were several times the meeting-places of parliament or important councils, the most notable being the Lincoln Parliament of 1301, while at Stamford in 1309 a truce was concluded between the barons, Piers Gaveston and the king. Stamford discontinued representation for some 150 years after the reign of Edward II.; Grantham was enfranchised in 1463 and Boston in 1552. Under the act of 1832 the county was divided into a northern and southern division, returning each two members, and Great Grimsby lost one member. Under the act of 1868 the county returned six members in three divisions and Stamford lost one member. Under the act of 1885 the county returned seven members in seven divisions; Lincoln, Boston and Grantham lost one member each and Stamford was disfranchised.

_Antiquities._--At the time of the suppression of the monasteries in
the reign of Henry VIII. there were upwards of one hundred religious
houses; and among the Fens rose some of the finest abbeys held by the
Benedictines. The Gilbertines were a purely English order which took
its rise in Lincolnshire, the canons following the Austin rule, the
nuns and lay brothers that of the Cistercians. They generally lived in
separate houses, but formed a community having a common church in
which the sexes were divided by a longitudinal wall. These houses were
at Alvingham, Catley, Holland Brigg, Lincoln, before the gate of which
the first Eleanor Cross was erected by Edward I. to his wife, Newstead
in Lindsey, Sempringham, the chief house of the order, founded by St
Gilbert of Gaunt in 1139, of which the Norman nave of the church is in
use, Stamford (a college for students) and Wellow. There were
nunneries of the order at Haverholme, Nun Ormsby and Tunstal.

The following are a few of the most famous abbeys. Barlings
(Premonstratensian), N.E. of Lincoln, was founded 1154, for fourteen
canons. The tower, Decorated, with arcading pierced with windows, and
the east wall of the south wing remain. The Benedictine Mitred Abbey
of Crowland (q.v.) was founded 716, and refounded in 948. Part of the
church is still in use. Thornton Abbey (Black Canons) in the north
near the Humber was founded in 1139. There remain a fragment of the
south wing of the transept, two sides of the decagonal chapter-house
(1282) and the beautiful west gate-house, Early Perpendicular
(1332-1388), with an oriel window on the east. Kirkstead Abbey
(Cistercian) was founded in 1139. Little remains beyond an Early
English chapel of singular beauty.

In the Parts of Lindsey several churches present curious early
features, particularly the well-known towers of St Peter,
Barton-on-Humber, St Mary-le-Wigford and St Peter at Gowts, Lincoln,
which exhibit work of a pre-Conquest type. Stow church for Norman of
various dates, Bottesford and St James, Grimsby, for Early English,
Tattershall and Theddlethorpe for Perpendicular are fine examples of
various styles.

In the Parts of Kesteven the churches are built of excellent stone
which abounds at Ancaster and near Sleaford. The church of St Andrew,
Heckington, is the best example of Decorated architecture in the
county; it is famed for its Easter sepulchre and fine sedilia. The
noble church of St Wulfram, Grantham, with one of the finest spires in
England, is also principally Decorated; this style in fact is
particularly well displayed in Kesteven, as in the churches of
Caythorpe, Claypole, Navenby and Ewerby. At Stamford (q.v.) there are
five churches of various styles.

It is principally in the Parts of Holland that the finest churches in
the county are found; they are not surpassed by those of any other
district in the kingdom, which is the more remarkable as the district
is composed wholly of marsh land and is without stone of any kind. It
is highly probable that the churches of the south part of this
district owe their origin to the munificence of the abbeys of Crowland
and Spalding. The church of Long Sutton, besides its fine Norman nave,
possesses an Early English tower and spire which is comparable with
the very early specimen at Oxford cathedral. Whaplode church is
another noteworthy example of Norman work; for Early English work the
churches of Kirtop-in-Holland, Pinchbeck and Weston may be noticed;
for Decorated those at Donington and Spalding; and for Perpendicular,
Gedney, together with parts of Kirton church. Of the two later styles,
however, by far the most splendid example is the famous church of St
Botolph, Boston (q.v.), with its magnificent lantern-crowned tower or
"stump."

There are few remains of medieval castles, although the sites of a
considerable number are traceable. Those of Lincoln and Tattershall (a
fine Perpendicular building in brick) are the most noteworthy, and
there are also fragments at Boston and Sleaford, Country seats worthy
of note (chiefly modern) are Aswarby Hall, Belton House, Brocklesby,
Casewick, Denton Manor, Easton Hall, Grimsthorpe (of the 16th and 18th
centuries, with earlier remains), Haverholm Priory, Nocton Hall,
Panton Hall, Riby Grove, Somerby Hall, Syston Park and Uffington. The
city of Lincoln is remarkably rich in remains of domestic architecture
from the Norman period onward, and there are similar examples at
Stamford and elsewhere. In this connexion the remarkable triangular
bridge at Crowland of the 14th century (see BRIDGES) should be
mentioned.

See _Victoria County History, Lincolnshire_; Thomas Allen, _The
History of the County of Lincoln_ (2 vols., London, 1834); C. G.
Smith, _A Translation of that portion of the Domesday Book which
relates to Lincolnshire and Rutlandshire_ (London, 1870); G. S.
Streatfield, _Lincolnshire and the Danes_ (London, 1884); _Chronicle
of the Rebellion in Lincolnshire, 1470_, ed. J. E. Nicholls, Camden
Society, _Camden Miscellany_, vol. i. (London, 1847); _The
Lincolnshire Survey, temp. Henry I._, ed. James Greenstreet (London,
1884); _Lincolnshire Notes and Queries_ (Horncastle, 1888);
_Lincolnshire Record Society_ (Horncastle, 1891).

LIND, JENNY (1820-1887), the famous Swedish singer, was born at Stockholm on the 6th of October 1820, the daughter of a lace manufacturer. Mlle Lundberg, an opera-dancer, first discovered her musical gift, and induced the child's mother to have her educated for the stage; during the six or seven years in which she was what was called an "actress pupil," she occasionally appeared on the stage, but in plays, not operas, until 1836, when she made a first attempt in an opera by A. F. Lindblad. She was regularly engaged at the opera-house In 1837. Her first great success was as Agathe, in Weber's _Der Freischütz_, in 1838, and by 1841, when she started for Paris, she had already become identified with nearly all the parts in which she afterwards became famous. But her celebrity in Sweden was due in great part to her histrionic ability, and there is comparatively little said about her wonderful vocal art, which was only attained after a year's hard study under Manuel Garcia, who had to remedy many faults that had caused exhaustion in the vocal organs. On the completion of her studies she sang before G. Meyerbeer, in private, in the Paris Opera-house, and two years afterwards was engaged by him for Berlin, to sing in his _Feldlager in Schlesien_ (afterwards remodelled as _L' Étoile du nord_); but the part intended for her was taken by another singer, and her first appearance took place in _Norma_ on the 15th of December 1844. She appeared also in Weber's _Euryanthe_ and Bellini's _La Sonnambula_, and while she was at Berlin the English manager, Alfred Bunn, induced her to sign a contract (which she broke) to appear in London in the following season. In December 1845 she appeared at a Gewandhaus concert at Leipzig, and made the acquaintance of Mendelssohn, as well as of Joachim and many other distinguished German musicians. In her second Berlin season she added the parts of Donna Anna (Mozart's _Don Giovanni_), Julia (Spontini's _Vestalin_) and Valentine (Meyerbeer's _Les Huguenots_) to her repertory. She sang in operas or concerts at Aix-la-Chapelle, Hanover, Hamburg, Vienna, Darmstadt and Munich during the next year, and took up two Donizetti rôles, those of Lucia and "la Figlia del Reggimento," in which she was afterwards famous. At last Lumley, the manager of Her Majesty's Theatre, succeeded in inducing Mlle Lind to visit England, in spite of her dread of the penalties threatened by Bunn on her breach of the contract with him, and she appeared on the 4th of May 1847 as Alice in Meyerbeer's _Robert le Diable_. Her début had been so much discussed that the _furore_ she created was a foregone conclusion. Nevertheless it exceeded everything of the kind that had taken place in London or anywhere else; the sufferings and struggles of her well-dressed admirers, who had to stand for hours to get into the pit, have become historic. She sang in several of her favourite characters, and in that of Susanna in Mozart's _Figaro_, besides creating the part of Amalia in Verdi's _I Masnadieri_, written for England and performed on the 22nd of July. In the autumn she appeared in operas in Manchester and Liverpool, and in concerts at Brighton, Birmingham, Hull, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Perth, Norwich, Bristol, Bath and Exeter. At Norwich began her acquaintance with the bishop, Edward Stanley (1779-1849), which was said to have led to her final determination to give up the stage as a career. After four more appearances in Berlin, and a short visit to Stockholm, she appeared in London in the season of 1848, when she sang in Donizetti's _L'Elisire d'amore_ and Bellini's _I Puritani_, in addition to her older parts. In the same year she organized a memorable performance of _Elijah_, with the receipts of which the Mendelssohn scholarship was founded, and sang at a great number of charity and benefit concerts. At the beginning of the season of 1849 she intended to give up operatic singing, but a compromise was effected by which she was to sing the music of six operas, performed without action, at Her Majesty's Theatre; but the first, a concert performance of Mozart's _Il Flauto magico_, was so coldly received that she felt bound, for the sake of the manager and the public, to give five more regular representations, and her last performance on the stage was on the 10th of May 1849, in _Robert le Diable_. Her decision was not even revoked when the king of Sweden urged her to reappear in opera at her old home. She paid visits to Germany and Sweden again before her departure for America in 1850. Just before sailing she appeared at Liverpool, for the first time in England, in an oratorio of Handel, singing the soprano music in _The Messiah_ with superb art. She remained in America for nearly two years, being for a great part of the time engaged by P. T. Barnum. In Boston, on the 5th of February 1852, she married Otto Goldschmidt (1829-1907), whom she had met at Lübeck in 1850. For some years after her return to England, her home for the rest of her life, she appeared in oratorios and concerts, and her dramatic instincts were as strongly and perhaps as advantageously displayed in these surroundings as they had been on the stage, for the grandeur of her conceptions in such passages as the "Sanctus" of _Elijah_, the intensity of conviction which she threw into the scene of the widow in the same work, or the religious fervour of "I know that my Redeemer liveth," could not have found a place in opera. In her later years she took an active interest in the Bach Choir, conducted by her husband, and not only sang herself in the chorus, but gave the benefit of her training to the ladies of the society. For some years she was professor of singing at the Royal College of Music. Her last public appearance was at Düsseldorf on the 20th of January 1870 when she sang in _Ruth_, an oratorio composed by her husband. She died at Malvern on the 2nd of November 1887. The supreme position she held so long in the operatic world was due not only to the glory of her voice, and the complete musicianship which distinguished her above all her contemporaries, but also to the naïve simplicity of her acting in her favourite parts, such as Amina, Alice or Agathe. In these and others she had the precious quality of conviction, and identified herself with the characters she represented with a thoroughness rare in her day. Unharmed by the perils of a stage career, she was a model of rectitude, generosity and straightforwardness, carrying the last quality into a certain blunt directness of manner that was sometimes rather startling. (J. A. F. M.)

LINDAU, PAUL (1839- ), German dramatist and novelist, the son of a Protestant pastor, was born at Magdeburg on the 3rd of June 1839. He was educated at the gymnasium in Halle and subsequently in Leipzig and Berlin. He spent five years in Paris to further his studies, acting meanwhile as foreign correspondent to German papers. After his return to Germany in 1863 he was engaged in journalism in Düsseldorf and Elberfeld. In 1870 he founded _Das neue Blatt_ at Leipzig; from 1872 to 1881 he edited the Berlin weekly, _Die Gegenwart_; and in 1878 he founded the well-known monthly, _Nord und Süd_, which he continued to edit until 1904. Two books of travel, _Aus Venetien_ (Düsseldorf, 1864) and _Aus Paris_ (Stuttgart, 1865). were followed by some volumes of critical studies, written in a light, satirical vein, which at once made him famous. These were _Harmlose Briefe eines deutschen Kleinstädters_ (Leipzig, 2 vols., 1870), _Moderne Märchen für grosse Kinder_ (Leipzig, 1870) and _Literarische Rücksichtslosigkeiten_ (Leipzig, 1871). He was appointed intendant of the court theatre at Meiningen in 1895, but removed to Berlin in 1899, where he became manager of the Berliner Theater, and subsequently, until 1905, of the Deutsches Theater. He had begun his dramatic career in 1868 with _Marion_, the first of a long series of plays in which he displayed a remarkable talent for stage effect and a command of witty and lively dialogue. Among the more famous were _Maria und Magdalena_ (1872), _Tante Therese_ (1876), _Gräfin Lea_ (1879), _Die Erste_ (1895), _Der Abend_ (1896), _Der Herr im Hause_ (1899), _So ich dir_ (1903), and he adapted many plays by Dumas, Augier and Sardou for the German stage. Five volumes of his plays have been published (Berlin, 1873-1888). Some of his volumes of short stories acquired great popularity, notably _Herr und Frau Bewer_ (Breslau, 1882) and T_oggenburg und andere Geschichten_ (Breslau, 1883). A novel-sequence entitled _Berlin_ included _Der Zug nach dem Westen_ (Stuttgart, 1886, 10th ed. 1903), _Arme Mädchen_ (1887, 9th ed. 1905) and _Spitzen_ (1888, 8th ed. 1904). Later novels were _Die Gehilfin_ (Breslau, 1894), _Die Brüder_, (Dresden, 1895), _Der König von Sidon_ (Breslau, 1898). His earlier books on _Molière_ (Leipzig, 1871) and _Alfred de Musset_ (Berlin, 1877) were followed by some volumes of dramatic and literary criticism, _Gesammelte Aufsätze_ (Berlin, 1875), _Dramaturgische Blätter_ (Stuttgart, 2 vols., 1875; new series, Breslau, 1878, 2 vols.), _Vorspiele auf dem Theater_ (Breslau, 1895).

His brother, RUDOLF LINDAU (b. 1829), was a well-known diplomatist and author. His novels and tales were collected in 1893 (Berlin, 6 vols.). The most attractive, such as _Reisegefährten_ and _Der lange Holländer_, deal with the life of European residents in the Far East.

See Hadlich, _Paul Lindau als dramatischer Dichter_ (2nd ed., Berlin,
1876).

LINDAU, a town and pleasure resort in the kingdom of Bavaria, and the central point of the transit trade between that country and Switzerland, situated on two islands off the north-eastern shore of Lake Constance. Pop. (1905) 6531. The town is a terminus of the Vorarlberg railway, and of the Munich-Lindau line of the Bavarian state railways, and is connected with the mainland both by a wooden bridge and by a railway enbankment erected in 1853. There are a royal palace and an old and a new town-hall (the older one having been built in 1422 and restored in 1886-1888), a museum and a municipal library with interesting manuscripts and a collection of Bibles, also classical, commercial and industrial schools. The harbour is much frequented by steamers from Constance and other places on the lake. There are also some Roman remains, the Heidenmauer, and a fine modern fountain, the Reichsbrunnen. Opposite the custom-house is a bronze statue of the Bavarian king Maximilian II., erected in 1856.

On the site now occupied by the town there was a Roman camp, the _castrum Tiberii_, and the authentic records of Lindau date back to the end of the 9th century, when it was known as Lintowa. In 1274, or earlier, it became a free imperial town; in 1331 it joined the Swabian league, and in 1531 became a member of the league of Schmalkalden, having just previously accepted the reformed doctrines. In 1647 it was ineffectually besieged by the Swedes. In 1804 it lost its imperial privileges and passed to Austria, being transferred to Bavaria in 1805.

See Boulan, _Lindau, vor altem und jetzt_ (Lindau, 1872); and
Stettners, _Führer durch Lindau und Umgebungen_ (Lindau, 1900).

LINDEN, a town in the Prussian province of Hanover, 3 m. S.W. by rail from the city of that name, of which it practically forms a suburb, and from which it is separated by the Ihme. Pop. (1905) 57,941. It has a fine modern town-hall, and a classical and other schools. Chief among its industries are machine building, weaving, iron and steel works and the manufacture of chemicals, india-rubber goods and carpets.

LINDESAY, ROBERT, of Pitscottie (c. 1530-c. 1590), Scottish historian, of the family of the Lindesays of the Byres, was born at Pitscottie, in the parish of Ceres, Fifeshire, which he held in lease at a later period. His _Historie and Cronicles of Scotland_, the only work by which he is remembered, is described as a continuation of that of Hector Boece, translated by John Bellenden. It covers the period from 1437 to 1565, and, though it sometimes degenerates into a mere chronicle of short entries, is not without passages of great picturesqueness. Sir Walter Scott made use of it in _Marmion_; and, in spite of its inaccuracy in details, it is useful for the social history of the period. Lindesay's share in the _Cronicles_ was generally supposed to end with 1565; but Dr Aeneas Mackay considers that the frank account of the events connected with Mary Stuart between 1565 and 1575 contained in one of the MSS. is by his hand and was only suppressed because it was too faithful in its record of contemporary affairs.

The _Historie and Cronicles_ was first published in 1728. A complete
edition of the text (2 vols.), based on the Laing MS. No. 218 in the
university of Edinburgh, was published by the Scottish Text Society in
1899 under the editorship of Aeneas J. G. Mackay. The MS., formerly in
the possession of John Scott of Halkshill, is fuller, and, though in a
later hand, is, on the whole, a better representative of Lindesay's
text.

LINDET, JEAN BAPTISTE ROBERT (1749-1825), French revolutionist, was born at Bernay (Eure). Before the Revolution he was an _avocat_ at Bernay. He acted as _procureur-syndic_ of the district of Bernay during the session of the Constituent Assembly. Appointed deputy to the Legislative Assembly and subsequently to the Convention, he attained considerable prominence. He was very hostile to the king, furnished a _Rapport sur les crimes imputés à Louis Capet_ (10th of December 1792), and voted for the death of Louis without appeal or respite. He was instrumental in the establishment of the Revolutionary Tribunal and contributed to the downfall of the Girondists. As member of the Committee of Public Safety, he devoted himself particularly to the question of food-supplies, and it was only by dint of dogged perseverance and great administrative talent that he was successful in coping with this difficult problem. He had meanwhile been sent to suppress revolts in the districts of Rhône, Eure, Calvados and Finistère, where he had been able to pursue a conciliatory policy. Without being formally opposed to Robespierre, he did not support him, and he was the only member of the Committee of Public Safety who did not sign the order for the execution of Danton and his party. In a like spirit of moderation he opposed the Thermidorian reaction, and defended Barère, Billaud-Varenne the Collot d'Herbois from the accusations launched against them on the 22nd of March 1795. Himself denounced on the 20th of May 1795, he was defended by his brother Thomas, but only escaped condemnation by the vote of amnesty of the 4th of Brumaire, year IV. (26th of October 1795). He was minister of finance from the 18th of June to the 9th of November 1799, but refused office under the Consulate and the Empire. In 1816 he was proscribed by the Restoration government as a regicide, and did not return to France until just before his death on the 17th of February 1825. His brother Thomas made some mark as a Constitutional bishop and member of the Convention.

See Amand Montier, _Robert Lindet_ (Paris, 1899); H. Turpin, _Thomas
Lindet_ (Bernay, 1886); A. Montier, _Correspondance de Thomas Lindet_
(Paris, 1899).

LINDLEY, JOHN (1799-1865), English botanist, was born on the 5th of February 1799 at Catton, near Norwich, where his father, George Lindley, author of _A Guide to the Orchard and Kitchen Garden_, owned a nursery garden. He was educated at Norwich grammar school. His first publication, in 1819, a translation of the _Analyse du fruit_ of L. C. M. Richard, was followed in 1820 by an original _Monographia Rosarum_, with descriptions of new species, and drawings executed by himself, and in 1821 by _Monographia Digitalium_, and by "Observations on Pomaceae," contributed to the Linnean Society. Shortly afterwards he went to London, where he was engaged by J. C. Loudon to write the descriptive portion of the _Encyclopaedia of Plants_. In his labours on this undertaking, which was completed in 1829, he became convinced of the superiority of the "natural" system of A. L. de Jussieu, as distinguished from the "artificial" system of Linnaeus followed in the _Encyclopaedia_; the conviction found expression in _A Synopsis of British Flora, arranged according to the Natural Order_ (1829) and in _An Introduction to the Natural System of Botany_ (1830). In 1829 Lindley, who since 1822 had been assistant secretary to the Horticultural Society, was appointed to the chair of botany in University College, London, which he retained till 1860; he lectured also on botany from 1831 at the Royal Institution, and from 1836 at the Botanic Gardens, Chelsea. During his professoriate he wrote many scientific and popular works, besides contributing largely to the _Botanical Register_, of which he was editor for many years, and to the _Gardener's Chronicle_, in which he had charge of the horticultural department from 1841. He was a fellow of the Royal, Linnean and Geological Societies. He died at Turnham Green on the 1st of November 1865.

Besides those already mentioned, his works include _An Outline of the
First Principles of Horticulture_ (1832), _An Outline of the Structure
and Physiology of Plants_ (1832), _A Natural System of Botany_ (1836),
_The Fossil Flora of Great Britain_ (with William Hutton, 1831-1837),
_Flora Medica_ (1838), _Theory of Horticulture_ (1840), _The Vegetable
Kingdom_ (1846), _Folia Orchidacea_ (1852), _Descriptive Botany_
(1858).

LINDLEY, NATHANIEL LINDLEY, BARON (1828- ), English judge, son of John Lindley (q.v.), was born at Acton Green, Middlesex, on the 29th of November 1828. He was educated at University College School, and studied for a time at University College, London. He was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1850, and began practice in the Court of Chancery. In 1855 he published _An Introduction to the Study of Jurisprudence_, consisting of a translation of the general part of Thibaut's _System des Pandekten Rechts_, with copious notes. In 1860 he published in two volumes his _Treatise on the Law of Partnership, including its Application to Joint Stock and other Companies_, and in 1862 a supplement including the Companies Act of 1862. This work has since been developed into two text-books well known to lawyers as _Lindley on Companies_ and _Lindley on Partnership_. He became a Q.C. in January 1872. In 1874 he was elected a bencher of the Middle Temple, of which he was treasurer in 1894. In 1875 he was appointed a justice of common pleas, the appointment of a chancery barrister to a common-law court being justified by the fusion of law and equity then shortly to be brought about, in theory at all events, by the Judicature Acts. In pursuance of the changes now made be became a justice of the common pleas division of the High Court of Justice, and in 1880 of the queen's bench division. In 1881 he was raised to the Court of Appeal and made a privy councillor. In 1897, Lord Justice Lindley succeeded Lord Esher as master of the rolls, and in 1900 he was made a lord of appeal in ordinary with a life peerage and the title of Baron Lindley. He resigned the judicial post in 1905. Lord Lindley was the last serjeant-at-law appointed, and the last judge to wear the serjeant's coif, or rather the black patch representing it, on the judicial wig. He married in 1858 Sarah Katherine, daughter of Edward John Teale of Leeds.

LINDLEY, WILLIAM (1808-1900), English engineer, was born in London on the 7th of September 1808, and became a pupil under Francis Giles, whom he assisted in designing the Newcastle and Carlisle and the London and Southampton railways. Leaving England about 1837, he was engaged for a time in railway work in various parts of Europe, and then returned, as engineer-in-chief to the Hamburg-Bergedorf railway, to Hamburg, near which city he had received his early education, and to which he was destined to stand in much the same relation as Baron Haussmann to Paris. His first achievement was to drain the Hammerbrook marshes, and so add some 1400 acres to the available area of the city. His real opportunity, however, came with the great fire which broke out on the 5th of May 1842 and burned for three days. He was entrusted with the direction of the operations to check its spread, and the strong measures he adopted, including the blowing-up of the town hall, brought bis life into danger with the mob, who professed to see in him an English agent charged with the destruction of the port of Hamburg. After the extinction of the fire he was appointed consulting engineer to the senate and town council, to the Water Board and to the Board of Works. He began with the construction of a complete sewerage system on principles which did not escape criticism, but which experience showed to be good. Between 1844 and 1848 water-works were established from his designs, the intake from the Elbe being at Rothenburgsort. Subsidence tanks were used for clarification, but in 1853, when he designed large extensions, he urged the substitution of sand-filtration, which, however, was not adopted until the cholera epidemic of 1892-1893 had shown the folly of the opposition directed against it. In 1846 he erected the Hamburg gas-works; public baths and wash-houses were built, and large extensions to the port executed according to his plans in 1854; and he supervised the construction of the Altona gas and water works in 1855. Among other services he rendered to the city may be mentioned the trigonometrical survey executed between 1848 and 1860, and the conduct of the negotiations which in 1852 resulted in the sale of the "Steelyard" on the banks of the Thames belonging to it jointly with the two other Hanseatic towns, Bremen and Lübeck. In 1860 he left Hamburg, and during the remaining nineteen years of his professional practice he was responsible for many engineering works in various European cities, among them being Frankfort-on-the-Main, Warsaw, Pesth, Düsseldorf, Galatz and Basel. In Frankfort he constructed sewerage works on the same principles as those he followed in Hamburg, and the system was widely imitated not only in Europe, but also in America. He was also consulted in regard to water-works at Berlin, Kiel, Stralsund, Stettin and Leipzig; he advised the New River Company of London on the adoption of the constant supply system in 1851; and he was commissioned by the British Government to carry out various works in Heligoland, including the big retaining wall "Am Falm." He died at Blackheath, London, on the 22nd of May 1900.

LINDO, MARK PRAGER (1819-1879), Dutch prose writer, of English-Jewish descent, was born in London on the 18th of September 1810. He went to Holland when nineteen years of age, and once established there as a private teacher of the English language, he soon made up his mind to remain. In 1842 he passed his examination at Arnhem, qualifying him as a professor of English in Holland, subsequently becoming a teacher of the English language and literature at the gymnasium in that town. In 1853 he was appointed in a similar capacity at the Royal Military Academy in Breda. Meanwhile Lindo had obtained a thorough grasp of the Dutch language, partly during his student years at Utrecht University, where in 1854 he gained the degree of doctor of literature. His proficiency in the two languages led him to translate into Dutch several of the works of Dickens, Thackeray and others, and afterwards also of Fielding, Sterne and Walter Scott. Some of Lindo's translations bore the imprint of hasty and careless work, and all were very unequal in quality. His name is much more likely to endure as the writer of humorous original sketches and novelettes in Dutch, which he published under the pseudonym of De Oude Herr Smits ("Old Mr Smits"). Among the most popular are; _Brieven en Ontboezemingen_ ("Letters and Confessions," 1853, with three "Continuations"); _Familie van Ons_ ("Family of Ours," 1855); _Bekentenissen eener Jonge Dame_ ("Confessions of a Young Lady," 1858); _Uittreksels uit het Dagboek van Wijlen den Heer Janus Snor_ ("Extracts from the Diary of the late Mr Janus Snor," 1865); _Typen_ ("Types," 1871); and, particularly, _Afdrukken van Indrukken_ ("Impressions from Impressions," 1854, reprinted many times). The last-named was written in collaboration with Lodewyk Mulder, who contributed some of its drollest whimsicalities of Dutch life and character, which, for that reason, are almost untranslatable. Lodewyk Mulder and Lindo also founded together, and carried on, for a considerable time alone, the _Nederlandsche Spectator_ ("The Dutch Spectator"), a literary weekly, still published at The Hague, which bears little resemblance to its English prototype, and which perhaps reached its greatest popularity and influence when Vosmaer contributed to it a brilliant weekly letter under the fanciful title of Vlugmaren ("Swifts"). Lindo's serious original Dutch writings he published under his own name, the principal one being _De Opkomst en Ontwikkeling van het Engelsche Volk_ ("The Rise and Development of the British People," 2 vols. 1868-1874)--a valuable history. Lodewyk Mulder published in 1877-1879 a collected edition of Lindo's writings in five volumes, and there has since been a popular reissue. Lindo was appointed an inspector of primary schools in the province of South Holland in 1865, a post he held until his death at The Hague on the 9th of March 1879.

LINDSAY, the family name of the earls of Crawford. The family is one of great antiquity in Scotland, the earliest to settle in that country being Sir Walter de Lindesia, who attended David, earl of Huntingdon, afterwards King David I., in his colonization of the Lowlands early in the 12th century. The descendants of Sir Walter divided into three branches, one of which held the baronies of Lamberton in Scotland, and Kendal and Molesworth in England; another held Luffness and Crawford in Scotland and half Limesi in England; and a third held Breneville and Byres in Scotland and certain lands, not by baronial tenure, in England. The heads of all these branches sat as barons in the Scottish parliament for more than two hundred years before the elevation of the chief of the house to an earldom in 1398. The Lindsays held the great mountain district of Crawford in Clydesdale, from which the title of the earldom is derived, from the 12th century till the close of the 15th, when it passed to the Douglas earls of Angus. See CRAWFORD, EARLS OF.

See A. W. C. Lindsay, afterwards earl of Crawford, _Lives of the
Lindsays, or a Memoir of the Houses of Crawford and Belcarres_ (3
vols., 1843 and 1858).

LINDSAY, a town and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, and capital of Victoria county, on the Scugog river, 57 m. N.E. of Toronto by rail, on the Canadian Pacific railway, and at the junction of the Port Hope and Haliburton branches and the Midland division of the Grand Trunk railway. Pop. (1901) 7003. It has steamboat communication, by way of the Trent canal, with Lake Scugog and the ports on the Trent system. It contains saw and grist mills, agricultural implement and other factories.

LINDSEY, THEOPHILUS (1723-1808), English theologian, was born in Middlewich, Cheshire, on the 20th of June 1723, and was educated at the Leeds Free School and at St John's College, Cambridge, where in 1747 he became a fellow. For some time he held a curacy in Spitalfields, London, and from 1734 to 1756 he travelled on the continent of Europe as tutor to the young duke of Northumberland. He was then presented to the living of Kirkby-Wiske in Yorkshire, and after exchanging it for that of Piddletown in Dorsetshire, he removed in 1763 to Catterick in Yorkshire. Here about 1764 he founded one of the first Sunday schools in England. Meanwhile he had begun to entertain anti-Trinitarian views, and to be troubled in conscience about their inconsistency with the Anglican belief; since 1769 the intimate friendship of Joseph Priestley had served to foster his scruples, and in 1771 he united with Francis Blackburne, archdeacon of Cleveland (his father-in-law), John Jebb (1736-1786), Christopher Wyvill (1740-1822) and Edmund Law (1703-1787), bishop of Carlisle, in preparing a petition to parliament with the prayer that clergymen of the church and graduates of the universities might be relieved from the burden of subscribing to the thirty-nine articles, and "restored to their undoubted rights as Protestants of interpreting Scripture for themselves." Two hundred and fifty signatures were obtained, but in February 1772 the House of Commons declined even to receive the petition by a majority of 217 to 71; the adverse vote was repeated in the following year, and in the end of 1773, seeing no prospect of obtaining within the church the relief which his conscience demanded, Lindsey resigned his vicarage. In April 1774 he began to conduct Unitarian services in a room in Essex Street, Strand, London, where first a church, and afterwards the Unitarian offices, were established. Here he remained till 1793, when he resigned his charge in favour of John Disney (1746-1816), who like himself had left the established church and had become his colleague. He died on the 3rd of November 1808.

Lindsey's chief work is _An Historical View of the State of the
Unitarian Doctrine and Worship from the Reformation to our own Times_
(1783); in it he claims, amongst others, Burnet, Tillotson, S. Clarke,
Hoadly and Sir I. Newton for the Unitarian view. His other
publications include _Apology on Resigning the Vicarage of Catterick_
(1774), and _Sequel to the Apology_ (1776); _The Book of Common Prayer
reformed according to the plan of the late Dr Samuel Clarke_ (1774);
_Dissertations on the Preface to St John's Gospel and on praying to
Jesus Christ_ (1779); _Vindiciae Priestleianae_ (1788); _Conversations
upon Christian Idolatry_ (1792); and _Conversations on the Divine
Government, showing that everything is from God, and for good to all_
(1802). Two volumes of _Sermons, with appropriate prayers annexed_,
were published posthumously in 1810; and a volume of Memoirs, by
Thomas Belsham, appeared in 1812.

LINDSTRÖM, GUSTAF (1829-1901), Swedish palaeontologist, was born at Wisby in Gotland on the 27th of August 1829. In 1848 he entered the university at Upsala, and in 1854 he took his doctor's degree. Having attended a course of lectures in Stockholm by S. L. Lovén, he became interested in the zoology of the Baltic, and published several papers on the invertebrate fauna, and subsequently on the fishes. In 1856 he became a school teacher, and in 1858 a master in the grammar school at Wisby. His leisure was devoted to researches on the fossils of the Silurian rocks of Gotland, including the corals, brachiopods, gasteropods, pteropods, cephalopods and crustacea. He described also remains of the fish _Cyathaspis_ from Wenlock Beds, and (with T. Thorell) a scorpion _Palaeaphonus_ from Ludlow Beds at Wisby. He determined the true nature of the operculated coral _Calceola_; and while he described organic remains from other parts of northern Europe, he worked especially at the Palaeozoic fossils of Sweden. He was awarded the Murchison medal by the Geological Society of London in 1895. In 1876 he was appointed keeper of the fossil Invertebrata in the State Museum at Stockholm, where he died on the 16th of May 1901.

See obituary (with portrait), by F. A. Bather, in _Geol. Mag._ (July
1901), p. 333.

LINDUS, one of the three chief cities of the island of Rhodes, before their synoecism in the city of Rhodes. It is situated on the E. side of the island, and has a finely placed acropolis on a precipitous hill, and a good natural harbour just N. of it. Recent excavations have discovered the early temple of Athena Lindia on the Acropolis, and splendid Propylaea and a staircase, resembling those at Athens. The sculptors of the Laocoon are among the priests of Athena Lindia, whose names are recorded by inscriptions. Some early temples have also been found, and inscriptions cut on the rock recording the sacrifices known as [Greek: Boukatia]. There are also traces of a theatre and rock-cut tombs. On the Acropolis is a castle, built by the knights in the 14th century, and many houses in the town show work of the same date.

See RHODES; also Chr. Blinkenberg and K. F. Kinch, _Exploration arch.
de Rhodes_ (Copenhagen, 1904-1907).

LINE, a word of which the numerous meanings may be deduced from the primary ones of thread or cord, a succession of objects in a row, a mark or stroke, a course or route in any particular direction. The word is derived from the Lat. _linea_, where all these meanings may be found, but some applications are due more directly to the Fr. _ligne_. _Linea_, in Latin, meant originally "something made of hemp or flax," hence a cord or thread, from _linum_, flax. "Line" in English was formerly used in the sense of flax, but the use now only survives in the technical name for the fibres of flax when separated by heckling from the tow (see LINEN). The ultimate origin is also seen in the verb "to line," to cover something on the inside, originally used of the "lining" of a garment with linen.

In mathematics several definitions of the line may be framed according to the aspect from which it is viewed. The synthetical genesis of a line from the notion of a point is the basis of Euclid's definition, [Greek: grammê, de mêkos aplates] ("a line is widthless length"), and in a subsequent definition he affirms that the boundaries of a line are points, [Greek: grammês de perata sêmeia]. The line appears in definition 6 as the boundary of a surface: [Greek: epiphaneias de perata grammai] ("the boundaries of a surface are lines"). Another synthetical definition, also treated by the ancient Greeks, but not by Euclid, regards the line as generated by the motion of a point ([Greek: rhysis sêmeiou]), and, in a similar manner, the "surface" was regarded as the flux of a line, and a "solid" as the flux of a surface. Proclus adopts this view, styling the line [Greek: archê] in respect of this capacity. Analytical definitions, although not finding a place in the Euclidean treatment, have advantages over the synthetical derivation. Thus the boundaries of a solid may define a plane, the edges a line, and the corners a point; or a section of a solid may define the surface, a section of a surface the line, and the section of a line the "point." The notion of dimensions follows readily from either system of definitions. The solid extends three ways, i.e. it has length, breadth and thickness, and is therefore three-dimensional; the surface has breadth and length and is therefore two-dimensional; the line has only extension and is unidimensional; and the point, having neither length, breadth nor thickness but only position, has no dimensions.

The definition of a "straight" line is a matter of much complexity. Euclid defines it as the line which lies evenly with respect to the points on itself--[Greek: eutheia grammê estin hêtis ex isou tois eph heautês sêmeiois keitai]: Plato defined it as the line having its middle point hidden by the ends, a definition of no purpose since it only defines the line by the path of a ray of light. Archimedes defines a straight line as the shortest distance between two points.

A better criterion of rectilinearity is that of Simplicius, an Arabian commentator of the 5th century: _Linea recta est quaecumque super duas ipsius extremitates rotata non movetur de loco suo ad alium locum_ ("a straight line is one which when rotated about its two extremities does not change its position"). This idea was employed by Leibnitz, and most auspiciously by Gierolamo Saccheri in 1733.

The drawing of a straight line between any two given points forms the subject of Euclid's first postulate--[Greek: êitêsthô apo pantos sêmeiou epi pan sêmeion eutheian grammên agagein], and the producing of a straight line continuously in a straight line is treated in the second postulate--[Greek: kai peperasmenên eutheian kata to suneches ep' eutheias ekbalein].

For a detailed analysis of the geometrical notion of the line and
rectilinearity, see W. B. Frankland, _Euclid's Elements_ (1905). In
analytical geometry the right line is always representable by an
equation or equations of the first degree; thus in Cartesian
coordinates of two dimensions the equation is of the form Ax + By + C
= 0, in triangular coordinates Ax + By + Cz = 0. In three-dimensional
coordinates, the line is represented by two linear equations. (See
GEOMETRY, ANALYTICAL.) _Line geometry_ is a branch of analytical
geometry in which the line is the element, and not the point as with
ordinary analytical geometry (see GEOMETRY, LINE).

LINE ENGRAVING, on plates of copper or steel, the method of engraving (q.v.), in which the line itself is hollowed, whereas in the woodcut when the line is to print black it is left in relief, and only white spaces and white lines are hollowed.

The art of line engraving has been practised from the earliest ages. The prehistoric Aztec hatchet given to Humboldt in Mexico was just as truly _engraved_ as a modern copper-plate which may convey a design by Flaxman; the Aztec engraving is ruder than the European, but it is the same art. The important discovery which made line engraving one of the multiplying arts was the discovery how to print an incised line, which was hit upon at last by accident, and known for some time before its real utility was suspected. Line engraving in Europe does not owe its origin to the woodcut, but to the chasing on goldsmiths' work. The goldsmiths of Florence in the middle of the 15th century were in the habit of ornamenting their works by means of engraving, after which they filled up the hollows produced by the burin with a black enamel made of silver, lead and sulphur, the result being that the design was rendered much more visible by the opposition of the enamel and the metal. An engraved design filled up in this manner was called a _niello_. Whilst a niello was in progress the artist could not see it so well as if the enamel were already in the lines, yet he did not like to put in the hard enamel prematurely, as when once it was set it could not easily be got out again. He therefore took a sulphur cast of his niello in progress, on a matrix of fine clay, and filled up the lines in the sulphur with lampblack, thus enabling himself to judge of the state of his engraving. At a later period it was discovered that a proof could be taken on damped paper by filling the engraved lines with a certain ink and wiping it off the surface of the plate, sufficient pressure being applied to make the paper go into the hollowed lines and fetch the ink out of them. This was the beginning of plate printing. The niello engravers thought it a convenient way of proving their work--the metal itself--as it saved the trouble of the sulphur cast, but they saw no further into the future. They went on engraving nielli just the same to ornament plate and furniture; nor was it until the 16th century that the new method of printing was carried out to its great and wonderful results. There are, however, certain differences between plate-printing and block-printing which affect the essentials of art. When paper is driven _into_ a line so as to fetch the ink out of it, the line may be of unimaginable fineness, it will print all the same; but when the paper is only pressed _upon_ a raised line, the line must have some appreciable thickness; the wood engraving, therefore, can never--except in a _tour de force_--be so delicate as plate engraving. Again, not only does plate-printing excel block-printing in delicacy; it excels it also in force and depth. There never was, and there will never be, a woodcut line having the power of a deep line in a plate, for in block-printing the line is only a blackened surface of paper slightly impressed, whereas in plate-printing it is a _cast_ with an additional thickness of printing ink.

The most important of the tools used in line-engraving is the burin, which is a bar of steel with one end fixed in a handle rather like a mushroom with one side cut away, the burin itself being shaped so that the cutting end when sharpened takes the form of a lozenge, point downwards. The burin acts exactly like a plough; it makes a furrow and turns out a shaving of metal as the plough turns the soil of a field. The burin, however, is pushed while the plough is pulled, and this peculiar character of the burin, or graver, as a pushed instrument at once establishes a wide separation between it and all the other instruments employed in the arts of design, such as pencils, brushes, pens and etching needles.

The elements of engraving with the burin upon metal will be best
understood by an example of a very simple kind, as in the engraving of
letters. The capital letter B contains in itself the rudiments of an
engraver's education. As at first drawn, before the blacks are
inserted, this letter consists of two perpendicular straight lines and
four curves, all the curves differing from each other. Suppose, then,
that the engraver has to make a B, he will scratch these lines,
reversed, very lightly with a sharp point or style. The next thing is
to cut out the blacks (not the whites, as in wood engraving), and this
would be done with two different burins. The engraver would get his
vertical black line by a powerful ploughing with the burin between his
two preparatory first lines, and then take out some copper in the
thickest parts of the two curves. This done, he would then take a
finer burin and work out the gradation from the thick line in the
midst of the curve to the thin extremities which touch the
perpendicular. When there is much gradation in a line the darker parts
of it are often gradually ploughed out by returning to it over and
over again. The hollows so produced are afterwards filled with
printing ink, just as the hollows in a niello were filled with black
enamel; the surplus printing ink is wiped from the smooth surface of
the copper, damped paper is laid upon it, and driven into the hollowed
letter by the pressure of a revolving cylinder; it fetches the ink
out, and you have your letter B in intense black upon a white ground.

When the surface of a metal plate is sufficiently polished to be used
for engraving, the slightest scratch upon it will print as a black
line, the degree of blackness being proportioned to the depth of the
scratch. An engraved plate from which visiting cards are printed is a
good example of some elementary principles of engraving. It contains
thin lines and thick ones, and a considerable variety of curves. An
elaborate line engraving, if it is a pure line engraving and nothing
else, will contain only these simple elements in different
combinations. The real line engraver is always engraving a line more
or less broad and deep in one direction or another; he has no other
business than this.

In the early Italian and early German prints, the line is used with such perfect simplicity of purpose that the methods of the artists are as obvious as if we saw them actually at work.