Chapter V: H. S (21)

LUGO, a maritime province of north-western Spain, formed in 1833 of districts taken from the old province of Galicia, and bounded N. by the Atlantic, E. by Oviedo and Leon, S. by Orense, and W. by Pontevedra and Corunna. Pop. (1900) 465,386; area, 3814 sq. m. The coast, which extends for about 40 m. from the estuary of Rivadéo to Cape de Vares, is extremely rugged and inaccessible, and few of the inlets, except those of Rivadéo and Vivero, admit large vessels. The province, especially in the north and east, is mountainous, being traversed by the Cantabrian chain and its offshoots; the sierra which separates it from Leon attains in places a height of 6000 ft. A large part of the area is drained by the Miño. This river, formed by the meeting of many smaller streams in the northern half of the province, follows a southerly direction until joined by the Sil, which for a considerable distance forms the southern boundary. Of the rivers flowing north into the Atlantic, the most important are the Navia, which has its lower course through Oviedo; the Eo, for some distance the boundary between the two provinces; the Masma, the Oro and the Landrove.

Some of the valleys of Lugo are fertile, and yield not only corn but fruit and wine. The principal agricultural wealth, however, is on the Miño and Sil, where rye, maize, wheat, flax, hemp and a little silk are produced. Agriculture is in a very backward condition, mainly owing to the extreme division of land that prevails throughout Galicia. The exportation of cattle to Great Britain, formerly a flourishing trade, was ruined by American and Australian competition. Iron is found at Caurel and Incio, arsenic at Castroverde and Cervantes, argentiferous lead at Riotorto; but, although small quantities of iron and arsenic are exported from Rivadéo, frequent strikes and lack of transport greatly impeded the development of mining in the earlier years of the 20th century. There are also quarries of granite, marble and various kinds of slate and building-stone. The only important manufacturing industries are those connected with leather, preserves, coarse woollen and linen stuffs, timber and osier work. About 250 coasting vessels are registered at the ports, and about as many boats constitute the fishing fleet, which brings in lampreys, soles, tunny and sardines, the last two being salted and tinned for export. The means of communication are insufficient, though there are over 100 m. of first-class roads, and the railways from Madrid and northern Portugal to Corunna run through the province.

Lugo the capital (pop. 1900, 26,959) and the important towns of
Chantada (15,003), Fonsagrada (17,302), Mondoñedo (10,590), Monforte
(12,912), Panton (12,988), Villalba (13,572) and Vivero (12,843) are
described in separate articles. The province contained in 1900
twenty-six towns of more than 7000 inhabitants, the largest being
Sarria (11,998) and Saviñao (11,182). For a general description of the
people and the history of this region see GALICIA.

LUGO, capital of the above Spanish province, is situated on the left bank of the river Miño and on the railway from Corunna to Madrid. Pop. (1900) 26,959. Lugo is an episcopal see, and was formerly the capital of Galicia. Suburbs have grown up round the original town, the form of which, nearly quadrangular, is defined by a massive Roman wall 30 to 40 ft. high and 20 ft. thick, with projecting semi-circular towers which numbered 85 as late as 1809, when parts of the fortifications were destroyed by the French. The wall now serves as a promenade. The Gothic cathedral, on the south side of the town, dates from the 12th century, but was modernized in the 18th, and possesses no special architectural merit. The conventual church of Santo Domingo dates from the 14th century. The principal industries are tanning, and the manufacture of linen and woollen cloth. About 1 m. S., on the left bank of the Miño, are the famous hot sulphur baths of Lugo.

Lugo (_Lucus Augusti_) was a flourishing city under Roman rule (c. 19 B.C.-A.D. 409) and was made by Augustus the seat of a _conventus juridicus_ (assize). Its sulphur baths were even then well known. It was sacked by barbarian invaders in the 5th century, and suffered greatly in the Moorish wars of the 8th century. The bishopric dates from a very early period, and it is said to have acquired metropolitan rank in the middle of the 6th century; it is now in the archiepiscopal province of Santiago de Compostela.

LUGOS, the capital of the county of Krassó-Szörény, Hungary, 225 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,126. It is situated on both banks of the river Temes, which divides the town in two quarters, the Rumanian on the right and the German on the left bank. It is the seat of a Greek-United (Rumanian) bishop. Lugos carries on an active trade in wine, and has several important fairs, while the surrounding country, which is mountainous and well-wooded, produces large quantities of grapes and plums. Lugos was once a strongly fortified place and of greater relative importance than at present. It was the last seat of the Hungarian revolutionary government (August 1849), and the last resort of Kossuth and several other leaders of the national cause, previous to their escape to Turkey.

LUGUDUNUM, or LUGDUNUM, an old Celtic place-name (fort or hill of the god Lugos or Lug) used by the Romans for several towns in ancient Gaul. The most important was the town at the confluence of the Saône and Rhone now called Lyons (q.v.). This place had in Roman times two elements. One was a Roman _colonia_ (municipality of Roman citizens, self-governing) situated on the hill near the present Fourviéres (_Forum vetus_). The other, territorially distinct from it for reasons of statecraft, was the Temple of Roma and Augustus, to which the inhabitants of the 64 Gallic cantons in the three Roman provinces of Aquitania, Lugudunensis and Belgica--the so-called Tres Galliae--sent delegates every summer to hold games and otherwise celebrate the worship of the emperor which was supposed to knit the provincials to Rome. The two elements together composed the most important town of western Europe in Roman times. Lugudunum controlled the trade of its two rivers, and that which passed from northern Gaul to the Mediterranean or vice versa; it had a mint; it was the capital of all northern Gaul, despite its position in the south, and its wealth was such that, when Rome was burnt in Nero's reign, its inhabitants subscribed largely to the relief of the Eternal City. (F. J. H.)

LUINI, BERNARDINO (?1465-?1540), the most celebrated master of the Lombard school of painting founded upon the style of Leonardo da Vinci, was born at Luino, a village on Lago Maggiore. He wrote his name as "Bernardin Lovino," but the spelling "Luini" is now generally adopted. Few facts are known regarding his life, and until a comparatively recent date many even of his works had, in the lapse of years and laxity of attribution, got assigned to Leonardo da Vinci. It appears that Luini studied painting at Vercelli under Giovenone, or perhaps under Stephano Scotto. He reached Milan either after the departure of Da Vinci in 1500, or shortly before that event; it is thus uncertain whether or not the two artists had any personal acquaintance, but Luini was at any rate in the painting-school established in Milan by the great Florentine. In the later works of Luini a certain influence from the style of Raphael is superadded to that, far more prominent and fundamental, from the style of Leonardo; but there is nothing to show that he ever visited Rome. His two sons are the only pupils who have with confidence been assigned to him; and even this can scarcely be true of the younger, who was born in 1530, when Bernardino was well advanced in years. Guadenzio Ferrari has also been termed his disciple. One of the sons, Evangelista, has left little which can now be identified; the other, Aurelio, was accomplished in perspective and landscape work. There was likewise a brother of Bernardino, named Ambrogio, a competent painter. Bernardino, who hardly ever left Lombardy, had some merit as a poet, and is said to have composed a treatise on painting. The precise date of his death is unknown; he may perhaps have survived till about 1540. A serene, contented and happy mind, naturally expressing itself in forms of grace and beauty, seems stamped upon all the works of Luini. The same character is traceable in his portrait, painted in an upper group in his fresco of "Christ crowned with Thorns" in the Ambrosian library in Milan--a venerable bearded personage. The only anecdote which has been preserved of him tells a similar tale. It is said that for the single figures of saints in the church at Saronno he received a sum equal to 22 francs per day, along with wine, bread and lodging; and he was so well satisfied with this remuneration that, in completing the commission, he painted a Nativity for nothing.

A dignified suavity is the most marked characteristic of Luini's works. They are constantly beautiful, with a beauty which depends at least as much upon the loving self-withdrawn expression as upon the mere refinement and attractiveness of form. This quality of expression appears in all Luini's productions, whether secular or sacred, and imbues the latter with a peculiarly religious grace--not ecclesiastical unction, but the devoutness of the heart. His heads, while extremely like those painted by Leonardo, have less subtlety and involution and less variety of expression, but fully as much amenity. He began indeed with a somewhat dry style, as in the "Pietà" in the church of the Passione; but this soon developed into the quality which distinguishes all his most renowned works; although his execution, especially as regards modelling, was never absolutely equal to that of Leonardo. Luini's paintings do not exhibit an impetuous style of execution, and certainly not a negligent one; yet it appears that he was in fact a very rapid worker, as his picture of the "Crowning with Thorns," painted for the College del S. Sepolcro, and containing a large number of figures, is recorded to have occupied him only thirty-eight days, to which an assistant added eleven. His method was simple and expeditious, the shadows being painted with the pure colour laid on thick, while the lights are of the same colour thinly used, and mixed with a little white. The frescoes exhibit more freedom of hand than the oil pictures; and they are on the whole less like the work of Da Vinci, having at an early date a certain resemblance to the style of Mantegna, as later on to that of Raphael. Luini's colouring is mostly rich, and his light and shade forcible.

Among his principal works the following are to be mentioned. At
Saronno are frescoes painted towards 1525, representing the life of
the Madonna--her "Marriage," the "Presentation of the Infant Saviour
in the Temple," the "Adoration of the Magi" and other incidents. His
own portrait appears in the subject of the youthful "Jesus with the
Doctors in the Temple." This series--in which some comparatively
archaic details occur, such as gilded nimbuses--was partly repeated
from one which Luini had executed towards 1520 in S. Croce. In the
Brera Gallery, Milan, are frescoes from the suppressed church of La
Pace and the Convent della Pelucca--the former treating subjects from
the life of the Virgin, the latter, of a classic kind, more decorative
in manner. The subject of girls playing at the game of "hot-cockles,"
and that of three angels depositing St Catherine in her sepulchre, are
particularly memorable, each of them a work of perfect charm and grace
in its way. In the Casa Silva, Milan, are frescoes from Ovid's
_Metamorphoses_. The Monastero Maggiore of Milan (or church of S.
Maurizio) is a noble treasure-house of Luini's art--including a large
Crucifixion, with about one hundred and forty figures; "Christ bound
to the Column," between figures of Saints Catherine and Stephen, and
the founder of the chapel kneeling before Catherine; the martyrdom of
this saint; the "Entombment of Christ," and a large number of other
subjects. In the Ambrosian library is the fresco (already mentioned),
covering one entire wall of the Sala della S. Corona, of "Christ
crowned with Thorns," with two executioners, and on each side six
members of a confraternity; in the same building the "Infant Baptist
playing with a Lamb"; in the Brera, the "Virgin Enthroned, with
Saints" (dated 1521); in the Louvre, the "Daughter of Herodias
receiving the Head of the Baptist"; in the Esterhazy Gallery, Vienna,
the "Virgin between Saints Catherine and Barbara"; in the National
Gallery, London, "Christ disputing with the Doctors" (or rather,
perhaps, the Pharisees). Many or most of these gallery pictures used
to pass for the handiwork of Da Vinci. The same is the case with the
highly celebrated "Vanity and Modesty" in the Sciarra Palace, Rome,
which also may nevertheless in all probability be assigned to Luini.
Another singularly beautiful picture by him is in the Royal Palace in
Milan--a large composition of "Women Bathing." That Luini was also
pre-eminent as a decorative artist is shown by his works in the
Certosa of Pavia.

A good account of Luini by Dr G. C. Williamson was published in 1900.
(W. M. R.)

LUKE, the traditional author of the third Gospel and of the Book of Acts, and the most literary among the writers of the New Testament. He alone, too, was of non-Jewish origin (Col. iv. 11, 14), a fact of great interest in relation to his writings. His name, a more familiar form of Lucanus (cf. Silas for Silvanus, Acts xvii. 4, 1 Thess. i. 1, and see _Encycl. Bibl._ s.v., for instances of [Greek: Doukas] on Egyptian inscriptions), taken together with his profession of physician (Col. iv. 14), suggests that he was son of a Greek freedman possibly connected with Lucania in south Italy; and as Julius Caesar gave Roman citizenship to all physicians in Rome (Sueton. _Jul._ 42), Luke may even have inherited this status from his father. But in any case such a man would have the attitude to things Roman which appears in the works attributed to Luke. He was a fellow-worker of Paul's when in Rome (Philemon 24), where he seems to have remained in constant attendance on his leader, as physician as well as attached friend (Col. iv. 14; 2 Tim. iv. 11). That Luke, before he became a Christian, was an adherent of the synagogue--not a full proselyte, but one of those "worshippers" of God to whom Acts makes frequent reference--is fairly certain from the familiarity with the Septuagint indicated in Acts, as well as from its sympathy with the Hellenistic type of piety as distinct from specific Paulinism, of which there is but little trace.

The earliest extra-biblical reference to him is perhaps in the Muratonian Canon, which implies that his name already stood in MSS. of both Gospel (probably so even in Marcion's day) and Acts, and says that Paul took him for his companion _quasi ut juris studiosum_ ("as being a student of law"). Here _juris_ is almost certainly corrupt; and whether we take the sense to have been "as being devoted to travel" (_ut juris_ = _itineris_) or "as skilled in disease" ([Greek: nosou] passing into [Greek: nomou] in the Greek original), it is probably a mere inference from biblical data. Beyond references in Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria (cf. HEBREWS) and Tertullian, which add nothing to our knowledge, we have the belief to which Origen (_Hom._ i. _in Lucam_) witnesses as existing in his day, that Luke was the "brother" of 2 Cor. viii. 18, "whose praise in the Gospel" (as preached) was "throughout all the churches." Though the basis of the identification be a mistake, yet that this "brother," "who was also appointed by the churches (note the generality of this) to travel with us in the matter of the charity," was none other than Paul's constant companion Luke is quite likely; e.g. he seems to have been almost the only non-Macedonian (as demanded by 2 Cor. ix. 2-4) of Paul's circle available[1] at the time (see Acts xx. 4). Our next witness, a prologue to the Lucan writings (originally in Greek, now known only in Latin, see _Nov. Test. Latine_ (Oxford), I. iii., II. i.), perhaps preserves a genuine tradition in stating that Luke died in Bithynia at the age of seventy-four. It is hard to see why this should be fiction, which usually took the form of martyrdom, as in a later tradition touching his end. The same prologue, and indeed all early tradition, connects him originally with Antioch (see Euseb. _Hist. Eccl._ iii. 4, 6, possibly after Julius Africanus in the first half of the 3rd century).

That he was actually a native of Antioch is as doubtful as the
statement that he was a Syrian by race (Prologue). But internal
evidence bears out the view that he practised his profession in
Antioch, where (or in Tarsus) he probably first met Paul. Whether any
of his information in Acts as to the Gospel in Antioch (xi. 19 ff.,
xiii. 1 ff., xiv. 26-xv. 35) was due to an Antiochene document used by
him (cf. A. Harnack, _The Acts of the Apostles_, 245 ff.) or not, this
knowledge in any case suggests Luke's connexion with that church. He
shows, too, local knowledge on points unlikely to have stood in any
such source (e.g. it was in Antioch that the name "Christians" was
first coined, xi. 26), which points to his share in early Church life
there. The Bezan reading in Acts xi. 27, "when _we_ were assembled,"
may imply memory of this.

But while Luke probably met Paul in Antioch, and thence started with
him on his second great missionary enterprise (xv. 36 ff.), partly at
least as his medical attendant (cf. Gal. iv. 13), it is possible that
he had also some special connexion with the north-eastern part of the
Aegean. Sir W. M. Ramsay and others fancy that Luke's original home
was Philippi, and that in fact he may have been the "certain
Macedonian" seen in vision by Paul at Troas, inviting help for his
countrymen (xvi. 9 f.). But this is as precarious as the view that,
because "we" ceases at Philippi in xvi. 17, and then reemerges in xx.
6, Luke must have resided there during all the interval. The use and
disuse of the first person plural, identifying Paul and his party, has
probably a more subtle and psychological[2] meaning (see ACTS). The
local connexion in question may have been subsequent to that with
Antioch, dating from his work with Paul in the province of Asia, and
being resumed after Paul's martyrdom. This accords at once with
Harnack's argument that Luke wrote Acts in Asia[3] (_Luke the
Physician_, p. 149 ff.), and with the early tradition, above cited,
that he died in Bithynia at the age of seventy-four, without ever
having married (this touch may be due to an ascetic feeling current
already in the 2nd century).

The later traditions about Luke's life are based on fanciful inference
or misunderstanding, e.g. that he was one of the Seventy (Adamantius
_Dial. de recta fide_, 4th century), or the story (in Theodorus
Lector, 6th century) that he painted a portrait of the Virgin Mother.
But a good deal can still be gathered by sympathetic study of his
writings as to the manner of man he was. It was a beautiful soul from
which came "the most beautiful book" ever written, as Renan styled his
Gospel. The selection of stories which he gives us--especially in the
section mainly peculiar to himself (ix. 51-xviii. 14)--reflects his
own character as well as that of the source he mainly follows. His was
indeed a _religio medici_ in its pity for frail and suffering
humanity, and in its sympathy with the triumph of the Divine "healing
art" upon the bodies and souls of men (cf. Harnack, _The Acts,
Excursus_, iii.). His was also a humane[4] spirit, a spirit so tender
that it saw further than almost any save the Master himself into the
soul of womanhood. In this, as in his joyousness, united with a
feeling for the poor and suffering, he was an early Francis of Assisi.
Luke, "the physician, the beloved physician," that was Paul's
characterization of him; and it is the impression which his writings
have left on humanity. How great his contribution to Christianity has
been, in virtue of what he alone preserved of the historical Jesus and
of the embodiment of his Gospel in his earliest followers, who can
measure? Harnack even maintains (_The Acts_, p. 301) that his story of
the Apostolic age was the indispensable condition for the
incorporation of the Pauline epistles in the Church's canon of New
Testament scriptures. Certainly his conception of the Gospel, viz. a
Christian Hellenistic universalism (with some slight infusion of
Pauline thought) passed through a Graeco-Roman mind, proved more easy
of assimilation, and so more directly influential for the ancient
Church, than Paul's own distinctive teaching (ib. 281 ff.; cf. _Luke
the Physician_, pp. 139-145).

LITERATURE.--Introductions to commentaries like A. Plummer's on Luke's
Gospel in the "Intern. Crit." series, R. B. Rackham's _Acts of the
Apostles_ ("Oxford Comm."); the article "Luke" in Hastings's _Dict. of
the Bible_ and _Dict. of Christ and the Gospels_, the _Encycl.
Biblica_ and Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_, vol. xi.; Sir W. M. Ramsay's
_Paul the Traveller_ and _Pauline and other Studies_, and A. Harnack's
_Lukas der Arzt_ (1906, Eng. trans. 1907) and _Die Apostelgeschichte_
(1908, Eng. trans. 1909). For the Luke of legend, see authorities
quoted under MARK. (J. V. B.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Tychicus may be the other "brother," in viii. 22.

[2] So also A. Hilgenfeld, _Zeit. f. theol. Wissenschaft_ (1907), p.
214, argues that "we" marks the author's wish to give his narrative
more vividness at great turning-points of the story--the passage from
Asia to Europe, and again the real beginning of the solemn progress
of Paul towards the crisis in Jerusalem, as yet later towards Rome,
xxvii. 1 ff.

[3] Note that Luke is at pains to explain why Paul passed by Asia and
Bithynia in the first instance (xvi. 6 f.).

[4] Compare what A. W. Verrall has said of the poet Statius and "the
gentle doctrine of humanity" on Hellenic soil, as embodied in his
description of The Altar of Mercy at Athens (_Oxford and Cambridge
Review_, i. 101 ff.).

LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST, the third of the four canonical Gospels of the Christian Church.

1. _Authorship and Date._--The earliest indication which we possess of the belief that the author was Luke, the companion of the Apostle Paul (Col. iv. 14; Philem. 24; 2 Tim. iv. 11), is found in Justin Martyr, who, in his _Dialogue with Trypho_ (c. 103), when making a statement found only in our Luke, instead of referring for it simply to the "Apostolic Memoirs," his usual formula, says that it is contained in the memoirs composed by "the Apostles and _those that followed them_." But the first distinct mention of Luke as the author of the Gospel is that by Irenaeus in his famous passage about the Four Gospels (_Adv. Haer._ III. i. 2, c. A.D. 180).

This tradition is important in spite of the fact that it first comes clearly before us in a writer belonging to the latter part of the 2nd century, because the prominence and fame of Luke were not such as would of themselves have led to his being singled out to have a Gospel attributed to him. The question of the authorship cannot, however, be decided without considering the internal evidence, the interpretation of which in the case of the Third Gospel and the Acts (the other writing attributed to Luke) is a matter of peculiar interest. It is generally admitted that the same person is the author of both works in their present form. This is intimated at the beginning of the second of them (Acts i. 1); and both are marked, broadly speaking throughout, though in some parts much more strongly than in others, by stylistic characteristics which we may conveniently call "Lucan" without making a premature assumption as to the authorship. The writer is more versed than any other New Testament writer except the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and very much more than most of them, in the literary Greek of the period of the rise of Christianity; and he has, also, like other writers, his favourite words, turns of expression and thoughts. The variations in the degree to which these appear in different passages are in the main to be accounted for by his having before him in many cases documents or oral reports, which he reproduces with only slight alterations in the language, while at other times he is writing freely.

We have next to observe that there are four sections in Acts (xvi. 9-17, xx. 4-16, xxi. 1-17, xxvii. 1-xxviii. 16) in which the first person plural is used. Now it is again generally admitted that in these sections we have the genuine account of one who was a member of Paul's company, who may well have been Luke. But it has been and is still held by many critics that the author of Acts is a different person, and that as in the Third Gospel he has used documents for the Life of Christ, and perhaps also in the earlier half of the Acts for the history of the beginnings of the Christian Church, so in the "we" sections, and possibly in some other portions of this narrative of Paul's missionary life, he has used a kind of travel-diary by one who accompanied the Apostle on some of his journeys. That neither this, nor any other, companion of Paul can have been the author of the whole work is supposed to follow both from its theological temper and from discrepancies between its statements and those of the Pauline Epistles on matters of fact.

A careful examination, however, of the "we" sections shows that words and expressions characteristic of the author of the third Gospel and the Acts are found in them to an extent which is very remarkable, and that in many instances they belong to the very texture of the passages. This linguistic evidence, which is of quite unusual force, has never yet been fairly faced by those who deny Luke's authorship of Acts. Moreover, the difficulties in the way of supposing that the author of Acts could at an earlier period of his life have been a companion of St Paul do not seem to be so serious as some critics think. Indeed it is easier to explain some of the differences between the Acts and St Paul's Epistles on this assumption than on that of authorship by a writer who would have felt more dependent upon the information which might be gathered from those Epistles, and who would have been more likely to have had a collection of them at hand, if his work was composed c. A.D. 100, as is commonly assumed by critics who reject the authorship by Luke.

There is then strong reason for believing the tradition that Luke, the companion of the Apostle Paul, was the author of our third Gospel and the Acts. Another argument in support of this belief, upon which much reliance has been placed, is found in the descriptions of diseases, and the words common in Greek medical writers, contained in these two works. These, it is said, point to the author's having been a physician, as Luke (Col. iv. 14) was (see esp. Hobart, _The Medical Language of St Luke_, 1882). The instances alleged are, many of them at least, not very distinctive. Yet they have some value as confirming the conclusion based on a comparison of the "we" sections of the Acts, with the remainder of the two books.

If we may assume that the writer who uses the first person plural in Acts xvi. 10 sqq. was the author of the two works, they can hardly have been composed later than A.D. 96; he would then have been about 65 years old, even if he was a very young man when he first joined the Apostle. An earlier date than A.D. 96 cannot be assigned if it is held that his writings show acquaintance with the _Antiquities of the Jewish People_ by Josephus. The grounds for supposing this appear, however, to be wholly insufficient (see article on Acts by Bishop Lightfoot in 2nd ed. of Smith's _Dict. of Bible_, p. 39) and it is not easy to see why he should have deferred writing so long. On the other hand, a comparison of Luke xxi. 20-24 with Mark xiii. 14 seq. seems to show that in using his document Luke here mingled with the prophecy the interpretation which events had suggested and that the siege of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 and dispersion of its inhabitants had already taken place some little time before. _Circa_ A.D. 80 may with probability be given as the time of the composition of his Gospel.

2. _Contents, Sources and Arrangement._--In the preface to his Gospel, i. 1-4, Luke alludes to other Gospel-records which preceded his own. He does not say whether he made any use of them, but he seems to imply that his own was more complete. And this was true in regard to the two which, from a comparison of his Gospel with the other two Synoptics, we know that he did use. These we may call his Marcan and his Logian document. Luke also claims that he has written "in order." The instances in which he has departed from the Marcan order, and the manner in which he has introduced his additional matter into the Marcan outline, do not suggest the idea that he had any independent knowledge of an exact kind of the chronological sequence of events. By the phrase "in order" he may himself have intended chiefly to contrast the orderliness and consecutiveness of his account with the necessarily fragmentary character of the catechetical instruction which Theophilus had received. He may, also, have had in view the fact that he has prefixed a narrative of the birth and infancy of Jesus and of John and so begun the history at what he considered to be its true point of departure; to this he plainly alludes when he says that he has "traced the course of all things accurately from the first." He may, also, in part be thinking of those indications which he--and he alone among the evangelists--has given of the points in the course of secular history at which Jesus was born and the Baptist began to preach (ii. 1-3, iii. 1, 2), though it may be doubted whether these are in all respects accurate.

Chap. i. 5-ii. 52. _The Birth and Infancy of John and of Jesus._--This
portion of the Gospel differs in style and character from all the
remainder. Its source may be an Aramaic or a Hebrew document. Some
critics, however, hold that it is wholly Luke's own composition, and
that the Hebraic style--in which he was able to write in consequence
of his familiarity with the LXX.--has been adopted by him as suitable
to the subject in hand. Perhaps an intermediate view may be the most
probable one; he may have obtained part of his materials, especially
the hymns, from some source, and have skilfully worked these into his
narrative.

Chap. iii. 1-iv. 13. _From the Commencement of the Preaching of the
Baptist to the End of the Temptation in the Wilderness._--The accounts
of the Baptist's preaching and of the temptation are taken from the
Logian document. The genealogy of Jesus here given is peculiar to this
Gospel.

Chap. iv. 14-vi. 16 _From the Commencement of the Ministry of Jesus in
Galilee to the Appointment of the Twelve._--In the main Luke here
follows his Marcan document. He has, however, independent narratives
of the visit of Jesus to Nazareth (iv. 16-30) and the call of the
first disciples (v. 1-11). The former, which in Mark is placed some
way on in the Galilean ministry (vi. 1-6_a_), is given by Luke at the
very beginning of it, perhaps because of the previous connexion of
Jesus with Nazareth. But that it is not in its right position here,
before any mention of the work in Capernaum, appears from verse 23.
Luke has also slightly altered the position of the call of the first
disciples in the sequence of events.

Chap. vi. 17-viii. 3.--This is an insertion into the Marcan outline of
matter chiefly taken from the Logian document (the Address, Luke vi.
20-49, corresponds with portions of the Sermon on the Mount in Matt,
v.-vii.; the healing of the centurion's servant, Luke vii. 1-10 =
Matt. viii. 5-13; the message of the Baptist and the discourse for
which it gave occasion, Luke vii. 18-35 = Matt. xi. 2-19). He includes
besides, a few pieces peculiar to this Gospel which Luke had probably
himself collected.

Chap. viii. 4-ix. 50. _From the Adoption of Parabolic Teaching to the
End of the Ministry in Galilee._--He begins again to follow his Marcan
document for what he gives. Many sections, however, contained in the
corresponding part of Mark have no parallel in Luke, while the
parallel to one of them is placed later and differs considerably in
form. Possibly this fact points to his Marcan document having been
briefer than our Mark, and to its having afterwards received
interpolations (see MARK, GOSPEL OF ST).

Chap. ix. 51-xviii. 14. _Incidents and Teaching connected with Journey
towards Jerusalem._--This is another insertion into the Marcan
outline, much longer than the previous one, and consisting partly of
matter taken from the Logian document (warnings to men who offer to
become disciples, Luke ix. 57-60 = Matt. viii. 19-22; a
mission-charge, Luke x. 2-16 = Matt. ix. 37 and x. 7-16, 40;
thanksgiving that the Father reveals to the simple that which is
hidden from the wise, Luke x. 21-24 = Matt. xi. 25-27 and xiii. 16,
17, &c., &c.) and partly of sections peculiar to Luke, about which the
same remark may be made as before.

Chap. xviii. 15-xxii. 13. _From the Bringing of young Children to
Jesus to the Preparation for the Passover._--Luke again takes up his
Marcan document, nearly at the point at which he left it, and follows
it in the main, though he adds the story of Zacchaeus and the parable
of the Minae (the Ten Pieces of Money), and omits the withering of the
fig-tree and some matter at the end of the discourse on the Last
Things, which are given in Mark.

Chap. xxii. 14 to end. _The Last Supper, Passion and Resurrection._--
Though in this portion of his Gospel signs of use of Mark are not
wanting, he also has much that is peculiar to himself. It is supposed
by some that he here made use of another document. It seems more
likely that he had a good many distinct oral traditions for this part
of the history and that he used them freely, sometimes substituting
them for passages of the Marcan document, sometimes altering the
latter in accordance therewith.

3. _Doctrinal, Ethical and Literary Characteristics._--The thought of divine forgiveness, as set forth in the teaching of Jesus and manifested in His own attitude towards, and power over, the hearts of the outcasts among the people, is peculiarly prominent in this Gospel. This feature of Christ's ministry appears only in one passage of Mark; some other illustrations of it are mentioned in Matthew, but in Luke there are several more which are peculiar to himself (see the three individual cases vii. 36 sqq.; xix. 1 sqq., xxiii. 40 sqq.; also the description at xv. 1, and the three parables that follow). These were "lost sheep of the house of Israel"; but Christ's freedom from Jewish exclusiveness is also brought out (1) as regards Samaritans, by the rebuke administered to the disciples at ix. 52 sqq., the parable in x. 30 sqq., and the incident at xvii. 15-19; whereas they are not mentioned in Mark, and in Matthew only in the saying (x. 5) in which the Twelve are forbidden to enter any village of theirs; (2) as regards Gentiles, by the words of Jesus at iv. 25-27, not to mention sayings which have parallels in the other Gospels. The promises of Old Testament prophets that the Gentiles would share in the blessing of the coming of Christ are also recalled, ii. 32-iii. 6. Once more the word [Greek: euangelizesthai] ("to proclaim good tidings") is a favourite one with Luke. These are all traits which we should expect to find in one who was a companion of Paul and a Gentile (Col. iv. 11, 14).

With the breadth and depth of the Saviour's sympathy, which are so fully exhibited in this Gospel, we may connect the clearness with which His true humanity is here portrayed. An incident of His boyhood is related in which His sense of vocation is revealed, and this is followed by the years of quiet growth that succeeded (ii. 41-52). Further, during the years of His public ministry more glimpses of His inner life are given us than in either Matthew or Mark. His being engaged in prayer is mentioned several times where there is no parallel in those Gospels (iii. 21, v. 16, vi. 12, ix. 18, 28, 29, xi. 1). Again, besides narrating the Temptation in the Wilderness and the Agony in the Garden, this evangelist gives a saying which implies that Jesus had undergone many temptations, or rather a life of temptation (xxii. 28). Once more he records a saying that shows Christ's sense of the intense painfulness of the work He was sent into the world to do, arising from the divisions which it caused (xii. 49 sqq.).

Among practical duties, the stress laid on that of almsgiving is remarkable (see especially xi. 41, xii. 33, xvi. 9 sqq., which are peculiar to this Gospel). In the second of these passages the disciples are exhorted to choose a life of voluntary poverty; the nearest parallel is the ideal set before the rich young man at Mark x. 21 = Matt. xix. 21 = Luke xviii. 22. In the Beatitudes in Luke vi. 20, 21 a condition of physical want is contemplated, not, as in Matt. v. 3, 6, poverty of spirit and spiritual hunger, while woes are denounced against the rich and the full (vi. 24, 25). The folly of absorption in the amassing and enjoyment of wealth is also shown (xii. 15 sqq. and xvi. 19 sqq.). But it would be an exaggeration to say, as some have done, that the poor are represented as being the heirs of a blessed hereafter, simply on the ground that they are now poor. In the Beatitudes Christ's own disciples are addressed, who were blessed _though_ poor, whereas the rich as a class were opposed or indifferent to the kingdom of God. Again, the contrast between Lazarus and Dives in the future state pictures vividly the reversals that are in store; but it is unreasonable to take it as implying that every poor man, whatever his moral character, will be blessed.

But while there is in Luke's Gospel this strain of asceticism--as to many in modern times it will appear to be--the prevailing spirit is gentle and tender, and there is in it a note of spiritual gladness, which is begun by the song and the messages of angels and the hymns and rejoicing of holy men and women, accompanying the birth of the Christ (chaps. i. and ii., _passim_), and prolonged by the expressions of joy, the ascriptions of thanksgiving and praise, called forth by the words and works of Christ and the wonders of the cross and resurrection, which are peculiarly frequent and full (iv. 15, v. 25, 26, vii. 16, x. 17, xiii. 13, 17, xvii. 15-18, xviii. 43, xix. 6, 37, 38, xxiii. 47, xxiv. 41, 52, 53. Cf. also xv. 5, 7, 10, 32).

The peculiar charm which this Gospel has been generally felt to possess is largely due to the spiritual and ethical traits which have been noted. But from a purely literary point of view, also, it is distinguished by great excellences. The evangelist's phraseology is indeed affected to some extent by the rhetorical style of the period when he wrote. Nevertheless his mode of narration is simple and direct. And the many fascinating character-sketches, which he has added to the portrait gallery of Scripture, are drawn clearly and without signs of effort. In some cases he has skilfully suggested parallelisms and contrasts. The chief instance is his careful interweaving of the accounts of the births and early years of John the Baptist and of Jesus. Later examples are the two sisters, Martha and Mary (x. 38-42), and the penitent and the impenitent thief (xxiii. 39-48). That he was a man of great versatility appears in the Acts from the speeches introduced on various occasions, if (as is probable) they were in part, at least, his own composition. In the Gospel he had no opportunity for showing his power in a manner strictly analogous. But if the hymns in the two introductory chapters owe even their Greek form in any measure to him, he was a poet of no mean order. His style varies greatly; at times, as in i. 1-4, it is Hellenistic; at others, as in i. 5 to end of ii., it is strongly Hebraic. Such differences are largely due, no doubt, to the degree in which he was in various parts independent of, or dependent upon, sources. But he would seem in some degree to have adapted his manner of writing to the subject-matter in hand. And at all events it is worthy of note that we pass without any sense of jar from passages in one style to those in another.

See Godet, _Commentaire sur l'évangile de S. Luc_ (Eng. trans., 1875);
Plummer's _Comm. on St Luke_ (in international Series, 4th ed., 1906);
W. Ramsay, _Was Christ born in Bethlehem?_ (3rd ed., 1905); A.
Harnack, _Lukas der Arzt_ (1906); B. Weiss, _Die Quellen des
Lukas-Evangeliums_ (1907); also books on the Four Gospels, or the
Synoptic Gospels, mentioned at end of article GOSPEL. (V. H. S.)

LULEÅ, a seaport of Sweden, capital of the district (_län_) of Norrbotten, on the peninsula of Sandö, at the mouth of the Lule river and the north-west corner of the Gulf of Bothnia. Pop. (1900) 9484. It is connected at Boden (22 m. N.) with the main line of railway from Stockholm to Gellivara and Narvik on Ofoten Fjord in Norway. By this line Luleå is 723 m. N.N.E. of Stockholm. It is the shipping place for the iron ore mined at Gellivara, 127 m. N. by W., and there are smelting works at Karlsvik in the vicinity. Timber is also exported, being floated in large quantities down the Lule. As a rule the port is closed by ice from November to the end of May. The town was almost entirely burnt down in 1887, and its buildings are new--the church (1888-1893), the Norrbotten Museum and a technical school being the most important. Luleå as founded by Gustavus Adolphus was 7 m. higher up the river, but was moved to the present site in 1649.

LULL (or LULLY), RAIMON, or RAYMOND (c. 1235-1315), Catalan author, mystic and missionary, was born at Palma (Majorca). Inheriting the estate conferred upon his father for services rendered during the victorious expedition (1229) against the Balearic Islands, Lull was married at an early age to Bianca Picany, and, according to his own account, led a dissipated life till 1266 when, on five different occasions, he beheld the vision of Christ crucified. After his conversion, he resolved to devote himself to evangelical work among the heathen, to write an exposure of infidel errors, and to promote the teaching of foreign tongues in seminaries. He dedicated nine years to the study of Arabic, and in 1275 showed such signs of mental exaltation that, at the request of his wife and family, an official was appointed to administer his estate. He withdrew to Randa, there wrote his _Ars major_ and _Ars generalis_, visited Montpellier, and persuaded the king of Majorca to build a Franciscan monastery at Miramar. There for ten years he acted as professor of Arabic and philosophy, and composed many controversial treatises. After a fruitless visit to Rome in 1285-1286, he journeyed to Paris, residing in that city from 1287 to 1289, and expounding his bewildering theories to auditors who regarded him as half insane. In 1289 he went to Montpellier, wrote his _Ars veritatis inventiva_, and removed to Genoa where he translated this treatise into Arabic. In 1291, after many timorous doubts and hesitations for which he bitterly blamed himself, Lull sailed for Tunis where he publicly preached Christianity for a year; he was finally imprisoned and expelled. In January 1293 he reached Naples where tradition alleges that he studied alchemy; there appears to be no foundation for this story, and the treatises on alchemy which bear his name are all apocryphal.[1] His efforts to interest Clement V. and Boniface VIII. in his favourite project of establishing missionary colleges were unavailing; but a visit to Paris in 1298 was attended with a certain measure of success. He was, however, disappointed in his main object, and in 1300 he sailed to Cyprus to seek support for his plan of teaching Oriental languages in universities and monasteries. He was rebuffed once more, but continued his campaign with undiminished energy. Between 1302 and 1305 he wrote treatises at Genoa, lectured at Paris, visited Lyons in the vain hope of enlisting the sympathies of Pope Clement V., crossed over to Bougie in Africa, preached the gospel, and was imprisoned there for six months. On being released he lectured with increasing effect at Paris, attended the General Council at Vienne in 1311, and there witnessed the nominal adoption of his cherished proposals. Though close on eighty years of age, Lull's ardour was unabated. He carried on his propaganda at Majorca, Paris, Montpellier and Messina, and in 1314 crossed over once more to Bougie. Here he resumed his crusade against Mahommedanism, raised the fanatical spirit of the inhabitants, was stoned outside the city walls and died of his wounds on the 29th of June 1315. There can be no reasonable doubt that these events actually occurred, but the scene is laid by one biographer at Tunis instead of Bougie.

The circumstances of Lull's death caused him to be regarded as a
martyr, local patriotism helped to magnify his merits, and his
fantastic doctrines found many enthusiastic partisans. The _doctor
illuminatus_ was venerated throughout Catalonia and afterwards
throughout Spain, as a saint, a thinker and a poet; but his doctrines
were disapproved by the powerful Dominican order, and in 1376 they
were formally condemned in a papal bull issued at the instance of the
inquisitor, Nicolas Emeric. The authenticity of this document was
warmly disputed by Lull's followers, and the bull was annulled by
Martin V. in 1417. The controversy was renewed in 1503 and again in
1578; but the general support of the Jesuits and the staunch fidelity
of the Majorcans saved Lull from condemnation. His philosophical
treatises abound with incoherent formulae to which, according to their
inventor, every demonstration in every science may be reduced, and
posterity has ratified Bacon's disdainful verdict on Lull's
pretensions as a thinker; still the fact that he broke away from the
scholastic system has recommended him to the historians of philosophy,
and the subtle ingenuity of his dialectic has compelled the admiration
of men so far apart in opinion as Giordano Bruno and Leibniz.

The speculations of Lull are now obsolete outside Majorca where his
philosophy still flourishes, but his more purely literary writings are
extremely curious and interesting. In _Blanquerna_ (1283), a novel
which describes a new Utopia, Lull renews the Platonic tradition and
anticipates the methods of Sir Thomas More, Campanella and Harrington,
and in the _Libre de Maravelles_ (1286) he adopts the Oriental
apologue from _Kalilah and Dimnah_. And as a poet Lull takes a
prominent position in the history of Catalan literature; such pieces
as _El Desconort_ (1295) and _Lo Cant de Ramon_ (1299) combine in a
rare degree simple beauty of expression with sublimity of thought and
impassioned sincerity.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Histoire littéraire de la France_ (Paris, 1885), vol.
xxix.; _Obras rimadas de Ramon Lull_ (Palma, 1859), edited by G.
Rosselló; _Obras de Ramon Lull_ (Palma, in progress), edited by G.
Rosselló; José R. de Luanco, _Ramon Lull, considerado como alquimista_
(Barcelona, 1870) and _La Alquimia en España_ (2 vols., Barcelona,
1889-1897); K. Hofmann, "Ein Katalanische Thierepos," in the Bavarian
Academy's _Abhandlungen_ (Munich, 1872), vol. xii. pp. 173-240; M.
Menéndez y Pelayo, _Origenes de la novela_ (Madrid, 1905), pp. 72-86;
Havelock Ellis in _Contemporary Review_ (May 1906). (J. F.-K.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The alchemical works ascribed to Lull, such as _Testamentum_,
_Codicillus seu Testamentum_ and _Experimenta_, are of early although
uncertain date. De Luanco ascribes some of them to a Raimundo de
Tárraga (c. 1370), a converted Jew who studied the occult. Others are
ascribed by Morhof to a Raymundus Lullius Neophytus, who lived about
1440. See ALCHEMY, and also J. Ferguson, _Bibliotheca chemica_
(1906).

LULLABY, a cradle-song, a song sung to children to "lull" them to sleep; the melody being styled in Fr. _berceuse_ and in Ger. _Wiegenlied_. "Lull," cf. Swed. _lulla_, Du. _lullen_, &c., is of echoic or onomatopoeic origin, cf. Lat. _lallare_, to chatter.

LULLY, JEAN-BAPTISTE (c. 1633-1687), Italian composer, was born in Florence. Through the duc de Guise he entered the services of Madame de Montpensier as scullery-boy, and with the help of this lady his musical talents were cultivated. A scurrilous poem on his patroness resulted in his dismissal. He then studied the theory of music under Métra and entered the orchestra of the French court, being subsequently appointed director of music to Louis XIV. and director of the Paris opera. The influence of his music produced a radical revolution in the style of the dances of the court itself. Instead of the slow and stately movements which had prevailed until then, he introduced lively ballets of rapid rhythm. In December 1661 he was naturalized as a Frenchman, his original name being Giovanni Battista Lulli. In 1662 he was appointed music master to the royal family. In 1681 he was made a court secretary to the king and ennobled. While directing a _Te Deum_ on the 8th of January 1687 with a rather long baton he injured his foot so seriously that a cancerous growth resulted which caused his death on the 22nd of March. Having found a congenial poet in Quinault, Lully composed twenty operas, which met with a most enthusiastic reception. Indeed he has good claim to be considered the founder of French opera, forsaking the Italian method of separate recitative and aria for a dramatic consolidation of the two and a quickened action of the story such as was more congenial to the taste of the French public. He effected important improvements in the composition of the orchestra, into which he introduced several new instruments. Lully enjoyed the friendship of Molière, for some of whose best plays he composed illustrative music. His _Miserere_, written for the funeral of the minister Sequier, is a work of genius; and very remarkable are also his minor sacred compositions. On his death-bed he wrote _Bisogna morire, peccatore_.

LUMBAGO, a term in medicine applied to a painful aliment affecting the muscles of the lower part of the back, generally regarded as of rheumatic origin. An attack of lumbago may occur alone, or be associated with rheumatism in other parts of the body. It usually comes on by a seizure, often sudden, of pain in one or both sides of the small of the back, of a severe cutting or stabbing character, greatly aggravated on movement of the body, especially in attempting to rise from the recumbent posture and also in the acts of drawing a deep breath, coughing or sneezing. So intense is the suffering that it is apt to suggest the existence of inflammation in some of the neighbouring internal organs, such as the kidneys, bowels, &c., but the absence of the symptoms specially characteristic of these latter complaints, or of any great constitutional disturbance beyond the pain, renders the diagnosis a matter of no great difficulty. Lumbago seems to be brought on by exposure to cold and damp, and by the other exciting causes of rheumatism. Sometimes it follows a strain of the muscles of the loins. The attack is in general of short duration, but occasionally it continues for a long time, as a feeling of soreness and stiffness on movement. The treatment includes that for rheumatic affections in general (see RHEUMATISM) and the application of local remedies to allay the pain.