Chapter II: Greek Prefixes (1)

_A_--signifies privation; as, _anonymous_, without name.

_Amphi_--both or two; as, _amphi-bious_, partaking of both or two natures,

_Anti_--against; as, _anti-masonry_, against masonry.

_Dia_--through; as, _dia-meter_, line passing through a circle.

_Hyper_--over; as, _hyper-critical_, over or too critical.

_Hypo_--under, implying concealment or disguise; as, _hypo-crite_, one dissembling his real character.

_Meta--_denotes change or transmutation; as, _meta-morphose_, to change the shape.

_Para_--contrary or against; as, _para-dox_, a thing contrary to received opinion.

_Peri_--round about; as, _peri-phrasis_, circumlocution.

_Syn, syl, sym_--together; as, _syn-tax_, a placing together; _syn-od_, a meeting or coming together; _syl-lable_, that portion of a word which is taken together; _sym-pathy_, fellow-feeling, or feeling together.

RULES OF SYNTAX,

WITH ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.

The third part of Grammar is SYNTAX, which treats of the agreement and government of words and of their proper arrangement in a sentence.

SYNTAX consists of two parts, _Concord_ and _Government_.

CONCORD is the agreement which one word has with another, in gender, person, number, or case.

For the illustration of agreement and government, see pages 52, and 53.

For the definition of a sentence, and the transposition of its words and members, see pages 119, 124, 128, and 167.

The principal parts of a simple sentence are the _nominative_ or subject, the _verb_ or attribute, or word that makes the affirmation, and the _object_, or thing affected by the action of the verb; as, "A wise _man governs_ his _passions_." In this sentence, _man_ is the subject; _governs_, the attribute; and _passions_ the object.

A PHRASE is two or more words rightly put together, making sometimes a part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence.

ELLIPSIS is the omission of some word or words, in order to avoid disagreeable and unnecessary repetitions, and to express our ideas concisely, and with strength and elegance.

In this recapitulation of the rules, Syntax is presented in a condensed form, many of the essential NOTES being omitted. This is a necessary consequence of my general plan, in which Etymology and Syntax, you know are blended. Hence, to acquire a complete knowledge of Syntax from this work, you must look over the whole.

You may now proceed and parse the following additional exercises in false Syntax; and, as you analyze, endeavor to correct all the errors without looking at the Key. If, in correcting these examples, you should be at a loss in assigning the reasons why the constructions are erroneous, you can refer to the manner adopted in the foregoing pages.

RULE I.

The article _a_ or _an_ agrees with nouns in the _singular_ number only, individually or collectively; as, "_A_ star, _an_ eagle, _a_ score, _a_ thousand."

RULE II.

The definite article _the_ belongs to nouns in the _singular_ or _plural_ number; as, "_The_ star, _the_ stars; _the_ hat, _the_ hats."

NOTE 1. A nice distinction in the meaning is sometimes effected by
the use or omission of the article _a_. If I say, "He behaved with
_a_ little reverence," my meaning is positive. But if I say, "He
behaved with little reverence," my meaning is negative. By the
former, I rather praise a person; by the latter, I dispraise him.
When I say, "There were few men with him," I speak diminutively, and
mean to represent them as inconsiderable; whereas, when I say,
"There were a few men with him," I evidently intend to make the most
of them.

2. The indefinite article sometimes has the meaning of _every_ or
_each_; as, "They cost five shillings _a_ dozen;" that is, '_every_
dozen.'

"A man he was to all the country dear,
And passing rich with forty pounds _a_ year!"

that is, '_every_ year.'

3. When several adjectives are connected, and express the various
qualities of things individually different, though alike in name,
the article should be repeated; but when the qualities all belong to
the same thing or things, the article should not be repeated. "_A_
black and _a_ white calf," signifies, A black _calf_, and a white
_calf_; but "_A_ black and white calf," describes the two colors of
_one_ calf.

RULE III.

The nominative case governs the verb; as, "_I_ learn, _thou_ learnest, _he_ learns, _they_ learn."

RULE IV.

The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person; as, "The bird _sings_, the birds _sing_, thou _singest_."

NOTE 1. Every verb, when it is not in the infinitive mood, must have
a nominative, expressed or implied; as, "Awake, arise;" that is,
Awake _ye_; arise _ye_.

2. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be
considered as the subject of the affirmation, it must agree with
that which is more naturally its subject; as, "The wages of sin _is_
death; His meat _was_ locusts and wild honey;" "His pavilion _were_
dark _waters_ and thick _clouds_."

EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX.

Frequent commission of sin harden men in it. Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties. So much both of ability and merit, are seldom found. The sincere is always esteemed. Not one of them are happy. What avails the best sentiments, if people do not live suitably to them? Disappointments sinks the heart of man; but the renewal of hope give consolation. The variety of the productions of genius, like that of the operations of nature; are without limit. A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us. Thou cannot heal him, it is true, but thou may do something to relieve him. In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man.

O thou, my voice inspire,
Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire.
_Note_ 1. Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind,
And never, never be to Heaven resigned?

He was a man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had great abilities to manage the business.

_Note 2_. The crown of virtue is peace and honor. His chief occupation and enjoyment were controversy.

RULE V.

When an address is made, the noun or pronoun addressed, is put in the nominative case _independent_; as, "_Plato_, thou reasonest well;" "Do, _Trim_, said my uncle Toby."

NOTE 1. A noun is independent, when it has no verb to agree with it.

2. Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the
_first_ person after them, but the nominative of a noun or pronoun
of the _second_ or _third_ person; as, "Ah! _me_; Oh! _thou_; O!
_virtue_."

RULE VI.

A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case _absolute_; as, "_Shame being lost_; all virtue is lost;" "The _sun being risen_, we travelled on."

NOTE. Every nominative case, except the case absolute and
independent, should belong to some verb expressed or understood; as,
"To whom thus _Adam_;" that is, _spoke_.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Him Destroyed,
Or won to what may work his utter loss,
All this will follow soon.

_Note_.--Two substantives, when they come together, and do not
signify the same thing, the former must be in the genitive case.

Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are so constituted as ultimately to acknowledge and respect genuine merit.

RULE VII.

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signifying the same thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case; as, "_Paul_, the _apostle;_" "_Joram_, the _king;_" "_Solomon_, the _son_ of David, _king_ of Israel, wrote many proverbs."

NOTE. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence; as,
"The sheriff has just seized and sold his valuable library--_(which
was) a misfortune_ that greatly depressed him."

FALSE SYNTAX.

We ought to love God, he who created and sustains all things.

The pronoun _he_ in this sentence, is improperly used in the nominative case. It is the object of the action of the transitive verb "love," and put by apposition with "God;" therefore it should be the objective case, _him_, according to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule, and correct the following.)

I saw Juliet and her brother, they that you visited.

They slew Varus, he that was mentioned before.

It was John, him who preached repentance.

Adams and Jefferson, them who died on the fourth of July 1826, were
both signers and the firm supporters of the Declaration of
Independence.

Augustus the Roman emperor, him who succeeded Julius Cesar, is
variously described by historians.

RULE VIII.

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the _singular_ number, connected by copulative conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, agreeing with them in the _plural_; as, "Socrates _and_ Plato _were_ wise; _they_ were eminent _philosophers_."

NOTE 1. When _each_ or _every_ relates to two or more nominatives in
the singular, although connected by a copulative, the verb must
agree with each of them in the singular; as, "_Every_ leaf, _and
every_ twig, _and every_ drop of water, _teems_ with life."

2. When the singular nominative of a complex sentence, has another
noun joined to it with a preposition, it is customary to put the
verb and pronoun agreeing with it in the singular; as, "Prosperity
with humility, _renders its_ possessor truly amiable;" "The General,
also, in conjunction with the officers, _has_ applied for redress."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Coffee and sugar grows in the West Indies: it is exported in large
quantities.

Two singular nouns coupled together, form a plural idea. The verb _grow_ is improper, because it expresses the action of both its nominatives, "coffee and sugar," which two nominatives are connected by the copulative conjunction, _and_; therefore the verb should be plural, _grow_; and then it would agree with coffee _and_ sugar, according to Rule 8. (Repeat the Rule.) The pronoun _it_, as it represents both the nouns, "coffee and sugar," ought also to be plural, _they_, agreeably to Rule 8. The sentence should be written thus. "Coffee and sugar _grow_ in the West Indies: _they are_ exported in large quantities."

Time and tide waits for no man.

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains.

Life and health is both uncertain.

Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity.

The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense ocean,
affects the mind with sensations of astonishment.

What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when you think
you have no need of assistance?

Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished.

Why is whiteness and coldness in snow?

Obey the commandment of thy father, and the law of thy mother; bind
it continually upon thy heart.

Pride and vanity always render its possessor despicable in the eyes
of the judicious.

There is error and discrepance in the schemes of the orthoepists,
which shows the impossibility of carrying them into effect.

EXAMPLES FOR THE NOTE.

Every man, woman, and child, were numbered.

Not proper; for, although _and_ couples things together so as to present the whole at one view, yet _every_ has a contrary effect: it distributes them, and brings each separately and singly under consideration. _Were_ numbered is therefore improper. It should be, "_was_ numbered," in the singular, according to the Note. (Repeat it.)

When benignity and gentleness reign in our breasts, every person and
every occurrence are beheld in the most favorable light.

RULE IX.

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the _singular_ number, connected by disjunctive conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, agreeing with them in the _singular_; as, "Neither John _nor_ James _has_ learned _his_ lesson."

NOTE 1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of different
persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree, in
person, with that which is placed nearest to it; as, "Thou _or_ I
_am_ in fault; I _or_ thou _art_ to blame; I, _or_ thou, _or_ he,
_is_ the author of it." But it would be better to say "Either I am
to blame or thou art," &c.

2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun or pronoun and
a plural one, the verb must agree with the plural noun or pronoun,
which should generally be placed next to the verb; as, "Neither
poverty _nor riches_ were injurious to him;" "I _or_ they were
offended by it."

Constructions like these ought generally to be avoided.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake.

The verb, _have_ caused, in this sentence, is improperly used in the plural, because it expresses the action, not of _both_, but of either the one or the other of its nominatives; therefore it should be in the singular, _has_ caused; and then it would agree with "ignorance _or_ negligence," agreeably to Rule 9 (Repeat the Rule.)

A circle or a square are the same in idea.

Neither whiteness nor redness are in the porphyry.

Neither of them are remarkable for precision.

Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move merely
as they are moved.

When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affect us, the
sincerity of friendship is proved.

Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into his own
hands.

Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of life, for
they may be thy own lot.

The prince, as well as the people, were blameworthy.

RULE X.

A collective noun or noun of multitude, conveying _unity_ of idea, generally has a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the _singular_; as, "The _meeting was_ large, and _it_ held three hours."

NOTE. Rules 10, and 11, are limited in their application. See page.

FALSE SYNTAX.

The nation are powerful.

The fleet were seen sailing up the channel.

The church have no power to inflict corporal punishment. The
flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects of the
shepherd's care.

That nation was once powerful; but now they are feeble.

RULE XI.

A noun of multitude, conveying _plurality_ of idea, must have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the _plural_; as, "The _council were_ divided in _their_ sentiments."

FALSE SYNTAX.

My people doth not consider.

The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief good.

The committee was divided in its sentiments, and it has referred the
business to the general meeting.

The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow.

RULE XII.

A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun it possesses; as, "_Man's_ happiness;" "_Its_ value is great."

NOTE 1. When the possessor is described by a circumlocution, the
possessive sign should generally be applied to the last term only;
as, "The _duke of Bridgewater's_ canal; The _bishop of Landaff's_
excellent book; The _captain of the guard's_ house." This usage,
however, ought generally to be avoided. The words do not literally
convey the ideas intended. What nonsense to say, "This is _the
governor of Ohio's_ house!"

2. When nouns in the possessive case are in apposition, and follow
each other in quick succession, the possessive sign is generally
annexed to the last only; as, "For _David_ my _servant's_ sake;
_John_ the _Baptist's_ head; The canal was built in consequence of
_De Witt Clinton_ the _governor's_ advice."

But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed,
the sign should be applied to the first possessive only, and
understood to the rest; as, "I reside at Lord _Stormont's_, my old
_patron_ and _benefactor_."

3. _Its_, the possessive case of _it_, is often improperly used for
_'tis_, or, _it is_; as, "_Its_ my book: _Its_ his," &c.; instead
of, _"It is_ my book; or, _'Tis_ my book; _It is_ his; or, _'Tis_
his."

4. Participles frequently govern nouns and pronouns in the
possessive case, as, "In case of his _majesty's dying_ without
issue, &c.; Upon _God's having ended_ all his works, &c.; I remember
_its being reckoned_ a great exploit; At _my coming_ in he said,"
&c. But in such instances, the participle with its adjuncts may be
considered a substantive phrase, according to Note 2, Rule 28.

5. Phrases like these, "A work of _Washington Irving's_; A brother
of _Joseph's_; A friend of _mine_; A neighbor of _yours_," do not,
as some have supposed, each contain a double possessive, or two
possessive cases, but they may be thus construed; "A work of (_out
of_, or, _among the number of) Washington Irving's works_; that is,
One of the works of _Washington Irving_; One of the brothers _of
Joseph_; One friend _of my friends_; One neighbor of _your
neighbors_."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Homers works are much admired.

Nevertheless, Asa his heart was not perfect with the Lord.

James Hart, his book, bought August the 19, 1829.

_Note_ 1. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot to suffer
great calamities.

This is Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation.

_Note_ 2. This is Campbell's the poet's production.

The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and haberdasher's.

_Note_ 4. Much will depend on the pupil composing frequently.

Much depends on this rule being observed.

The measure failed in consequence of the president neglecting to lay
it before the council.

RULE XIII.

Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in _gender_ and _number_; as, "_John_ writes, and _he_ will soon write well."

NOTE. You, though frequently employed to represent a singular noun,
is always _plural in form_; therefore the verb connected with it
should be plural; as, "My friend, you _were_ mistaken." See pages
and

FALSE SYNTAX

Every man will be rewarded according to their works.

Incorrect, because the pronoun _their_ does not agree in gender or number with the noun "man," for which it stands; consequently Rule 13, is violated. _Their_ should be _his_; and then the pronoun would be of the masculine gender, singular number, agreeing with _man_, according to Rule 13. (Repeat the Rule.)

An orator's tongue should be agreeable to the ear of their audience.

Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob.

Take handfuls of ashes, and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven, in
the sight of Pharaoh, and it shall become small dust.

No one should incur censure for being tender of their reputation.

_Note_. Horace, you was blamed; and I think you was worthy of
censure.

Witness, where was you standing during the transaction? How far was
you from the defendant?

RULE XIV.

Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents, in _gender_, _person_, and _number_; as, "Thou _who lovest_ wisdom;" "I _who speak_ from experience."

NOTE. When a relative pronoun is preceded by two antecedents of
different persons, the relative and the verb may agree in person
with either, but not without regard to the sense; as, "I am the man
_who command_ you;" or, "I am the man _who commands_ you." The
meaning of the first of these examples will more obviously appear,
if we render it thus: "I who command you, am the _man_."

When the agreement of the relative has been fixed with either of the
preceding antecedents, it must be preserved throughout the sentence;
as, "I am the _Lord, that maketh_ all things; _that stretcheth_
forth the heavens alone; _that spreadeth_ abroad the earth by
myself," &c.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Thou who has been a witness of the fact, canst state it.

The wheel killed another man, which make the sixth which have lost
their lives by this means.

Thou great First Cause, least understood!

Who all my sense confined.

_Note, 2d part_. Thou art the Lord, who didst choose Abraham, and
brought him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees.

RULE XV.

The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative comes between it and the verb; as, "The master _who_ taught us, was eminent."

FALSE SYNTAX.

If he will not hear his best friend, whom shall be sent to admonish
him.

This is the man whom, he informed me, was my benefactor.

RULE XVI.

When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative is governed by the following verb, or by some other word in its own member of the sentence; as, "He _whom_ I _serve_, is eternal."

NOTE 1. _Who, which, what_, the relative _that_, and their
compounds, _whomever, whomsoever_, &c., though in the objective
case, are always placed before the verb; as, "He _whom_ ye _seek_,
has gone hence."

2. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it relates,
either expressed or implied; as, "_Who_ steals my purse, steals
trash;" that is, _he_ who.

3. The pronouns _whichsoever, whatsoever_, and the like, are
sometimes elegantly divided by the interposition of the
corresponding nouns; as, "On _which_ side _soever_ the _king_ cast
his eyes," &c.

4. The pronoun _what_ is sometimes improperly used instead of the
conjunction _that;_ as, "He would not believe but _what_ I was in
fault." It should be "but _that_," &c.

FALSE SYNTAX.

That is the friend who I sincerely esteem.

Not proper, because _who_, which is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb "esteem," is in the nominative case. It ought to be _whom_, in the objective; and then it would be governed by esteem, according to Rule 16. (Repeat the Rule:)--and, also, according to Rule 20. "That is the friend _whom_ I sincerely esteem."

They who much is given to, will have much to answer for.

From the character of those who you associate with, your own will be
estimated.

He is a man who I greatly respect.

Our benefactors and tutors are the persons who we ought to love, and
who we ought to be grateful to.

They who conscience and virtue support, may smile at the caprices of
fortune.

Who did you walk with?

Who did you see there?

Who did you give the book to?

RULE XVII.

When a relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, it refers to the word or phrase containing the answer to the question for its _subsequent_, which subsequent must agree in _case_ with the interrogative; as, "_Whose_ book is that? _Joseph's;" "Who_ gave you this? _John_."

NOTE. Whether the interrogative _really refers_ to a subsequent or
not, is doubtful; but it is certain that the subsequent should agree
in case with the interrogative.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Who gave John those books? Us. Of whom did you buy them? Of a
bookseller, he who lives in Pearl street.

Who walked with you? My brother and him.

Who will accompany me to the country? Her and me.

RULE XVIII.

Adjectives belong to, and qualify nouns, expressed or understood; as, "He is a _good_, as well as a _wise_ man."

NOTE 1. Adjectives frequently belong to pronouns; as, "I am
_miserable; He_ is _industrious_."

2. Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns must agree in
number with their adjectives, when of the _cardinal_ kind; as, "Ten
_feet_; Eighty _fathoms_." But some anomalous and figurative
expressions form an exception to this rule; as, "A fleet of _forty
sail;" "Two hundred head of cattle_."

3. Adjectives sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mood, or
to a part of a sentence; as, "_To see_ is _pleasant_; To be blind is
_unfortunate_; To die for our country is _glorious_."

4. Adjectives are often used to modify the sense of other
adjectives, or the action of verbs, and to express the quality of
things in connexion with the action by which that quality is
produced; as, "_Red hot_ iron; _Pale blue_ lining; _Deep sea-green_
sash; The apples boil _soft_; Open your hand _wide_; The clay burns
_white_; The fire burns _blue_; The eggs boil _hard_."

5. When an adjective is preceded by a preposition, and the noun is
understood, the two words may be considered an adverbial phrase; as,
"In general, in particular;" that is, generally, particularly.

6. Adjectives should be placed next to the nouns which they qualify;
as, "A tract of _good_ land."

7. We should generally avoid comparing such adjectives as do not
literally admit of comparison; such as, _more impossible, most
impossible; more unconquerable, more perfect_, &c. See REMARKS on
adjectives, page 76.

8. When an adjective or an adverb is used in comparing two objects,
it should be in the comparative degree; but when more than two are
compared, the superlative ought to be employed; as, "Julia is the
_taller_ of the two; Her specimen is the _best_ of the three."

FALSE SYNTAX.

_Note_ 2. The boat carries thirty tun.

The chasm was twenty foot broad, and one hundred fathom in depth.

_Note_ 6. He bought a new pair of shoes, and an elegant piece of
furniture.

My cousin gave his fine pair of horses for a poor tract of land.

_Note_ 7. The contradictions of impiety are still more
incomprehensible.

It is the most uncertain way that can be devised.

This is a more perfect model than I ever saw before.

_Note_ 8. Which of those two cords is the strongest?

I was at a loss to determine which was the wiser of the three.

RULE XIX.

Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, expressed or understood; as, "_Any_ man, _all_ men."

NOTE 1. The demonstrative adjective pronouns must agree in number
with their nouns; as, "_This_ book, _these_ books; _that_ sort,
_those_ sorts."

2. The pronominal adjectives, _each, every, either, neither,
another_, and _one_, agree with nouns in the singular number only;
as, "_Each_ man, _every_ person, _another_ lesson;" unless the
plural nouns convey a collective idea: as, "_Every_ six months."

3. _Either_ is often improperly employed instead of _each;_ as, "The
king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat _either_ of
them on his throne." _Each_ signifies _both_ taken separately;
_either_ implies only _the one_ or _the other_ taken
disjunctively:--"sat _each_ on _his_ throne."

FALSE SYNTAX.

_Note_ 1. Those sort of favors do real injury.

They have been playing this two hours.

These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. He saw one
or more persons enter the garden.

_Note_ 2. Let each esteem others better than themselves.

There are bodies, each of which are so small as to be invisible.

Every person, whatever their station may be, are bound by the laws
of morality and religion.

_Note_ 3. On either side of the river was the tree of life.

Nadab and Abihu took either of them his censer.

RULE XX.

Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case; as, "Cesar conquered _Pompey_;" "Columbus discovered _America_;" "Truth ennobles _her_."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Ye who were dead, hath he quickened.

_Ye_, in the nominative case, is erroneous, because it is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb "hath quickened;" and therefore it should be _you_, in the objective case. _You_ would then be governed by "hath quickened," agreeably, to Rule 20. _Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case_.

Who did they entertain so freely?

They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has corrupted,
cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature.

He and they we know, but who are ye?

She that is negligent, reprove sharply.

He invited my brother and I to pay him a visit.

Who did they send on that mission?

They who he has most injured, he had the greatest reason to love.

RULE XXI.

The verb _to be_ may have the same case after it as before it; as, "_I_ am the _man_;" "I believe _it_ to have been _them;_" "_He_ is the _thief_."

NOTE 1. When nouns or pronouns next preceding and following the verb
_to be_, signify the _same thing_, they are _in apposition_, and,
therefore, in the _same case_. Rule 21 is predicated on the
principle contained in Rule 7.

2. The verb _to be_ is often understood; as, "The Lord made _me
man_; He made _him what_ he was;" that is, "The Lord made me _to be_
man; He made him _to be that which_ he was." "They desired me to
call _them brethren_;" i.e. _by the name of_ brethren. "They named
_him John_;" i.e. _by the name of_ John; or, by the _name_ John;
putting these two nouns in _apposition_.

FALSE SYNTAX.

I know it to be they.

Improper, because _it_ is in the objective case before the verb "to be," and _they_ is in the nominative after; consequently, Rule 21 is violated. _They_ is in apposition with _it_, therefore _they_ should be _them_, in the objective after to be, according to Rule 21. (Repeat the Rule.)

Be composed, it is me.

I would not act thus, if I were him.

Well may you be afraid; it is him, indeed.

Who do you fancy him to to be?

Whom do men say that I am? Whom say ye that I am?

If it was not him, who do you imagine it to have been?

He supposed it was me; but you knew that it was him.

RULE XXII.

Active-intransitive and passive verbs, the verb _to become_, and other neuter verbs, have the same case after them as before them, when both words refer to, and signify, the same thing; as, "_Tom_ struts a _soldier_;" "_Will_ sneaks a _scrivener_;" "_He_ was called _Cesar_;" "The _general_ was saluted _emperor_;" "_They_ have become _fools_."

NOTE 1. Active-intransitive verbs sometimes assume a transitive
form, and govern the objective case; as, "_To dream_ a _dream; To
run_ a _race; To walk_ the _horse; To dance_ the _child; To fly_ the
_kite_."

2. According to a usage too common in colloquial style, an agent not
literally the correct one, is employed as the nominative to a
passive verb, which causes the verb to be followed by an _objective_
case without the possibility of supplying before it a preposition:
thus, "_Pitticus_ was offered a large _sum_ by the king;" "_She_ was
promised _them_ (the _jewels_) by her mother;" "_I_ was asked a
_question_." It would be better sense, and more agreeable to the
idiom of our language, to say, "A large _sum_ was offered _to
Pitticus_;" "_They_ were promised _(to) her_;" "A _question_ was put
_to me_."

3. Some passive verbs are formed by using the participles of
compound active verbs. To _smile_, to _wonder_, to _dream_, are
intransitive verbs, for which reason they have no passive voice;
but, to _smile on_, to _wonder at_, to _dream of_, are compound
active-transitive verbs, and, therefore, admit of a passive voice;
as, "He _was smiled on_ by fortune; The accident is not _to be
wondered at_;"

"There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio,
"Than _are dreamed of_ in your philosophy."

RULE XXIII.

A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, participle, or pronoun; as, "_Cease_ to do evil;" "We all have our _talent_ to be improved;" "She is _eager_ to learn;" "They are _preparing_ to go;" "Let _him_ do it."

ILLUSTRATION. The supposed principle of _government_ referred to in this rule, may be thus illustrated. In the sentence, "Cease to do evil," the peculiar manner in which _cease_ is introduced, _requires_ or _compels_ us to put the verb _do_ in the infinitive mood; and, according to the genius of our language, we cannot express this act of doing, when thus connected with _cease_, in any other mood, unless we change the construction of the sentence. Hence we say, that _cease_ governs the mood of the verb _do_. Similar remarks may be applied to the words _talent_, _eager_, _preparing_, and _him_, in the respective examples under the rule.

Many respectable grammarians refer the government of this mood invariably to the preposition _to_ prefixed, which word they do not, of course, consider a part of the verb. Others contend, and with some plausibility, that this mood is not governed by any particular word. If we reject the idea of government, as applied to the verb in this mood, the following rule, if substituted for the foregoing, might, perhaps, answer all practical purposes.

RULE.

A verb in the infinitive mood, refers to some noun or pronoun, as its subject or actor.

ILLUSTRATION of the examples under Rule XXIII. "To do" refers to _thou_ understood for its agent; "to be improved" refers to _talent_; "to learn," to _she_; "to go," to _they_; and "to do," refers to _him_.

NOTE 1. The infinitive mood absolute stands independent of the rest
of the sentence; as, "_To confess_ the truth, I was in fault."

2. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunctions or
adverbs; as, "An object so high _as to be_ invisible;" "He is wise
_enough to deceive_;" "The army is _about to march_."

RULE XXIV.

The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is frequently put as the nominative case to a verb, or the object of an active-transitive verb; as, "_To play_ is pleasant;" "Boys love _to play_;" "_That warm climates shorten life_, is reasonable to suppose;" "He does not consider _how near he approaches to his end_."

NOTE. _To_, the sign of the infinitive mood, is sometimes properly
omitted; as, "I heard him _say_ it;" instead of, "to _say_ it."

RULE XXV.

The verbs which follow _bid_, _dare_, _need_, _make_, _see_, _hear_, _feel_, _help_, _let_, and their participles, are in the infinitive mood without the sign _to_ prefixed; as, "He bids me _come_;" "I dare _engage_;" "Let me _go_;" "Help me _do it_;" i.e. _to come_, _to go_, _to do_ it, &c. "He is _hearing_ me _recite_."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Bid him to come.

He durst not to do it without permission.

Hear him to read his lesson.

It is the difference in their conduct, which makes us to approve the
one, and to reject the other.

It is better live on a little, than outlive a great deal.

I wish him not wrestle with his happiness.

RULE XXVI.

Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they are derived; as, "I saw the tutor _instructing_ his _pupils_."

NOTE. The present participle with the definite article _the_ before
it, becomes a noun, and must have the preposition _of_ after it.
_The_ and _of_ must both be used, or both be omitted; as, "By _the_
observing _of_ truth, you will command respect;" or, "By observing
truth," &c.

FALSE SYNTAX.

_Note_. We cannot be wise and good without the taking pains for it.

The changing times and seasons, the removing and setting up kings,
belong to Providence alone.

These are the rules of grammar, by observing of which you may avoid
mistakes.

RULE XXVII.

The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting the subject or actor; as, "I see a _boy running_."

RULE XXVIII.

The perfect participle belongs, like an adjective, to some noun or pronoun, expressed or understood; as, "I saw the boy _abused_."

NOTE 1. Participles of neuter verbs have the same case after them as
before them; as, "_Pontius Pilate_ being _Governor_ of Judea, and
_Herod_ being _Tetrarch_," &c.

2. A participle with its adjuncts, may sometimes be considered as a
substantive or participial phrase, which phrase may be the subject
of a verb, or the object of a verb or preposition; as, "_Taking from
another without his knowledge or assent_, is called stealing; He
studied to avoid _expressing himself too severely_; I cannot fail of
_having money_, &c.; By _promising much and performing but little_,
we become despicable."

3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense of irregular
verbs, are sometimes different in their form, care must be taken
that they be not indiscriminately used. It is frequently said, 'He
begun,' for 'he began;' 'He run,' for 'he ran;' 'He come,' for 'he
came;' the participles being here used instead of the imperfect
tense; and much more frequently is the imperfect tense employed
instead of the participle; as, 'I had wrote,' for 'I had written;'
'I was chose,' for 'I was chosen;' 'I have eat,' for 'I have eaten.'
'He would have spoke;'--_spoken_. 'He overrun his
guide;'--_overran_. 'The sun had rose;'--_risen_.

FALSE SYNTAX.

I seen him. I have saw many a one.

_Seen_ is improper, the perfect participle being used instead of the imperfect tense of the verb. It ought to be, "I _saw_ him," according to Note 3, _Have saw_ is also erroneous, the imperfect tense being employed instead of the perfect participle. The perfect tense of a verb is formed by combining the auxiliary _have_ with its perfect participle: therefore the sentence should be written thus, "I have _seen_ many a one:" Note 3.

_Note_ 3. He done me no harm, for I had wrote my letter before he
come home.

Had not that misfortune befel my cousin, he would have went to
Europe long ago.

The sun had already arose, when I began my journey.

Since the work is began, it must be prosecuted.

The French language is spoke in every state in Europe.

He writes as the best authors would have wrote, had they writ on the
same subject.

RULE XXIX.

Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs; as, "A _very good_ pen _writes extremely well_;" "By _living temperately_," &c.

NOTE 1. Adverbs are generally set before adjectives or adverbs,
after verbs, or between the auxiliary and the verb; as, "He made a
_very sensible_ discourse, and was _attentively_ heard."

2. When the qualifying word which follows a verb, expresses
_quality_, it must be an adjective, but when it expresses _manner_,
an adverb should be used; as, "She looks _cold;_ She looks _coldly_
on him; He feels _warm;_ He feels _warmly_ the insult offered to
him." If the verb _to be_ can be substituted for the one employed,
an adjective should follow, and not an adverb; as, "She looks _[is]
cold_; The hay smells _[is] sweet_; The fields look _[are] green_;
The apples taste _[are] sour_; The wind blows _[is] fresh_."

3. It is not strictly proper to apply the adverbs _here, there_, and
_where_, to verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs _hither,
thither, whither_; thus, "He came _here [hither]_ hastily;" "They
rode _there [thither]_ in two hours;" "_Where [whither]_ will he
go?" But in familiar style, these constructions are so far
sanctioned as sometimes to be admissible.

4. The use of _where_, instead of _in which_, in constructions like
the following, is hardly admissible: "The immortal sages of '76,
formed a charter, _where [in which]_ their rights are boldly
asserted."

5. As the adverbs _hence, thence_, and _whence_, literally supply
the place of a noun and preposition, there appears to be a solecism
in employing a preposition in conjunction with them: "_From whence_
it follows;" "He came _from thence_ since morning." Better,
"_whence_ it follows;" "He came _thence_." The following phrases are
also exceptionable: "The _then_ ministry;" "The _above_ argument;"
"Ask me _never_ so much dowry;" "Charm he _never_ so wisely."
Better, "The ministry _of that time_ or _period_;" "The _preceding_
argument;" "_Ever_ so much dowry;" "_Ever_ so wisely."

FALSE SYNTAX.

_Note_ 1. It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore to
remonstrate.

He was pleasing not often, because he was vain.

These things should be never separated.

We may happily live, though our possessions are small.

RULE XXX.

Two negatives destroy one another, and are generally equivalent to an affirmative; as, "Such things are _not un_common;" i.e. they are common.

NOTE. When one of the two negatives employed is joined to another
word, it forms a pleasing and delicate variety of expression; as,
"His language, though inelegant, is _not un_grammatical;" that is,
it is grammatical.

But, as two negatives, by destroying each other, are equivalent to
an affirmative, they should not be used when we wish to convey a
_negative_ meaning. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate:
"I can_not_ by _no_ means allow him what his argument must prove."
It should be, "I cannot by _any_ means," &c., or, "I _can_ by _no_
means."

FALSE SYNTAX.

_Note, 2d part_. I don't know nothing about it.

I did not see nobody there. Nothing never affects her.

Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise.

There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity.

Precept nor discipline is not so forcible as example.

RULE XXXI.

Prepositions govern the objective case; as, "He went _from_ Utica _to_ Rome, and then passed _through_ Redfield."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Each is accountable for hisself.

They settled it among theirselves.

It is not I who he is displeased with.

Who did you go with?

Who did you receive instruction from?

RULE XXXII.

_Home_, and nouns signifying _distance_, time _when_, _how long_, &c. are generally governed by a preposition _understood_; as, "The horse ran a mile;" "He came _home_ last June;" "My friend lived four _years_ at college;" that is, ran _through the space of_ a mile; or, ran _over a space called_ a mile; _to_ his home _in_ last June; _during_ four years, &c.

NOTE 1. The prepositions _to_ and _for_ are often understood,
chiefly before the pronouns; as, "Give [to] _me_ a book; Get [for]
_him_ some paper."

2. _To_ or _unto_, is, by some, supposed to be understood after
_like_ and _unlike_; as, "He is _like_ [unto] his brother; She is
_unlike_ [to] him." Others consider this mode of expression an idiom
of the language, and maintain that _like_ governs the objective
following it.

3. Nouns signifying extension, duration, quantity, quality, or
value, are used without a governing word; as, "The Ohio is one
thousand _miles_ long; She is ten _years_ old; My hat is worth ten
_dollars_." These are sometimes considered anomalies. See page 163.

RULE XXXIII.

Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case; as, "The master taught _her_ and _me_ to write;" "_He_ and _she_ are associates."

FALSE SYNTAX.

My brother and him are grammarians.

You and me enjoy great privileges.

Him and I went to the city in company; but John and him returned
without me.

Between you and I there is a great disparity of years.

RULE XXXIV.

Conjunctions generally connect verbs of like moods and tenses; as, "If thou sincerely _desire, and_ earnestly _pursue_ virtue, she _will_ assuredly _be found_ by thee, _and prove_ a rich reward."

NOTE 1. When different moods and tenses are connected by
conjunctions, the nominative must be repeated; as, "He _may return_,
but _he will_ not _tarry_."

2. Conjunctions implying contingency or doubt, require the
subjunctive mood after them; as, "_If_ he _study_, he will improve."
See pages 135, 145, and 155.

3. The conjunctions _if_, _though_, _unless_, _except_, _whether_,
and _lest_, generally require the subjunctive mood after them.

4. Conjunctions of a positive and absolute nature, implying no
doubt, require the indicative mood; as, "_As_ virtue _advances, so_
vice _recedes_."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him?

Professing regard, and to act differently, discovers a base mind.

_Note_ 1. He has gone home, but may return.

The attorney executed the deed, but will write no more.

_Note_ 2. I shall walk to-day, unless it rains.

If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind.

RULE XXXV.

A noun or pronoun following the conjunction _than_, _as_, or _but_, is nominative to a verb, or governed by a verb or preposition, expressed or understood; as, "Thou art wiser _than_ I [_am_."] "I saw nobody _but_ [_I saw_] him."

NOTE 1. The conjunction _as_, when it is connected with _such_,
_many_, or _same_, is sometimes, though erroneously, called a
_relative pronoun_; as, "Let _such_ as presume to advise others,"
&c.; that is, Let _them who_, &c. See page 116.

2. An ellipsis, or omission of some words, is frequently admitted,
which must be supplied in the mind in order to parse grammatically;
as "Wo is me;" that is, _to_ me; "To sleep all night;" i.e.
_through_ all _the_ night; "He has gone a journey;" i.e. _on_ a
journey; "They walked a league;" i.e. _over a space called_ a
league.

3. When the omission of words would obscure the sense, or weaken its
force, they must be expressed.

4. In the use of prepositions, and words that relate to each other,
we should pay particular regard to the meaning of the words or
sentences which they connect: all the parts of a sentence should
correspond to each other, and a regular and clear construction
throughout should be carefully preserved.

FALSE SYNTAX.

They are much greater gainers than me.

They know how to write as well as him; but he is a better grammarian
than them.

They were all well but him.

None were rewarded but him and me.

Jesus sought none but they who had gone astray.

REMARKS ON THE TENSES.

1. In the use of verbs, and other words and phrases which, _in point of time_, relate to each other, a due regard to that relation should be observed.

Instead of saying, "The Lord _hath given_, and the Lord _hath taken_ away;" we should say, "The Lord _gave_, and the Lord _hath taken_ away." Instead of, "I _remember_ the family more than twenty years;" it should be, "I _have remembered_ the family more than twenty years."

2. The best rule that can be given for the management of the tenses, and of words and phrases which, in point of time, relate to each other, is this very general one; _Observe what the sense necessarily requires_.

To say, "I _have_ visited Washington last summer; I _have seen_ the work more than a month ago," is not good _sense_. The constructions should be, "I _visited_ Washington, &c.; I _saw_ the work, &c." "This mode of expression _has been_ formerly much admired:"--"_was_ formerly much admired." "If I _had have_ been there;" "If I _had have_ seen him;" "_Had_ you _have_ known him," are solecisms too gross to need correction. We can say, I _have_ been, I _had_ been; but what sort of a tense is, _had have been_? To place _had_ before the _defective_ verb ought, is an error equally gross and illiterate:--"_had_ ought, _hadn't_ ought." This is as low a vulgarism as the use of _theirn_, _hern_, and _hizzen_, _tother_, _furder_, _baynt_, _this ere_, I _seed_ it, I _tell'd_ him.

3. When we refer to a past action or event, and no part of that time in which it took place; remains, the _imperfect_ tense should be used; but if there is still remaining some portion of the time in which we declare that the thing has been done, the _perfect_ tense should be employed.

Thus, we say, "Philosophers _made_ great discoveries in the last century;" "He _was_ much afflicted last year;" but when we refer to the present century, year, week, day, &c. we ought to use the _perfect_ tense; as, "Philosophers _have made_ great discoveries in the present century;" "He _has been_ much afflicted this year;" "I _have read_ the president's message this week;" "We _have heard_ important news this morning;" because these events occurred in this century, this year, this week, and to-day, and still there remains a part of this century, year, week, and day, of which I speak.

In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action is connected with the present time, by the actual existence either of the author of the work, though it may have been performed many centuries ago; but if neither the author nor the work now remains, the perfect tense ought not to be employed. Speaking of priests in general, we may say, "They _have_, in all ages, _claimed_ great powers;" because the general order of the priesthood still exists; but we cannot properly say, "The Druid priests _have claimed_ great powers;" because that order is now extinct. We ought, therefore, to say, "The Druid priests _claimed_ great powers."

The following examples may serve still farther to illustrate the proper use and application of the tenses. "My brother has recently been to Philadelphia." It should be, "_was_ recently at Philadelphia;" because the adverb _recently_ refers to a time completely past, without any allusion to the present time. "Charles is grown considerably since I have seen him the last time." Corrected, "Charles _has_ grown, since I _saw_ him," &c. "Payment was at length made, but no reason assigned for its being so long postponed." Corrected, "for its _having been_ so long postponed." "They were arrived an hour before we reached the city:"--"They _had_ arrived."

"The workmen will complete the building at the time I take possession of it." It should be, "will _have completed_ the building," &c. "This curious piece of workmanship was preserved, and shown to strangers for more than fifty years past:"--"_has been_ preserved, and _been_ shown to strangers," &c. "I had rather write than beg:"--"I _would_ rather write than beg."

"On the morrow, because he would have known the certainty whereof Paul was accused of the Jews, he loosed him from his bands." It ought to be, "because he _would know_; or, _being willing to know,_" &c. "The blind man said, 'Lord, that I might receive my sight;'" "If by any means I might attain unto the resurrection of the dead." In both these examples, _may_ would be preferable to _might_. "I feared that I should have lost the parcel, before I arrived:"--"that I should _lose_." "It would have afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform it." It ought to be, "if I could _have performed_ it;" or, "It _would afford_ me no satisfaction, if I _could perform_ it." "This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or shall be published:"--"that _has been_, or _will be published_."

4. In order to employ the two tenses of the infinitive mood with propriety, particular attention should be paid to the meaning of what we express.

Verbs expressive of _hope_, _desire_, _intention_, or _command_, ought to be followed by the PRESENT tense of the _Infinitive mood_.

"Last week I intended to _have written_," is improper. The intention of writing was then _present_ with me; and, therefore, the construction should be, "I intended _to write_." The following examples are also inaccurate; "I found him better than I expected _to have found_ him;" "My purpose was, after spending ten months more in commerce, _to have withdrawn_ my wealth to another country." They should be, "expected _to find_ him;" "_to withdraw_ my wealth."

"This is a book which proves itself to be written by the person whose name it bears." It ought to be "which proves itself _to have been written_," &c. "To see him would have afforded me pleasure all my life." Corrected, "_To have seen_ him;" or, "_To see_ him _would afford_ me pleasure," &c. "The arguments were sufficient to have satisfied all who heard them:"--"were sufficient _to satisfy_." "History painters would have found it difficult to have invented such a species of beings:"--"_to invent_ such a species."

5. General and immutable truths ought to be expressed in the _present_ tense.

Instead of saying, "He did not know that eight and twenty _were_ equal to twenty and eight;" "The preacher said very audibly, that whatever _was_ useful, _was_ good;" "My opponent would not believe, that virtue _was_ always advantageous.;" The constructions should be, "_are_ equal to twenty;" "whatever _is_ useful, _is_ good;" "virtue _is_ always advantageous."

EXAMPLES IN FALSE SYNTAX PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED.

We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eternity to eternity.

On these causes depend all the happiness or misery which exist among
men.

The enemies who we have most to fear, are those of our own hearts.

Is it me or him who you requested to go?

Though great has been his disobedience and his folly, yet if he
sincerely acknowledges his misconduct, he shall be forgiven.

There were, in the metropolis, much to amuse them.

By exercising of our memories, they are improved.

The property of my friend, I mean his books and furniture, were
wholly consumed.

Affluence might give us respect in the eyes of the vulgar, but will
not recommend us to the wise and good.

The cares of this world, they often choke the growth of virtue.

They that honor me, I will honor; and them that despise me, shall be
lightly esteemed.

I intended to have called last week, but could not.

The fields look freshly and gayly since the rain.

The book is printed very neat, and on fine wove paper.

I have recently been in Washington, where I have seen Gen. Andrew
Jackson, he who is now president.

Take the two first, and, if you please, the three last.

The Chinese wall is thirty foot high.

It is an union supported by an hypothesis, merely.

I have saw him who you wrote to; and he would have came back with
me, if he could.

Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists, understand the
nature of the religion which they reject.

If thou studiest diligently, thou will become learned.

Education is not attended to properly in Spain.

He know'd it was his duty; and he ought, therefore, to do it.

He has little more of the great man besides the title.

Richard acted very independent on the occasion.

We have done no more than it was our duty to have done.

The time of my friend entering on business, soon arrived.

His speech is the most perfect specimen I ever saw.

Calumny and detraction are sparks which, if you do not blow, they
will go out of themselves.

Those two authors have each of them their merit.

Reasons whole pleasure, all the joys of sense,
Lies in three words, health, peace, and competence.

A great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of nature with
wildness and confusion, strike the mind with more grandeur, than if
they were adjusted to one another with the accuratest symmetry.

A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder.

The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle.

If some persons opportunities were never so favorable, they would be
too indolent to improve.

It is reported that the governor will come here to-morrow.

Beauty and innocence should be never separated.

Extravagance and folly may reduce you to a situation where you will
have much to fear and little to hope.

Not one in fifty of our modern infidels are thoroughly versed in
their knowledge of the Scriptures.

Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. Where these
are wanting, disgust or hatred often follow little differences.

An army present a painful sight to a feeling mind.