Chapter III: WORDS. Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as (1)

signs of our ideas.

Words are of two sorts, primitive and derivative.

A _primitive_ word is that which cannot be reduced to a simpler word in the language; as, _man, good_.

A _derivative_ word is that which may be reduced to a simpler word; as, _manful, goodness_.

There is little or no difference between derivative and compound words. The terminations or added syllables, such as _ed, es, ess, est, an, ant, en, ence, ent, dom, hood, ly, ous, ful, ness_, and the like, were, originally, distinct and separate words, which, by long use, have been contracted, and made to coalesce with other words.

OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.

A.--_A_ has four sounds; the long; as in _name, basin_; the broad; as in _ball, wall_; the short; as in _fagot, glass_; and the flat, Italian sound; as in _bar, farther_. The improper diphthong, _aa_, has the short sound of a in _Balaam, Canaan, Isaac_; and the long sound of _a_ in _Baal, Gaal, Aaron_.

The Latin diphthong, _ae_, has the long sound of _e_ in _aenigma, Caesar_, and some other words. But many authors reject this useless excrescence of antiquity, and write, _enigma, Cesar_.

The diphthong, _ai_, has the long sound of _a_; as in _pail, sail_; except in _plaid, said, again, raillery, fountain, Britain_, and some others.

_Au_ is sounded like broad _a_ in _taught_, like flat _a_ in _aunt_, like long _o_ in _hautboy_, and like short _o_ in _laurel_.

_Aw_ has always the sound of broad _a_; as in _bawl, crawl_.

_Ay_ has the long sound of _a_; as in _pay, delay_.

B.--_B_ has only one sound; as in _baker, number, chub_.

_B_ is silent when it follows _m_ in the same syllable; as in _lamb_, &c. except in _accumb, rhomb_, and _succumb_. It is also silent before _t_ in the same syllable; as in _doubt, debtor, subtle_, &c.

C.--_C_ sounds like _k_ before _a, o, u, r, l, t_, and at the end of syllables; as in _cart, cottage, curious, craft, tract, cloth; victim, flaccid_. It has the sound of _s_ before _e, i_, and _y_; as in _centre, cigar, mercy. C_ has the sound of _sh_ when followed by a diphthong, and is preceded by the accent, either primary or secondary; as in _social, pronunciation_, &c.; and of _z_ in _discern, sacrifice, sice, suffice_. It is mute in _arbuscle, czar, czarina, endict, victuals, muscle_.

_Ch_ is commonly sounded like _tsh_; as in _church, chin_; but in words derived from the ancient languages, it has the sound of _k_; as in _chemist, chorus_; and likewise in foreign names; as in _Achish, Enoch_. In words from the French, _ch_ sounds like _sh_; as in _chaise, chevalier_; and also like _sh_ when preceded by _l_ or _n_; as in _milch, bench, clinch_, &c.

_Ch_ in _arch_, before a vowel, sounds like _k_; as in _arch-angel_, except in _arched, archery, archer; archenemy_; but before a consonant, it sounds like _tsh_; as in _archbishop. Ch_ is silent in _schedule, schism, yacht, drachm_.

D.--_D_ has one uniform sound; as in _death, bandage_. It sounds like _dj_ or _j_ when followed by long _u_ preceded by the accent; as in _educate, verdure_. It also sounds like _j_ in _grandeur, soldier_.

The termination, _ed_, in adjectives and participial adjectives, retains its distinct sound; as, a _wick-ed_ man, a _learn-ed_ man, _bless-ed_ are the meek; but in verbs the _e_ is generally dropped; as, _passed, walked, flashed, aimed, rolled_, &c. which are pronounced, _past, walkt, flasht, aimd, rold_.

E.--_E_ has a long sound; as in _scheme, severe_; a short sound; as in _men, tent_; and sometimes the sound of flat _a_; as in _sergeant_; and of short _i_; as in _yes, pretty, England_, and generally in the unaccented terminations, _es, et, en_.

F.--_F_ has one unvaried sound; as in _fancy, muffin_; except in _of_, which, when uncompounded, is pronounced _ov_. A wive's portion, a calve's head, are improper. They should be, _wife's_ portion, _calf's_ head.

G.--_G_ has two sounds. It is hard before _a, o, u, l_, and _r_, and at the end of a word; as in _gay, go, gun, glory; bag, snug_. It is soft before _e, i_, and _y_; as in _genius, ginger, Egypt_. Exceptions; _get, gewgaw, gimlet_, and some others. G is silent before _n_, as in _gnash_.

H.--_H_ has an articulate sound; as in _hat, horse, hull_. It is silent after _r_; as in _rhetoric, rhubarb_.

I.--_I_ has a long sound; as in _fine_; and a short one; as in _fin_. Before _r_ it is often sounded like _u_ short; as in _first, third_; and in other words, like short _e_; as in _birth, virtue_. In some words it has the sound of long _e_; as in _machine, profile_.

J.--_J_ has the sound of soft _g_; except in _hallelujah_, in which it is pronounced like _y_.

K.--_K_ has the sound of _c_ hard, and is used before _e, i_, and _y_, where _c_ would be soft; as _kept, skirt, murky_. It is silent before _n_; as in _knife, knell, knocker_.

L.--_L_ has always a soft liquid sound; as in _love, billow_. It is often silent; as in _half, talk, almond_.

M.--_M_ has always the same sound; as in _murmur, monumental_; except in _comptroller_, which is pronounced _controller_.

N.--_N_ has two sounds; the one pure; as in _man, net, noble_; the other a compound sound; as in _ankle, banquet, distinct_, &c., pronounced _angkl, bangkwet_. _N_ final is silent when preceded by _m_; as in _hymn, autumn_.

O.--_O_ has a long sound; as in _note, over_; and a short one; as in _not, got_. It has the sound of _u_ short; as in _son, attorney, doth, does_; and generally in the terminations, _op, ot, or, on, om, ol, od_, &c.

P.--_P_ has but one uniform sound; as in _pin, slipper_; except in _cupboard, clapboard_, where it has the sound of _b_. It is mute in _psalm, Ptolemy, tempt, empty, corps, raspberry, and receipt_.

_Ph_ has the sound of _f_ in _philosophy, Philip_; and of _v_ in _nephew, Stephen_.

Q.--_Q_ is sounded like _k_, and is always followed by _u_ pronounced like _w_; as in _quadrant, queen, conquest_.

R.--_R_ has a rough sound; as in _Rome, river, rage_; and a smooth one; as in _bard, card, regard_. In the unaccented termination _re_, the _r_ is sounded after the e; as _in fibre, centre_.

S.--_S_ has a flat sound like _z_; as in _besom, nasal_; and, at the beginning of words, a sharp, hissing sound; as in _saint, sister, sample_. It has the sound of _sh_ when preceded by the accent and another s or a liquid, and followed by a diphthong or long _u_; as in _expulsion, censure_. _S_ sounds like _zh_ when preceded by the accent and a vowel, and followed by a diphthong or long _u_ as in _brasier, usual_. It is mute in _isle, corps, demesne, viscount_.

T.--_T_ is sounded in _take, temper_. _T_ before _u_, when the accent precedes, and generally before _eou_, sounds like _tsh_; as, _nature, virtue, righteous_, are pronounced _natshure, virtshue, richeus_. _Ti_ before a vowel, preceded by the accent, has the sound of _sh_; as in _salvation, negotiation_; except in such words as _tierce, tiara_, &c. and unless an _s_ goes before; as, _question_; and excepting also derivatives from words ending in _ty_; as in _mighty, mightier_.

_Th_, at the beginning, _middle_, and end of words, is sharp; as in _thick, panther, breath_. Exceptions; _then, booth, worthy_, &c.

U.--_U_ has three sounds; a long; as in _mule, cubic_; a short; as in _dull, custard_; and an obtuse sound; as in _full, bushel_. It is pronounced like short _e_ in _bury_; and like short _i_ in _busy, business_.

V.--_V_ has uniformly the sound of flat _f_; as in _vanity, love_.

W.--_W_, when a consonant, has its sound, which is heard in _wo, beware_. _W_ is silent before _r_; as in _wry, wrap, wrinkle_; and also in _answer, sword_, &c. Before _h_ it is pronounced as if written after the _h_; as in _why, when, what_;--_hwy, hwen, hwat_. When heard as a vowel, it takes the sound of _u_; as in _draw, crew, now_.

X.--_X_ has a sharp sound, like _ks_, when it ends a syllable with the accent on it; as, _exit, exercise_; or when it precedes an accented syllable which begins with any consonant except _h_; as, _excuse, extent_; but when the following accented syllable begins with a vowel or _h_, it has, generally, a flat sound, like _gz_; as in _exert, exhort_. _X_ has the sound of _Z_ at the beginning of proper names of Greek original; as in _Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes_.

Y.--_Y_, when a consonant, has its proper sound; as in _youth, York, yes, new-year_. When _y_ is employed as a vowel, it has exactly the sound that _i_ would have in the same situation; as in _rhyme, system, party, pyramid_.

Z.--_Z_ has the sound of flat _s_; as in _freeze, brazen_.

RULES FOR SPELLING.

SPELLING is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters.

The following rules are deemed important in practice, although they assist us in spelling only a small portion of the words of our language. This useful art is to be chiefly acquired by studying the spelling-book and dictionary, and by strict attention in reading.

RULE I. Monosyllables ending in _f, l_, or _s_, double the final or ending consonant when it is preceded by a _single_ vowel; as _staff, mill, pass_. Exceptions; _of, if, is, as, lids, was, yes, his, this, us_, and _thus_.

_False Orthography for the learner to correct_.--Be thou like the
gale that moves the gras, to those who ask thy aid.--The aged hero
comes forth on his staf; his gray hair glitters in the beam.--Shal
mortal man be more just than God?--Few know the value of health til
they lose it.--Our manners should be neither gros, nor excessively
refined.

And that is not the lark, whose notes do beat
The vaulty heaven so high above our heads:
I have more care to stay, than wil to go.

RULE II. Monosyllables ending in any consonant but _f, l_, or _s_, never double the final consonant when it is preceded by a _single_ vowel; as, _man, hat_. Exceptions; _add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr_, and _buzz_.

_False Orthography_.--None ever went sadd from Fingal.--He rejoiced
over his sonn.--Clonar lies bleeding on the bedd of death.--Many a
trapp is set to insnare the feet of youth.

The weary sunn has made a golden sett,
And, by the bright track of his golden carr,
Gives token of a goodly day to-morrow.

RULE III. Words ending in _y_, form the plural of nouns, the persons of verbs, participial nouns, past participles, comparatives, and superlatives, by changing _y_ into _i_, when the _y_ is preceded by a _consonant_; as, _spy, spies; I carry, thou carriest, he carries; carrier, carried; happy, happier, happiest_.

The present participle in _ing_, retains the _y_ that _i_ may not be doubled; as, _carry, carrying_.

But when _y_ is preceded by a _vowel_, in such instances as the above, it is not changed into _i_; as, _boy, boys; I cloy, he cloys_; except in the words _lay, pay_, and _say I_ from which are formed _laid, paid_, and _said_; and their compounds, _unpaid, unsaid_, &c.

_False Orthography_.--Our fancys should be governed by reason.--Thou
wearyest thyself in vain.--He denyed himself all sinful pleasures.

Win straiing souls with modesty and love;
Cast none away.
The truly good man is not dismaied by poverty.
Ere fresh morning streak the east, we must be risen to reform yonder
allies green.

RULE IV. When words ending in _y_, assume an additional syllable beginning with a consonant, the _y_, if it is preceded by a consonant, is commonly changed to _i_; as, _happy, happily, happiness_.

But when _y_ is preceded by a vowel, in such instances, it is very rarely changed to _i_; as, _coy, coyless; boy, boyish; boyhood; joy, joyless, joyful_.

_False Orthography_.--His mind is uninfluenced by fancyful
humors.--The vessel was heavyly laden.--When we act against
conscience, we become the destroiers of our own peace.

Christiana, mayden of heroic mien!
Star of the north! of northern stars the queen!

RULE V. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, ending with a single consonant that is preceded by a single vowel, double that consonant when they assume another syllable that begins with a vowel; as, _wit, witty; thin, thinnish; to abet, an abetter_.

But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is _not_ on the last syllable, the consonant remains single; as, _to toil, toiling; to offer, an offering; maid, maiden_.

_False Orthography_.--The business of to-day, should not be defered
till to-morrow.--That law is annuled.--When we have outstriped our
errors we have won the race.--By defering our repentance, we
accumulate our sorrows.--The Christian Lawgiver has prohibited many
things which the heathen philosophers allowed.

At summer eve, when heaven's aerial bow
Spans with bright arch the glitterring hills below.--
Thus mourned the hapless man; a thunderring sound
Rolled round the shudderring walls and shook the ground.

RULE VI. Words ending in double _l_, in taking _ness, less, ly_, or _ful_, after them, generally omit one _l_; as, _fulness, skilless, fully skilful_.

But words ending in any double letter but _l_, and taking _ness, less, ly_, or _ful_, after them, preserve the letter double; as, _harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful_.

_False Orthography_.--A chillness generally precedes a fever.--He is
wed to dullness.

The silent stranger stood amazed to see
Contempt of wealth and willful poverty.

Restlesness of mind impairs our peace.--The road to the blisful
regions, is as open to the peasant as to the king.--The arrows of
calumny fall harmlesly at the feet of virtue.

RULE VII. _Ness, less, ly_, or _ful_, added to words ending in silent _e_, does not cut it off; as, _paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful_; except in a few words; as, _duly, truly, awful_.

_False Orthography_.--Sedatness is becoming.

All these with ceasless praise his works behold.
Stars rush: and final ruin fiercly drives
Her ploughshare o'er creation!
------Nature made a pause,
An aweful pause! prophetic of her end!

RULE VIII. When words ending in silent _e_, assume the termination, _ment_, the _e_ should not be cut off; as, _abatement, chastisement_.

_Ment_, like other terminations, changes _y_ into _i_ when the _y_ is preceded by a consonant; as, _accompany, accompaniment; merry, merriment_.

_False Orthography_.--A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates
improvment.--Encouragment is greatest when we least need it.

To shun allurments is not hard,
To minds resolv'd, forwarn'd, and well prepared.

RULE IX. When words ending in silent _e_, assume the termination, _able_ or _ible_, the _e_ should generally be cut off; as, _blame, blamable; cure, curable; sense, sensible_. But if _c_ or _g_ soft comes before _e_ in the original word, the _e_ is preserved in words compounded with _able_; as, _peace, peaceable; change, changeable_.

_False Orthography_.--Knowledge is desireable.--Misconduct is
inexcuseable.--Our natural defects are not chargable upon us.--We
are made to be servicable to others as well as to ourselves.

RULE X. When _ing_ or _ish_ is added to words ending in silent _e_, the _e_ is almost always omitted; as, _place, placing; lodge, lodging; slave, slavish; prude, prudish_.

_False Orthography_.--Labor and expense are lost upon a droneish
spirit.--An obligeing and humble disposition, is totally unconnected
with a servile and cringeing humor.

Conscience anticipateing time,
Already rues th' unacted crime.
One self-approveing hour, whole years outweighs
Of stupid starers, and of loud huzzas.

RULE XI. Compound words are generally spelled in the same manner as the simple words of which they are compounded; as, _glasshouse, skylight, thereby, hereafter_. Many words ending in double _l_, are exceptions to this rule; as, _already, welfare, wilful, fulfil_; and also the words, _wherever, christmas, lammas, &c_.

_False Orthography_.--The Jew's pasover was instituted in A.M.
2513.--They salute one another by touching their forheads.--That
which is some times expedient, is not allways so.

Then, in the scale of reasoning life 'tis plain,
There must be, somwhere, such a rank as man.
Till hymen brought his lov-delighted hour,
There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower.
The head reclined, the loosened hair,
The limbs relaxed, the mournful air:--
See, he looks up; a wofull smile
Lightens his wo-worn cheek awhile.

You may now answer the following

QUESTIONS.

What is language?--How is language divided?--What is natural language?--What are the elements of natural language in man?--Wherein consists the language of brutes?--What is artificial language?--What is an idea?--What are words?--What is grammar?--What does Universal grammar explain?--Wherein does Particular grammar differ from universal?--What is the standard of grammatical accuracy?--What is Philosophical grammar?--What is Practical grammar?--What is a principle of grammar?--A definition?--A rule?--What is English grammar?--Into how many parts is grammar divided?--What does Orthography teach?

* * * * *

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX

LECTURE II

OF NOUNS AND VERBS.

ETYMOLOGY treats of the different sorts of words, their various modifications, and their derivation.

SYNTAX treats of the agreement and government of words, and of their proper arrangement in a sentence.

The word ETYMOLOGY signifies the _origin_ or _pedigree of words_.

_Syn_, a prefix from the Greek, signifies _together_. _Syn-tax_, means _placing together_; or, as applied in grammar, _sentence making_.

The rules of syntax, which direct to the proper choice of words, and their judicious arrangement in a sentence, and thereby enable us to correct and avoid errors in speech, are chiefly based on principles unfolded and explained by Etymology. Etymological knowledge, then, is a prerequisite to the study of Syntax; but, in parsing, under the head of Etymology, you are required to apply the rules of Syntax. It becomes necessary, therefore, in a practical work of this sort, to treat these two parts of grammar in connexion.

Conducted on scientific principles, Etymology would comprehend the exposition of the origin and meaning of words, and, in short, their whole history, including their application to things in accordance with the laws of nature and of thought, and the caprice of those who apply them; but to follow up the current of language to its various sources, and analyze the springs from which it flows, would involve a process altogether too arduous and extensive for an elementary work. It would lead to the study of all those languages from which ours is immediately derived, and even compel us to trace many words through those languages to others more ancient, and so on, until the chain of research would become, if not endless, at least, too extensive to be traced out by one man. I shall, therefore, confine myself to the following, limited views of this part of grammar.

1. Etymology treats of the _classification_ of words.

2. Etymology explains the _accidents_ or _properties_ peculiar to each class or sort of words, and their present _modifications_. By modifications, I mean the changes produced on their _endings_, in consequence of their assuming different relations in respect to one another. These changes, such as fruit, fruit_s_, fruit'_s_; he, h_is_, h_im_; write, write_st_, write_th_, write_s_, wr_ote_, writ_ten_, writ_ing_, write_r_; a, a_n_; ample, ampl_y_, and the like, will be explained in their appropriate places.

3. Etymology treats of the _derivation_ of words; that is, it teaches you _how one word comes from_, or _grows out of_ another. For example, from the word speak, come the words speak_est_, speak_eth_, speak_s_, speak_ing_, sp_oke_, spo_ken_, speak_er_, speak_er's_, speak_ers_. These, you perceive, are all one and the same word, and all, except the last three, express the same kind of action. They differ from each other only in the termination. These changes in termination are produced on the word in order to make it correspond with the various _persons_ who speak, the _number_ of persons, or the _time_ of speaking; as, _I_ speak, _thou_ speak_est_, the _man_ speak_eth_, or speak_s_, the _men_ speak, _I_ sp_oke_; The speak_er_ speak_s_ another speak_er's_ spe_ech_.

The third part of Etymology, which is intimately connected with the second, will be more amply expanded in Lecture XIV, and in the Philosophical notes; but I shall not treat largely of that branch of derivation which consists in tracing words to foreign languages. This is the province of the lexicographer, rather than of the philologist. It is not the business of him who writes a practical, English grammar, to trace words to the Saxon, nor to the Celtic, the Greek, the Dutch, the Mexican, nor the Persian; nor is it his province to explain their meaning in Latin, French, or Hebrew, Italian, Mohegan, or Sanscrit; but it is his duty to explain their properties, their powers, their connexions, relations, dependancies, and, bearings, not at the period in which the Danes made an irruption into the island of Great Britain, nor in the year in which Lamech paid his addresses to Adah and Zillah, but _at the particular period in which he writes_. His words are already derived, formed, established, and furnished to his hand, and he is bound to take them and explain them as he finds them _in his day_, without any regard to their ancient construction and application.

CLASSIFICATION. In arranging the parts of speech, I conceive it to be the legitimate object of the practical grammarian, to consult _practical convenience_. The true principle of classification seems to be, not a reference to essential differences in the _primitive_ meaning of words, nor to their original combinations, but to the _manner in which they are at present employed_. In the early and rude state of society, mankind are quite limited in their knowledge, and having but few ideas to communicate, a small number of words answers their purpose in the transmission of thought. This leads them to express their ideas in short, detached sentences, requiring few or none of those _connectives_, or words of transition, which are afterwards introduced into language by refinement, and which contribute so largely to its perspicuity and elegance. The argument appears to be conclusive, then, that every language must necessarily have more parts of speech in its refined, than in its barbarous state.

The part of speech to which any word belongs, is ascertained, not by the _original_ signification of that word, but by its present _manner_ of meaning, or, rather, _the office which it performs in a sentence_.

The various ways in which a word is applied to the idea which it represents, are called its _manner of meaning_. Thus, The painter dips his _paint_ brush in _paint_, to _paint_ the carriage. Here, the word _paint_, is first employed to _describe_ the brush which the painter uses; in this situation it is, therefore, an _adjective_; secondly, to _name_ the mixture employed; for which reason it is a _noun_; and, lastly, to _express the action_ performed; it therefore, becomes a _verb_; and yet, the meaning of the word is the same in all these applications. This meaning, however, is applied in different ways; and thus the same word becomes different parts of speech. Richard took _water_ from the _water_ pot, to _water_ the plants.

ETYMOLOGY.

Etymology treats, first, of the _classification_ of words.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE is derived chiefly from the Saxon, Danish, Celtic, and Gothic; but in the progressive stages of its refinement, it has been greatly enriched by accessions from the Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, and German languages.

The number of words in our language, after deducting proper names, and words formed by the inflections of our verbs, nouns, and adjectives, may be estimated at about _forty thousand_. There are ten sorts of words, called parts of speech, namely, the NOUN or SUBSTANTIVE, VERB, ARTICLE, ADJECTIVE, PARTICIPLE, ADVERB, PREPOSITION, PRONOUN, CONJUNCTION, and INTERJECTION.

Thus you perceive, that all the words in the English language are included in these ten classes: and what you have to do in acquiring a knowledge of English Grammar, is merely to become acquainted with these ten parts of speech, and the rules of Syntax that apply to them. The _Noun_ and _Verb_ are the most important and leading parts of speech; therefore they are first presented: all the rest (except the interjection) are either appendages or connectives of these two. As you proceed, you will find that it will require more time, and cost you more labor, to get a knowledge of the noun and verb, than it will to become familiar with all the minor parts of speech.

The principal use of words is, to _name_ things, _compare_ them with each other, and _express their actions_.

_Nouns_, which are the names of entities or things, _adjectives_ which denote the comparisons and relations of things by describing them, and expressing their qualities, and _verbs_, which express the actions and being of things, are the only classes of words necessarily recognised in a philosophical view of grammar. But in a treatise which consults, mainly, the _practical_ advantages of the learner, it is believed, that no classification will be found more convenient or accurate than the foregoing, which divides words into ten sorts. To attempt to prove, in this place, that nothing would be gained by adopting either a less or a greater number of the parts of speech, would be anticipating the subject. I shall, therefore, give my reasons for adopting this arrangement in preference to any other, as the different sorts of words are respectively presented to you, for then you will be better prepared to appreciate my arguments.

OF NOUNS.

A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing; as, _man, Charleston, knowledge_.

Nouns are often improperly called _substantives_. A substantive is the name of a _substance_ only; but a noun is the name either of a _substance_ or a _quality_.

_Noun_, derived from the Latin word _nomen_, signifies _name_. The name of any thing [1] that exists, whether animate or inanimate, or which we can see, hear, feel, taste, smell, or think of, is a noun. _Animal, bird, creature, paper, pen, apple, fold, house, modesty, virtue, danger_, are all nouns. In order that you may easily distinguish this part of speech from others, I will give you a _sign_, which will be useful to you when you cannot tell it by the _sense_. Any word that will make sense with _the_ before it, is a noun. Try the following words by this sign, and see if they are nouns: tree, mountain, soul, mind, conscience, understanding. _The_ tree, _the_ mountain, _the_ soul, and so on. You perceive, that they will make sense with _the_ prefixed; therefore you know they are _nouns_. There are, however, exceptions to this rule, for some nouns will not make sense with _the_ prefixed. These you will be able to distinguish, if you exercise your mind, by their _making sense of themselves_; as, _goodness, sobriety, hope, immortality_.

[1] The word _thing_, from the Saxon verb _thingian_, to think, is
almost unlimited in its meaning. It may be applied to every animal
and creature in the universe. By the term creature, I mean that
which has been created; as, a dog, water, dirt. This word is also
frequently applied to actions; as, "To get drunk is a beastly
_thing_." In this phrase, it signifies neither animal nor creature;
but it denotes merely an action; therefore this action is the thing.

Nouns are used to denote the nonentity or absence of a thing, as well as its reality; as, _nothing, naught, vacancy, non-existence, invisibility_.

Nouns are sometimes used as verbs, and verbs, as nouns, according to their _manner_ of meaning; and nouns are sometimes used as adjectives, and adjectives, as nouns. This matter will be explained in the concluding part of this lecture, where you will be better prepared to comprehend it.

NOUNS are of two kinds, common and proper.

A _Common noun_ is the name of a sort or species of things; as, _man, tree, river_.

A _Proper noun_ is the name of an individual; as, _Charles, Ithaca, Ganges_.

A noun signifying many, is called a _collective noun_, or _noun of multitude_; as, the _people_, the _army_.

The distinction between a common and a proper noun, is very obvious. For example: _boy_ is a common noun, because it is a name applied to _all_ boys; but _Charles_ is a proper noun, because it is the name of an _individual_ boy. Although many boys may have the same name, yet you know it is not a common noun, for the name Charles is _not_ given to all boys. _Mississippi_ is a proper noun, because it is the name of an individual river; but _river_ is a common noun, because it is the name of a _species_ of things, and the name _river_ is common to _all_ rivers.

Nouns which denote the genus, species, or variety of beings or things, are always common; as, _tree_, the genus; _oak, ash, chestnut, poplar_, different species; and red _oak_, white _oak_, black _oak_, varieties. The word earth, when it signifies a kind or quantity of dirt, is a common noun; but when it denotes the planet we inhabit, it is a proper noun. The _words_ person, place, river, mountain, lake, &c. are _common nouns_, because they are the names of whole _species_, or classes of things containing many sorts; but the _names_ of persons, places, rivers, mountains, lakes, &c. are _proper nouns_, because they denote _individuals_; as, Augustus, Baltimore, Alps, Huron.

_Physician, lawyer, merchant_, and _shoemaker_, are common nouns, because these names are common to classes of men. _God_ and _Lord_, when applied to Jehovah or Jesus Christ, are proper; but when employed to denote heathen or false _gods_, or temporal _lords_, they are common. The Notes and remarks throughout the work, though of minor importance, demand your attentive and careful perusal.

NOTES.

1. When _proper_ nouns have an article annexed to them, they are
used after the manner of _common_ nouns; as, "Bolivar is styled
_the_ Washington of South America."

2. _Common_ nouns are sometimes used to signify _individuals_, when
articles or pronouns are prefixed to them; as, "_The_ boy is
studious; _That_ girl is discreet." In such instances, they are
nearly equivalent to proper nouns.

3. _Common_ nouns are sometimes subdivided into the following
classes: _Nouns of Multitude_; as, The people, the parliament:
_Verbal or participial nouns_; as, The beginning, reading, writing;
and _Abstract nouns_, or the names of qualities abstracted from
their substances; as, knowledge, virtue, goodness. Lest the student
be led to blend the idea of abstract nouns with that of adjectives,
both of which denote qualities, a farther illustration appears to be
necessary, in order to mark the distinction between these two parts
of speech. An abstract noun denotes a quality considered _apart_
(that is, abstracted) _from_ the substance or being to which it
belongs; but an adjective denotes a quality _joined_ (adjected) _to_
the substance or being to which it belongs. Thus, _whiteness_ and
_white_ both denote the same quality; but we speak of whiteness as a
distinct object of thought, while we use the word _white_ always in
reference to the noun to which it belongs; as, _white_ paper,
_white_ mouse.

4. Some authors have proceeded to still more minute divisions and
sub-divisions of nouns; such, for example, as the following, which
appear to be more complex than useful: _Natural nouns_, or names of
things formed by nature; as, man, beast, water, air: 2. _Artificial
nouns_, or names of things formed by art; as, book, vessel, house:
3. _Personal nouns_, or those which stand for human beings; as, man,
woman, Edwin: 4. _Neuter nouns_, or those which denote things
inanimate; as, book, field, mountain, Cincinnati. The following,
however, is quite a rational division: _Material nouns_ are the
names of things formed of matter; as, stone, book: _Immaterial
nouns_ are the names of things having no substance; as, hope,
immortality.

To nouns belong gender, person, number, and case.

GENDER.

GENDER is the distinction of sex. Nouns have three genders, the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter.

The _masculine gender_ denotes males; as, a _man_, a _boy_.

The _feminine gender_ denotes females; as, a _woman_, a _girl_.

The _neuter gender_ denotes things without sex; as, a _hat_, a _stick_.

_Neuter_ means _neither:_ therefore neuter gender signifies neither gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, neuter gender means _no gender_. Strictly speaking, then, as there are but two sexes, nouns have but _two_ genders; but for the sake of practical convenience, we apply to them three genders, by calling that a gender which is _no_ gender. The English and the pure Persian, appear to be the only languages which observe, in the distinction of sex, the natural division of nouns.--The genders of nouns are so easily known, that a farther explanation of them is unnecessary, except what is given in the following

NOTES.

1. The same noun is sometimes masculine _and_ feminine, and
sometimes masculine _or_ feminine. The noun _parents_ is of the
masculine _and_ feminine gender. The nouns _parent, associate,
neighbor, servant, friend, child, bird, fish, &c._ if doubtful, are
of the masculine _or_ feminine gender.

2. Some nouns naturally neuter, are, when used figuratively, or
_personified_, converted into the masculine or feminine gender.
Those nouns are generally rendered masculine, which are conspicuous
for the attributes of imparting or communicating, and which are by
nature strong and efficacious; as, the _sun, time, death, sleep,
winter, &c._ Those, again, are generally feminine, which are
conspicuous for the attributes of containing or bringing forth, or
which are very beautiful, mild, or amiable; as, the _earth, moon,
church, boat, vessel, city, country, nature, ship, soul, fortune,
virtue, hope, spring, peace, &c._ This principle for designating the
sex of a personified object, which is quite rational, is generally
adhered to in the English language; but, in some instances, the poet
applies the sex according to his fancy.

The masculine and feminine genders are distinguished in three ways:

1. _By different words_; as,

_Masculine_. _Feminine_.
Bachelor maid
Boar sow
Boy girl
Brother sister
Buck doe
Bull cow
Cock hen
Dog bitch
Drake duck
Earl countess
Father mother
Friar nun
Gander goose
Hart roe
Horse mare
Husband wife
King queen
Lad lass
Lord lady
Man woman
Master mistress
Milter spawner
Nephew niece
Ram ewe
Singer songstress or singer
Sloven slut
Son daughter
Stag hind
Uncle aunt
Wizard witch
Sir madam

2. _By a difference in termination_; as,
Abbot abbess
Actor actress
Administrator administratrix
Adulterer adulteress
Ambassador ambassadress
Arbiter arbitress
Auditor auditress
Author authoress
Baron baroness
Benefactor benefactress
Bridegroom bride
Canon canoness
Caterer cateress
Chanter chantress
Conductor conductress
Count countess
Czar czarina
Deacon deaconess
Detracter detractress
Director directress
Duke dutchess
Elector electress
Embassador embassadress
Emperor emperess
Enchanter enchantress
Executor executrix
Fornicator fornicatress
God goddess
Governor governess
Heir heiress
Hero heroine
Host hostess
Hunter huntress
Inheritor inheritress or inheritrix
Instructor instructress
Jew Jewess
Lion lioness
Marquis marchioness
Mayor mayoress
Patron patroness
Peer peeress
Poet poetess
Priest priestess
Prince princess
Prior prioress
Prophet prophetess
Proprietor proprietress
Protector protectress
Shepherd shepherdess
Songster songstress
Sorcerer sorceress
Suiter suitress
Sultan sultaness or sultana
Tiger tigress
Testator testatrix
Traitor traitress
Tutor tutoress
Tyrant tyranness
Victor victress
Viscount viscountess
Votary votaress
Widower widow

3. _By prefixing another word_; as,

A cock-sparrow A hen-sparrow
A man-servant A maid-servant
A he-goat A she-goat
A he-bear A she-bear
A male-child A female-child
Male-descendants Female-descendants

PERSON.

PERSON is a property of the noun and pronoun which varies the verb.

The _first person_ denotes the speaker.

The _second person_ denotes the person or thing spoken to; as, "Listen, _earth!"_

The _third person_ denotes the person or thing spoken of; as, "The _earth_ thirsts."

Nouns have but _two_ persons, the second and third. When a man speaks, the _pronoun I_ or _we_ is always used; therefore nouns can never be in the _first_ person. In examples like the following, some philologists suppose the noun to be in the _first_ person:--"This may certify, that I, _Jonas Taylor_, do hereby give and grant," &c. But it is evident, that the speaker or writer, in introducing his own name, speaks _of_ himself; consequently the noun is of the _third person_.

If you wish to understand the persons of nouns, a little sober thought is requisite; and, by exercising it, all difficulties will be removed. If I say, my _son_, have you seen the young man? you perceive that the noun _son_ is of the _second_ person, because I address myself _to_ him; that is, he is spoken _to;_ but the noun _man_ is of the _third_ person, because he is spoken _of_. Again, if I say, young _man_, have you seen my son? _man_ is of the _second_ person, and _son_ is of the _third_.

"Hast thou left thy blue course in the heavens, golden-haired _sun_ of the sky?"

"_Father_, may the Great Spirit so brighten the chain of friendship between us, that a child may find it, when the sun is asleep in his wig-wam behind the western waters."

"Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies!
Sink down, ye _mountains_, and, ye _valleys_, rise!"
"Eternal _Hope_, thy glittering wings explore
Earth's loneliest bounds, and ocean's wildest shore."

In these examples, the nouns, sun, father, mountains, valleys, and hope, are of the _second_ person, and, as you will hereafter learn, in the nominative case independent. Course, heavens, sky, Spirit, chain, friendship, child, sun, wig-wam, waters, earth, skies, wings, earth, bounds, ocean, and shore, are all of the _third_ person.

NUMBER.

Number is the distinction of objects, as one or more. Nouns are of two numbers, the singular and the plural.

The _singular_ number implies but one; as, a _book_.

The _plural_ number implies more than one; as, _books_.

NOTES.

1. Some nouns are used only in the singular form; as, hemp, flax,
barley, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, honesty, meekness,
compassion, &c.; others only in the plural form; as, bellows,
scissors, ashes, riches, snuffers, tongs, thanks, wages, embers,
ides, pains, vespers, &c.

2. Some words are the same in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, swine;
and, also, hiatus, apparatus, series, species.

3. The plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding _s_ to
the singular; as, dove, doves; face, faces; but sometimes we add
_es_ in the plural; as, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes;
cargo, cargoes.

4. Nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_, are rendered plural by a change of
that termination into _ves_; as, half, halves; wife, wives: except
grief, relief, reproof, and several others, which form their plurals
by the addition of _s_. Those ending in _ff_, have the regular
plural; as, ruff, ruffs; except staff, staves.

5. Nouns ending in _y_ in the singular, with no other vowel in the
same syllable, change it into _ies_ in the plural; as, beauty,
beauties; fly, flies. But the _y_ is not changed, where there is
another vowel in the syllable; as, key, keys; delay, delays;
attorney, attorneys; valley, valleys; chimney, chimneys.

6. _Mathematics, metaphysics, politics, optics, ethics, pneumatics,
hydraulics_, &c. are construed either as singular or plural nouns.

7. The word _news_ is always singular. The nouns _means, alms_, and
_amends_, though plural in form, may be either singular or plural in
signification. Antipodes, credenda, literati, and minutiæ are
always plural. _Bandit_ is now used as the singular of Banditti.

8. The following nouns form their plurals not according to any
general rule; thus, man, men; woman, women; child, children; ox,
oxen; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; foot, feet; mouse, mice; louse,
lice; brother, brothers or brethren; cow, cows or kine; penny,
pence, or pennies when the coin is meant; die, dice _for play,_
dies _for coining;_ pea and fish, pease and fish when the species
is meant, but _peas_ and _fishes_ when we refer to the number; as,
six _peas_, ten _fishes_.

9. The following compounds form their plurals thus: handful,
handfuls; cupful, cupfuls; spoonful, spoonfuls:--brother-in-law,
brothers-in-law; court-martial, courts-martial.

The following words form their plurals according to the rules of the
languages from which they are adopted.

_Singular_ _Plural._
Antithesis antitheses
Apex apices
Appendix appendixes _or_ appendices
Arcanum arcana
Automaton automata
Axis axes
Basis bases
Beau beaux _or_ beaus
Calx calces _or_ calxes
Cherub cherubim _or_ cherubs
Crisis crises
Criterion criteria
Datum data
Diæresis diæreses
Desideratum desiderata
Effluvium effluvia
Ellipsis ellipses
Emphasis emphases
Encomium encomia _or_ encomiums
Erratum errata
Genius genii [2]
Genus genera
Hypothesis hypotheses
Ignis fatuus, ignes fatui
Index indices _or_ indexes [3]
Lamina laminae
Magus magi
Memorandum memoranda _or_ memorandums
Metamorphosis metamorphoses
Parenthesis parentheses
Phenomenon phenomena
Radius radii _or_ radiuses
Stamen stamina
Seraph seraphim _or_ seraphs
Stimulus stimuli
Stratum strata
Thesis theses
Vertex vertices
Vortex vortices _or_ vortexes

[2] Genii, imaginary spirits: geniuses, persons of great mental abilities.

[3] Indexes, when pointers or tables of contents are meant: indices, when referring to algebraic quantities.

CASE.

Case, when applied to nouns and pronouns, means the different state, situation, or position they have in relation to other words. Nouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.

I deem the essential qualities of _case_, in English, to consist, not in the _changes_ or _inflections_ produced on nouns and pronouns, but in the various offices which they perform in a sentence, by assuming different positions in regard to other words. In accordance with this definition, these cases can be easily explained on reasoning principles, founded in the nature of things.

Now, five grains of common sense will enable any one to comprehend what is meant by case. Its real character is extremely simple; but in the different grammars it assumes as many meanings as Proteus had shapes. The most that has been written on it, however, is mere verbiage. What, then, is meant by _case_? In speaking of a horse, for instance, we say he is in a good _case_, when he is fat, and in a bad _case_, when he is lean, and needs more oats; and in this sense we apply the term _case_ to denote the _state_ or _condition_ of the horse. So, when we place a noun before a verb as actor or subject, we say it is in the _nominative case_; but when it follows a transitive verb or preposition, we say it has another _case_; that is, it assumes a new _position_ or _situation_ in the sentence: and this we call the _objective_ case. Thus, the _boy_ gathers fruit. Here the boy is represented as _acting_. He is, therefore, in the _nominative_ case. But when I say, Jane struck the _boy_, I do not represent the boy as the _actor_, but as the _object_ of the action. He is, therefore, in a new _case_ or _condition_. And when I say, This is the _boy's_ hat, I do not speak of the boy either as _acting_ or as _acted upon_; but as possessing something: for which reason he is in the _possessive_ case. Hence, it is clear, that nouns have three cases or positions.

As the nominative and objective cases of the noun are inseparably connected with the verb, it is impossible for you to understand them until you shall have acquired some knowledge of this part of speech. I will, therefore, now give you a partial description of the verb in connexion with the noun; which will enable me to illustrate the cases of the noun so clearly, that you may easily comprehend their nature.

In the formation of language, mankind, in order to hold converse with each other, found it necessary, in the first place, to give _names_ to the various objects by which they were surrounded. Hence the origin of the first part of speech, which we denominate the _noun_. But merely to name the objects which they beheld or thought of, was not sufficient for their purpose. They perceived that these objects existed, moved, acted, or caused some action to be done. In looking at a man, for instance, they perceived that he lived, walked, ate, smiled, talked, ran, and so on. They perceived that plants grow, flowers bloom, and rivers flow. Hence the necessity of another part of speech, whose office it should be to express these existences and actions. This second class of words we call

VERBS.

A verb is a word which signifies to BE, to DO, or to SUFFER; as, I _am_; I _rule_; I _am ruled_.

Verbs are of three kinds, active, passive, and neuter. They are also divided into regular, irregular, and defective.

The term _verb_ is derived from the Latin word _verbum_, which signifies a _word_. This part of speech is called a _verb_ or _word_, because it is deemed the most important word in every sentence: and without a verb and nominative, either expressed or implied, no sentence can exist. The noun is the original and leading part of speech; the verb comes next in order, and is far more complex than the noun. These two are the most useful in the language, and form the basis of the science of grammar. The other eight parts of speech are subordinate to these two, and, as you will hereafter learn, of minor importance.

For all practical purposes, the foregoing definition and division of the verb, though, perhaps, not philosophically correct, will be found as _convenient_ as any other. I adopt them, therefore, to be consistent with the principle, that, in arranging the materials of this treatise, I shall not alter or reject any established definition, rule, or principle of grammar, unless, in my humble judgment, some _practical advantage_ to the learner is thereby gained. The following, some consider a good definition.

A VERB is a word which _expresses affirmation_.

An _active verb_ expresses action; and

The _nominative case_ is the actor, or subject of the verb; as, _John writes_.

In this example, which is the _verb?_ You know it is the word _writes_, because this word signifies to _do;_ that is, it expresses _action_, therefore, according to the definition, it is an _active verb_. And you know, too, that the noun _John_ is the _actor_, therefore John is in the _nominative case_ to the verb writes. In the expressions, The man walks--The boy plays--Thunders roll--- Warriors fight--you perceive that the words _walks, plays, roll_, and _fight_, are _active verbs;_ and you cannot be at a loss to know, that the nouns _man, boy, thunders_, and _warriors_, are in the _nominative case._

As no _action_ can be produced without some agent or moving cause, it follows, that every active verb must have some _actor_ or _agent_. This _actor, doer_, or _producer of the action_, is the nominative. _Nominative_, from the Latin _nomino_, literally signifies to _name;_ but in the technical sense in which it is used in grammar, it means the noun or pronoun which is the _subject_ of affirmation. This subject or nominative may be _active, passive_, or _neuter_, as hereafter exemplified.

A _neuter verb_ expresses neither action nor passion, but _being_, or _a state of being_; as, _John sits_.

Now, in this example, _John_ is not represented as _an actor_, but, as the _subject_ of the verb _sits_, therefore John is in the _nominative case_ to the verb. And you know that the word _sits_ does not express _apparent action_, but a _condition of being;_ that is, it represents John in a particular _state of existence;_ therefore _sits_ is a _neuter verb_. In speaking of the neuter gender of nouns, I informed you, that _neuter_ means _neither;_ from which it follows, that neuter gender implies neither gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, by an easy transition of thought, you learn, that _neuter_, when applied to verbs, means neither of the other two classes; that is, a _neuter_ verb is one which is neither active nor passive. In these examples, The man stands--The lady lives--The child sleeps--The world exists--the words _stands, lives, sleeps_, and _exists_, are _neuter verbs;_ and the nouns, _man, lady, child_, and _world_, are all in the _nominative case_, because each is the _subject_ of a verb. Thus you perceive, that when a noun is in the nominative case to an _active_ verb, it is the _actor;_ and when it is nominative to a _neuter_ verb, it is _not_ an actor, but the _subject_ of the verb.

Some neuter verbs express _being in general;_ as, The man _is_; Kingdoms _exist_. Others express _being in some particular state_; as, The man _stands, sits, lies_, or _hangs_.

I will now give you two _signs_, which will enable you to distinguish the verb from other parts of speech, when you cannot tell it by its signification. Any word that will make sense with _to_ before it, is a verb. Thus, to run, to write, to smile, to sing, to hear, to ponder, to live, to breathe, are verbs. Or, any word that will _conjugate_, is a verb. Thus, I run, thou runnest, he runs; I write, thou writest, he writes; I smile, &c. But the words, boy, lady, child, and world, will not make sense with _to_ prefixed--_to_ boy, _to_ lady, _to_ world, is nonsense. Neither will they con_jugate_--I lady, thou ladiest, &c. is worse than nonsense. Hence you perceive, that these words are _not_ verbs. There are some exceptions to these rules, for verbs are sometimes used as nouns. This will be explained by and by.

To verbs belong _number, person, mood_, and _tense_.

At present I shall speak only of the number and person of verbs; but hereafter I will give you a full explanation of all their properties. And permit me to inform you, that I shall not lead you into the _intricacies_ of the science, until, by gradual and easy progressions, you are enabled to comprehend the principles involved in them. Only such principles will be elucidated, as you are prepared to understand at the time they are unfolded before you. You must not be too anxious to get along _rapidly_; but endeavor to become thoroughly acquainted with one principle, before you undertake another. This lecture will qualify you for the next.

NUMBER AND PERSON OF VERBS. You recollect, that the nominative is the _actor_ or _subject_, and the active verb is the _action_ performed by the nominative. By this you perceive, that a very intimate connexion or relation exists between the nominative case and the verb. If, therefore, only _one_ creature or thing acts, only _one_ action, at the same instant, can be done; as, The _girl writes_. The nominative _girl_ is here of the singular number, because it signifies but one person; and the verb _writes_ denotes but one action, which the girl performs; therefore the verb _writes_ is of the _singular_ number, agreeing with its nominative _girl_. When the nominative case is _plural_, the verb must be _plural_; as, _girls write_. Take notice, the _singular_ verb ends in _s_, but the noun is generally _plural_ when it ends in _s_; thus, The girl _writes_--the _girls_ write.

_Person_, strictly speaking, is a quality that belongs _not_ to _verbs_, but to nouns and pronouns. We say, however, that the verb must agree with its nominative in _person_, as well as in number; that is, the verb must be spelled and spoken in such a manner as to correspond with the _first, second_, or _third_ person of the noun or pronoun which is its nominative.

I will now show you how the verb is varied in order to agree with its nominative in number and person. I, Thou, He, She, It; We, Ye or You, They, are _personal pronouns_. _I_ is of the _first_ person, and _singular_ number; _Thou_ is _second_ person, _sing._; _He, She_, or _It_, is _third_ per. _sing._; _We_ is _first_ per. _plural_; _Ye_ or _You_ is _second_ per. _plural_; _They_ is _third_ per. _plural_. These pronouns are the representatives of nouns, and perform the same office that the nouns would for which they stand. When placed before the verb, they are, therefore, the _nominatives_ to the verb.

Notice particularly, the different variations or endings of the verb, as it is thus conjugated in the INDICATIVE MOOD, PRESENT TENSE.

_Singular_. _Plural_.

1. _Per_. I walk, 1. _Per_. We Walk, 2. _Per_. Thou walk_est_, 2. _Per_. Ye _or_ you walk, 3. _Per_. He walk_s_, _or_ 3. _Per_. They walk, or the boy walk_s_, the boys walk. _or_ walk_eth_.

This display of the verb shows you, that whenever it ends in _est_, it is of the _second_ person _singular_; but when the verb ends in _s_, or _eth_, it is of the _third_ person singular. _Walkest, ridest, standest_, are of the second person singular; and _walks_ or _walketh, rides_ or _rideth, stands_ or _standeth_, are of the third person singular.