Chapter III: Of Relative Pronouns

Relative Pronouns are such as relate, in general, to some word or phrase going before, which is called the antecedent. They are _who, which_, and _that_.

The word _antecedent_, comes from the two Latin words, _ante, before_, and _cedo, to go_. Hence you perceive, that antecedent means going before; thus, "The _man_ is happy _who_ lives virtuously; This is the _lady who_ relieved my wants; _Thou who_ lovest wisdom, &c. _We who_ speak from experience," &c. The relative who, in these sentences, relates to the several words, _man, lady, thou_, and _we_, which words, you observe, come before the relative: they are, therefore, properly called antecedents.

The relative is not varied on account of gender, person, or number, like a personal pronoun. When we use a personal pronoun, in speaking of a man, we say _he_, and of a woman, _she_; in speaking of one person or thing, we use a singular pronoun, of more than one, a plural, and so on; but there is no such variation of the relative. _Who_, in the first of the preceding examples, relates to an antecedent of the mas. gend. third pers. sing.; in the second, the antecedent is of the fem. gend.; in the third, it is of the second pers.; and in the fourth, it is of the first pers. plur. num.; and, yet, the relative is in the same form in each example. Hence you perceive, that the relative has no peculiar _form_ to denote its gend. pers. and num., but it always agrees with its antecedent _in sense_. Thus, when I say, The _man who_ writes, _who_ is mas. gend. and sing.; but when I say, The _ladies who_ write, _who_ is feminine, and plural. In order to ascertain the gend. pers. and num. of the relative, you must always look at its antecedent.

WHO, WHICH, and THAT.

_Who_ is applied to _persons, which_ to _things_ and _brutes_; as, "He is a _friend who_ is faithful in adversity; The _bird which_ sung so sweetly, is flown; This is the _tree which_ produces no fruit."

_That_ is often used as a relative, to prevent the too frequent repetition of _who_ and _which_. It is applied both to persons and things; as, "_He that_ acts wisely, deserves praise; Modesty is a _quality that_ highly adorns a woman."

NOTES.

1. _Who_ should never be applied to animals. The following
application of it is erroneous:--"He is like a _least_ of prey,
_who_ destroys without pity." It should be, _that_ destroys, &c.

2. _Who_ should not be applied to children. It is incorrect to say,
"The _child whom_ we have just seen," &c. It should be, "The child
_that_ we have just seen."

3. _Which_ may be applied to persons when we wish to distinguish one
person of two, or a particular person among a number of others; as,
"_Which_ of the two? _Which_ of them is he?"

4. _That_, in preference to _who_ or _which_, is applied to persons
when they are qualified by an adjective in the superlative degree,
or by the pronominal adjective _same_; as, "Charles XII., king of
Sweden, was one of the _greatest_ madmen _that_ the world ever
saw;--He is the _same_ man _that_ we saw before."

5. _That_ is employed after the interrogative _who_, in cases like
the following; "Who _that_ has any sense of religion, would have
argued thus?"

When the word _ever_ or _soever_ is annexed to a relative pronoun, the combination is called a _compound pronoun_; as, _whoever_ or _whosoever, whichever_ or _whichsoever, whatever_ or _whatsoever_.

DECLENSION OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

SINGULAR AND PLURAL.

_Nom._ who, _Poss._ whose, _Obj._ whom. " whoever, " whosever, " whomever. " whosoever, " whosesoever, " whomsoever.

_Which_ and _that_ are indeclinable, except that _whose_ is sometimes used as the possessive case of _which_; as, "Is there any other doctrine _whose_ followers are punished;" that is, the followers _of which_ are punished. The use of this license has obtained among our best writers; but the construction is not to be recommended, for it is a departure from a plain principle of grammar, namely, who, whose, whom, in their applications, should be confined to rational beings.

_That_ may be used as a pronoun, an adjective, and a conjunction, depending on the office which it performs in the sentence.

_That_ is a relative only when it can be changed to _who_ or _which_ without destroying the sense; as, "They _that_ (who) reprove us, may be our best friends; From every thing _that_ (which) you see, derive instruction." _That_ is a demonstrative adjective, when it belongs to, or points out, some particular noun, either expressed or implied; as, "Return _that_ book; _That_ belongs to me; Give me _that_." When _that_ is neither a relative nor an adjective pronoun, it is a conjunction; as, "Take care _that_ every day be well employed." The word _that_, in this last sentence, cannot be changed to _who_ or _which_ without destroying the sense, therefore you know it is not a relative pronoun; neither does it point out any particular noun, for which reason you know it is not an adjective pronoun; but it connects the sentence, therefore it is a conjunction.

If you pay particular attention to this elucidation of the word _that_, you will find no difficulty in parsing it. When it is a relative or an adjective pronoun, it may be known by the signs given; and whenever these signs will not apply to it, you know it is a conjunction.

Some writers are apt to make too free use of this word. I will give you one example of affronted _that_, which may serve as a caution. The tutor said, in speaking of the word that, that that that that that lady parsed, was not the that that that gentleman requested her to analyze. This sentence, though rendered inelegant by a bad choice of words, is strictly grammatical. The first _that_ is a noun; the second, a conjunction; the third, an adjective pronoun; the fourth, a noun; the fifth, a relative pronoun; the sixth, an adjective pronoun; the seventh, a noun; the eighth, a relative pronoun; the ninth, an adjective pronoun. The meaning of the sentence will be more obvious, if rendered thus; The tutor said, in speaking of the word that, that that that _which_ that lady parsed, was not the that _which_ that gentleman requested her to analyze.

WHAT.

_What_ is generally a compound relative, including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to _that which_; as, "This is _what_ I wanted;" that is, _that which_, or, _the thing which_ I wanted.

_What_ is compounded of _which that_. These words have been contracted and made to coalesce, a part of the orthography of both being still retained: _what--wh[ich--t]hat_; (_which-that_.) Anciently it appeared in the varying forms, _tha qua, qua tha, qu'tha, quthat, quhat, hwat_, and finally, _what_.

_What_ may be used as three kinds of a pronoun, and as an interjection. When it is equivalent to _that which, the thing which_, or _those things which_, it is a compound relative, because it includes both the antecedent and the relative; as, "I will try _what_ (that which) can be found in female delicacy; _What_ you recollect with most pleasure, are the virtuous actions of your past life;" that is, _those things which_ you recollect, &c.

When _what_ is a compound relative, you must always parse it as two words; that is, you must parse the antecedent part as a noun, and give it a case; the relative part you may analyze like any other relative, giving it a case likewise. In the first of the preceding examples, _that_, the antecedent part of _what_, is in the obj. case, governed by the verb "will try;" _which_, the relative part, is in the nom. case to "can be found." "I have heard _what_ (i.e. _that which_, or _the thing which_) has been alleged."

_Whoever_ and _whosoever_ are also compound relatives, and should be parsed like the compound _what_; as, "_Whoever_ takes that oath, is bound to enforce the laws." In this sentence, _whoever_ is equivalent to _he who_, or, _the man who_; thus, "_He who_ takes that oath, is bound," &c.

_Who, which_, and _what_, when used in asking questions, are called interrogative pronouns, or relatives of the interrogative kind; as, _"Who_ is he? _Which_ is the person? _What_ are you doing?"

Interrogative pronouns have no antecedent; but they relate to the word or phrase which is the answer to the question, for their subsequent; as, "_Whom_ did you see? The _preceptor. What_ have you done? _Nothing_." Antecedent and subsequent are opposed to each other in signification. Antecedent means preceding, or going before; and subsequent means following, or coming after. _What_, when used as an interrogative, is never compound.

_What, which_, and _that_, when joined to nouns, are specifying adjectives, or adjective pronouns, in which situation they have no case, but are parsed like adjective pronouns of the demonstrative or indefinite kind; as, "Unto _which_ promise our twelve tribes hope to come;" "_What_ misery the vicious endure! _What_ havock hast thou made, foul monster, sin!"

_What_ and _which_, when joined to nouns in asking questions, are denominated interrogative pronominal adjectives; as, "_What man_ is that? _Which road_ did he take?"

_What, whatever_, and _whatsoever, which, whichever_, and _whichsoever_, in constructions like the following, are compound pronouns, but not compound relatives; as, "In _what_ character Butler was admitted, is unknown; Give him _what_ name you choose; Nature's care largely endows _whatever_ happy man will deign to use her treasures; Let him take _which_ course, or, _whichever_ course he will." These sentences may be rendered thus; "_That_ character, or, _the_ character in _which_ Butler was admitted, is unknown; Give him _that_ name, or, _the_ name _which_ you choose; Nature's care endows _that_ happy man _who_ will deign, &c.; Let him take _that_ course, or _the_ course _which_ he will." A compound relative necessarily includes both an antecedent and a relative. These compounds, you will notice, do not include antecedents, the first part of each word being the article _the_, or the adjective pronoun, _that_; therefore they cannot properly be denominated compound relatives.--With regard to the word _ever_ annexed to these pronouns, it is a singular fact, that, as soon as we analyze the word to which it is subjoined, _ever_ is entirely excluded from the sentence.

_What_ is sometimes used as an interjection; as, "But _what!_ is thy servant a dog, that he should do this? _What!_ rob us of our right of suffrage, and then shut us up in dungeons!"

You have now come to the most formidable obstacle, or, if I may so speak, to the most rugged eminence in the path of grammatical science; but be not disheartened, for, if you can get safely over this, your future course will be interrupted with only here and there a gentle elevation. It will require close application, and a great deal of sober thinking, to gain a clear conception of the nature of the relative pronouns, particularly the compound relatives, which are not easily comprehended by the young learner. As this eighth lecture is a very important one, it becomes necessary for you to read it carefully four or five times over before you proceed to commit the following order. Whenever you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you, if you please.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

_The order of parsing a_ RELATIVE PRONOUN, is--a pronoun, and why?--relative, and why?--gender, person, and number, and why?--RULE:--case, and why?--RULE.--Decline it.

"This is the man _whom_ we saw."

_Whom_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--relative, it relates to "man" for its antecedent--mas. gend. third pers. sing. num. because the antecedent "man" is with which it agrees, according to

RULE 14. _Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in gender, person, and number. Whom_ is in the objective case, the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive verb "saw," and governed by it, agreeably to

RULE 16. _When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative is governed by the following verb, or some other word in its own member of the sentence_.

_Whom_, in the objective case, is placed before the verb that governs it, according to NOTE 1, under Rule 16. (Repeat the Note, and decline _who_.)

"From _what_ is recorded, he appears," &c.

_What_ is a comp. rel. pron. including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to _that which_, or the _thing which_--_Thing_, the antecedent part of _what_, is a noun, the name of a thing--com. the name of a species--neuter gender, it has no sex--third person, spoken of--sing. number, it implies but one--and in the obj. case, it is the object of the relation expressed by the prep. "from," and gov. by it: RULE 31. (Repeat the Rule, and every other Rule to which I refer.) _Which_, the relative part of _what_, is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--relative, it relates to "thing" for its antecedent--neut. gender, third person, sing. number, because the antecedent "thing" is with which it agrees, according to RULE 14. _Rel pron_. &c. _Which_ is in the nom. case to the verb "is recorded," agreeably to

RULE 15. _The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative comes between it and the verb_.

"_What_ have you learned? Nothing."

_What_ is a pron. a word used, &c.--relative of the interrogative kind, because it is used in asking a question--it refers to the word "nothing" for its _subsequent_, according to

RULE 17. _When the rel. pron. is of the interrog. kind, it refers to the word or phrase containing the answer to the question, for its subsequent, which subsequent must agree in case with the interrogative. What_ is of the neut. gend. third pers. sing. because the subsequent "nothing" is with which it agrees; RULE 14. _Rel. pron. agree_, &c.--It is in the obj. case, the object of the action, of the active-transitive verb "have learned," and gov. by it, agreeably to RULE 16. _When a nom_. &c. See NOTE 1, under the Rule.

NOTE. 1. You need not apply gend. pers. and numb, to the interrogative when the answer to the question is _not_ expressed.

WHO, WHICH, WHAT.

Truth and simplicity are twin sisters, and generally go hand in hand. The foregoing exposition of the "relative pronouns," is in accordance with the usual method of treating them; but if they were unfolded according to their true character, they would be found to be very simple, and, _doubtless_, much labor and perplexity, on the part of the learner, would thereby be saved.

Of the words called "relatives," _who_, only, is a pronoun; and this is strictly _personal_; more so, indeed, if we except _I_ and _we_, than any other word in our language, for it is always restricted to persons. It ought to be classed with the personal pronouns. _I, thou, he, she, it, we, ye, you_, and _they, relate_ to antecedents, as well as _who. Which, that_, and _what_, are always adjectives. They never _stand for_, but always _belong_ to nouns, either expressed or implied. They _specify_, like many other adjectives, and _connect_ sentences.

_Who_ supplies the place of _which_ or _what_ and its _personal noun_. _Who_ came? i.e. _what man, what woman, what person;--which man, woman_, or _person_, came? "They heard _what_ I said"--they heard _that_ (thing) _which_ (thing) I said. "Take _what_ (or _whichever_) course you please;"--take _that_ course _which_ (course) you please to take. "_What_ have you done?" i.e. _what thing, act_, or _deed_ have you done? "_Which thing_ I also did at Jerusalem." "_Which_ will you take?"--_which book, hat_, or something else? "This is the tree _which_ (tree) produces no fruit." "He _that_ (man, or _which_ man) acts wisely, deserves praise."

They who prefer this method of treating the "relatives," are at liberty to adopt it, and parse accordingly.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

The man who instructs you, labors faithfully. The boy whom I instruct, learns well. The lady whose house we occupy, bestows many charities. That modesty which highly adorns a woman, she possesses. He that acts wisely deserves praise. This is the tree which produces no fruit. I believe what He says. He speaks what he knows. Whatever purifies the heart, also fortifies it. What doest[5] thou? Nothing. What book have you? A poem. Whose hat have you? John's. Who does that work? Henry. Whom seest thou? To whom gave you the present? Which pen did he take? Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. I heard what he said. George, you may pursue whatever science suits your taste. Eliza, take whichever pattern pleases you best. Whoever lives to see this republic forsake her moral and literary institutions, will behold her liberties prostrated. Whosoever, therefore, will be a friend of the world, is the enemy of God.

[5] The second person singular of _do_, when used as a principal verb, is spelled with an _e_; thus, "What thou _doest_, do quickly;" but when employed as an auxiliary, the _e_ should be omitted; as, "_Dost_ thou not _behold_ a rock with its head of heath?"

NOTE. The nominative case is frequently placed after the verb, and
the objective case, before the verb that governs it. _Whom_, in
every sentence except one, _house, modesty, book, hat, pen, him_,
the third _what_ and _which_, the relative part of the first _two
whats_, are all in the _objective_ case, and governed by the several
verbs that follow them. See RULE 16, and NOTE 1. _Tree_ is nom.
after is, according to RULE 21. Thing, the antecedent part of
_whatever_, is nom. to "fortifies;" _which_, the relative part, is
nom. to "purifies." _Nothing_ is governed by _do_, and _poem_, by
_have_, understood. _Henry_ is nominative to _does_, understood.
_Whose_ and _John's_ are governed according to RULE 12. _I, thou,
you, him_, &c. represent nouns understood. _Him_, in the last
sentence but five, is governed by _declare_, and _I_ is nominative
to _declare. George_ and _Eliza_ are in the nominative case
independent: Rule 5. "_Whatever_ science," &c. is equivalent to,
_that_ science _which_ suits your taste;--"_whichever_ pattern;"
i.e. _that_ pattern _which_ pleases you best. _Whoever_ is a
compound relative; _he_, the antecedent part, is nominative to "will
behold." _Take_ agrees with _you_ understood. _Forsake_ is in the
infinitive mood after "see:" Rule 25.

REMARKS ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

_Which_ sometimes relates to a member of a sentence, or to a whole sentence, for its antecedent: as, "We are required to fear God and keep his commandments, _which_ is the whole duty of man." What is the whole duty of man? "To fear God and keep his commandments:" therefore, this phrase is the antecedent to _which_.

The conjunction _as_, when it follows _such, many_, or _same_, is frequently denominated a relative pronoun; as, "I am pleased with _such as_ have a refined taste;" that is, with _those who_, or _them who have_, &c. "Let _such as_ presume to advise others, look well to their own conduct;" that is, Let _those_, or _them who_ presume, &c. "_As many as_ were ordained to eternal life, believed;" that is, _they, those_, or _all who_ were ordained, believed. "He exhibited the _same_ testimonials _as_ were adduced on a former occasion;" that is, _those_ testimonials _which_ were adduced, &c. But, in examples like these, if we supply the ellipsis which a critical analysis requires us to do, _as_ will be found to be a conjunction; thus, "I am pleased with _such persons, as those persons are who_ have a refined taste; Let _such persons, as those persons are who_ presume," &c.

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

From what words is the term pronoun derived?--Do pronouns always avoid the repetition of nouns?--Name the three kinds of pronouns.--What distinguishes the personal from the relative pronouns?--How many personal pronouns are there?--Repeat them.--What belong to pronouns?--Is gender applied to all the personal pronouns?--To which of them is it applied?--Which of the personal pronouns have no peculiar termination to denote their gender?--How many persons have pronouns?--Speak them in their different persons.--How many numbers have pronouns?--How many cases?--What are they?--Decline all the personal pronouns.--When _self_ is added to the personal pronouns, what are they called, and how are they used?--When is _you_ singular in sense?--Is it ever singular in form?--Why are the words, _my, thy, his, her, our, your, their_, called personal pronouns?--Why are the words, _mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs_, denominated compound pers. pron.?--How do you parse these compounds?--What is said of _others_?--Repeat the order of parsing a personal pronoun.--What rule do you apply in parsing a pronoun of the first person, and in the nom. case?--What rule when the pronoun is in the possessive case?--What Rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of the second and third person?--What Rules in parsing the compounds, _yours, ours, mine_, &c.?--What is said of the pronoun _it_?

What are adjective pronouns?--Name the three kinds.--What does _each_ relate to?--To what does _every_ relate?--To what does _either_ relate?--What does _neither_ import?--To what do _this_ and _these_ refer?--Give examples.--To what do _that_ and _those_ refer?--Give examples.--Repeat all the adjective pronouns.--When adj. pronouns belong to nouns understood, how are they parsed?--When they stand for, or represent nouns, what are they called?--Give examples.--Repeat the order of parsing an adj. pronoun.--What Rule do you apply in parsing the indefinite adjective pronouns?--What Notes, in parsing the distributives and demonstratives?

What are relative pronouns?--Repeat them.--From what words is the term antecedent derived?--What does _antecedent_ mean?--Are relatives varied on account of gender, person, or number?--To what are _who_ and _which_ applied?--To what is _that_ applied?--Should _who_ ever be applied to irrational beings or children?--In what instances may _which_ be applied to persons?--Decline the rel. pronouns.--Can _which_ and _that_ be declined?--Is _that_ ever used as three parts of speech?--Give examples.--What part of speech is the word _what_?--Is _what_ ever used as three kinds of a pronoun?--Give examples.--What is said of _whoever_?--What words are used as interrogative pronouns?--Give examples.--When are the words, _what, which_, and _that_, called adj. pron.?--When are they called interrogative pronominal adjectives?--What is said of _whatever_ and _whichever_?--Is _what_ ever used as an interjection?--Give examples.--Repeat the order of parsing a rel. pron.--What Rules do you apply in parsing a relative?--What Rules in parsing a compound relative?--What Rules in parsing an interrogative?--Does the relative _which_ ever relate to a sentence for its antecedent?--When does the conjunction _as_ become a relative?--Give examples.

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.

NOTE 1, to RULE 13. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of a verb, it must be in the nominative case.

Who will go? Him and I. How does thee do? Is thee well?

"Him and I;" not proper, because the pronoun _him_ is the subject of the verb _will go_ understood, therefore him should be in the nominative case, _he_, according to the above NOTE. (Repeat the NOTE.) _Him_ and I are connected by the conjunction _and_, and _him_ is in the obj. case, and I in the nom., therefore RULE 33d, is violated. (Repeat the Rule.) In the second and third examples, _thee_ should be _thou_, according to the NOTE. The verbs, _does_ and _is_, are of the third person, and the nom. _thou_ is second, for which reason the verbs should be of the second person, _dost do_ and _art_, agreeably to RULE 4. You may correct the other examples, _four_ times over.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Him and me went to town yesterday. Thee must be attentive. Him who is careless, will not improve. They can write as well as me. This is the man whom was expected. Her and I deserve esteem. I have made greater proficiency than him. Whom, of all my acquaintances, do you think was there? Whom, for the sake of his important services, had an office of honor bestowed upon him.

NOTE 2, to RULE 13. Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of nouns, should not be employed in the same member of the sentence with the noun which they represent.

FALSE SYNTAX.

The men they are there. I saw him the king. Our cause it is just. Many words they darken speech. That noble general who had gained so many victories, he died, at last, in prison. Who, instead of going about doing good, they are continually doing evil.

In each of the preceding examples, the personal pronoun should be omitted, according to Note 2.

NOTE 3, to RULE 13. A personal pronoun in the objective case, should not be used instead of _these_ and _those_.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Remove them papers from the desk. Give me them books. Give them men their discharge. Observe them three there. Which of them two persons deserves most credit?

In all these examples, _those_ should be used in place of _them_. The use of the personal, _them_, in such constructions, presents two objectives after one verb or preposition. This is a solecism which may be avoided by employing an adjective pronoun in its stead.

* * * * *

LECTURE IX.

OF CONJUNCTIONS.

A CONJUNCTION is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences, joining two or more simple sentences into one compound sentence: it sometimes connects only words; as, "Thou _and_ he are happy, _because_ you are good."

Conjunctions are those parts of language, which, by joining sentences in different ways, mark the connexions and various dependances of human thought. They belong to language only in its refined state.

The term CONJUNCTION comes from the two Latin words, _con_, which signifies _together_, and _jungo_, to _join_. A conjunction, then, is a word that conjoins, or joins together something. Before you can fully comprehend the nature and office of this sort of words, it is requisite that you should know what is meant by a sentence, a simple sentence, and a compound sentence, for conjunctions are chiefly used to connect sentences.

A SENTENCE is an assemblage of words forming complete sense.

A SIMPLE SENTENCE contains but one subject, or nominative, and one verb which agrees with that nominative; as, "_Wheat grows_ in the field."

You perceive that this sentence contains several words besides the nominative and the verb, and you will often see a simple sentence containing many parts of speech; but, if it has only one nominative and one _finite_ verb, (that is, a verb _not_ in the infinitive mood,) it is a simple sentence, though it is longer than many compound sentences.

A COMPOUND SENTENCE is composed of two or more simple sentences connected together; as, "_Wheat grows_ in the field, and _men reap_ it."

This sentence is compound, because it is formed of two simple sentences joined together by the word _and_; which word, on account of its connecting power, is called a conjunction. If we write this sentence without the conjunction, it becomes two simple sentences: thus, "Wheat grows in the field. Men reap it."

The nature and importance of the conjunction, are easily illustrated. After expressing one thought or sentiment, you know we frequently wish to _add_ another, or several others, which are closely connected with it. We generally effect this addition by means of the conjunction: thus, "The Georgians cultivate rice _and_ cotton;" that is, "They cultivate rice _add_ cotton." This sentence is compound, and without the use of the conjunction, it would be written in two separate, simple sentences: thus, "The Georgians cultivate rice. They cultivate cotton." The conjunction, though chiefly used to connect sentences, sometimes connects only words; in which capacity it is nearly allied to the preposition; as, "The sun _and (add)_ the planets constitute the solar system." In this, which is a simple sentence, _and_ connects two _words_.

A few more examples will illustrate the nature, and exhibit the use of this part of speech so clearly, as to enable you fully to comprehend it. The following simple sentences and members of sentences, have no relation to each other until they are connected by conjunctions. He labors harder--more successfully--I do. That man is healthy--he is temperate. By filling up the vacancies in these sentences with conjunctions, you will see the importance of this sort of words: thus, He labors harder _and_ more successfully _than_ I do. That man is healthy _because_ he is temperate.

Conjunctions are divided into two sorts, the Copulative and Disjunctive.

I. The Conjunction _Copulative_ serves to connect and continue a sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition, a supposition, or a cause; as, "Two _and_ three are five; I will go _if_ he will accompany me; You are happy _because_ you are good."

In the first of these examples, _and_ joins on a word that expresses an _addition_; in the second, _if_ connects a member that implies a _supposition_ or _condition_; and in the third, _because_ connects a member that expresses a _cause_.

II. The Conjunction _Disjunctive_ serves to connect and continue a sentence by joining on a member that expresses opposition of meaning; as, "They came with her, _but_ they went away without her."

_But_ joins on a member of this sentence which expresses, not only something added, but, also, _opposition_ of meaning.

The principal conjunctions, may be known by the following _lists_, which you may now commit to memory. Some words in these lists, are, however, frequently used as adverbs, and sometimes as prepositions; but if you study well the nature of all the different sorts of words, you cannot be at a loss to tell the part of speech of any word in the language.

LISTS OF THE CONJUNCTIONS.

_Copulative_. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore, wherefore, provided, besides.

_Disjunctive_. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding, nevertheless, except, whether, whereas, as well as.

Some conjunctions are followed by corresponding conjunctions, so that, in the subsequent member of the sentence, the latter answers to the former; as,

1. _Though_--_yet_ or _nevertheless_; as, "_Though_ he was rich, _yet_ for our sakes he became poor."

2. _Whether_--_or_; as, "_Whether_ he will go, _or_ not, I cannot tell." It is improper to say, "Whether he will go or _no_."

3. _Either_--_or_; as, "I will _either_ send it, _or_ bring it myself."

4. _Neither--nor_; as, "_Neither_ thou _nor_ I can comprehend it."

5. _As_--_as_; as, "She is _as_ amiable _as_ her sister."

6. _As_--_so_; as, "_As_ the stars, _so_ shall thy seed be."

7. _So_--_as_; as, "To see thy glory, _so as_ I have seen thee in the sanctuary."

8. _So_--_that_; as, "He became _so_ vain, _that_ everyone disliked him."

NOTES.

1. Some conjunctions are used to connect simple _sentences_ only,
and form them into compound _sentences_; such as, further, again,
besides, &c. Others are employed to connect simple _members_ only,
so as to make them compound _members_; such as, than, lest, unless,
that, so that, if, though, yet, because, as well as, &c. But, and,
therefore, or, nor, for, &c., connect either whole sentences, or
simple members.

2. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect
sentences; as, "Blessed is the man _who_ feareth the Lord, _and_
keepeth his commandments."

You will now please to turn back and read this lecture four or five times over; and then, after committing the following order, you may parse the subsequent exercises.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

_The order of parsing a_ CONJUNCTION, is--a conjunction, and why?--copulative or disjunctive, and why?--what does it connect?

"Wisdom _and_ virtue _form_ the good man's character." _And_ is a conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences; but in this example it connects only words--copulative, it serves to connect and continue the sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition--it connects the words "wisdom and virtue."

_Wisdom_ is a noun, the name of a thing--(You may parse it in full.)--_Wisdom_ is one of the nominatives to the verb "form."

_Virtue_ is a noun, the name, &c.--(Parse it in full:)--and in the nom. case to the verb "form," and connected to the noun "wisdom" by and, according to RULE 33. _Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case_.

_Form_ is a verb, a word which signifies to do, &c.--of the third person, _plural_, because its two nominatives, "wisdom and virtue," are connected by a copulative conjunction, agreeably to RULE 8. _Two or more nouns in the singular number, joined by_ copulative _conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in the_ plural.

"Wisdom _or_ folly _governs_ us." _Or_ is a conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences: it sometimes connects words--disjunctive, it serves not only to connect and continue the sentence, but also to join on a member which expresses opposition of meaning--it connects the nouns "wisdom and folly."

_Governs_ is a verb, a word that signifies, &e.--of the third person, singular number, agreeing with "wisdom or folly," according to RULE 9. _Two or more nouns singular, joined by_ disjunctive _conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in the_ singular:

If you reflect, for a few moments, on the meaning of me last two Rules presented, you will see, at once, their propriety and importance. For example; in the sentence, "Orlando _and_ Thomas, _who study their lessons, make_ rapid progress," you notice that the two singular nouns, _Orlando_ and _Thomas_, are connected by the copulative conjunction _and_, therefore the verb _make_, which agrees with them, is plural, because it expresses the action of _both_ its nominatives or actors. And you observe, too, that the pronouns _who_ and _their_, and the noun _lessons_, are _plural_, agreeing with the nouns _Orlando_ and _Thomas_, according to RULE 8. The verb _study_ is plural, agreeing with _who_, according to RULE 4.

But let us connect these two nouns by a disjunctive conjunction, and see how the sentence will read: "Orlando _or_ Thomas, _who studies his lesson, makes_ rapid progress." Now, you perceive, that a different construction takes place, for the latter expression does not imply, that Orlando and Thomas, _both_ study and make rapid progress; but it asserts, that either the one _or_ the other studies, and makes rapid progress. Hence the verb _makes_ is singular, because it expresses the action of the one _or_ the other of its nominatives. And you observe, too, that the pronouns _who_ and _his_, and the noun _lesson_, are likewise in the singular, agreeing with Orlando _or_ Thomas, agreeably to RULE 9. _Studies_ is also singular, agreeing with _who_, according to RULE 4.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Joseph and his brother reside in New York. The Sun, moon, and stars, admonish us of a superior and superintending Power. I respect my friend, because he is upright and obliging. Henry and William, who obey their teacher, improve rapidly. Henry or William, who obeys his teacher, improves very fast. Neither rank nor possession makes the guilty mind happy. Wisdom, virtue, and meekness, form the good man's happiness and interest: they support him in adversity, and comfort him in prosperity. Man is a little lower than the angels. The United States, as justly as Great Britain, can now boast of their literary institutions.

NOTE. The verb _form_ is plural, and agrees with three nouns singular, connected by copulative conjunctions, according to RULE 8. The verb _comfort_ agrees with _they_ for its nominative. It is connected to _support_ by the conjunction _and_, agreeably to RULE 34. _Angels_ is nom. to _are_ understood, and _Great Britain_ is nom. to _can boast_ understood, according to RULE 35.

REMARKS ON CONJUNCTIONS AND PREPOSITIONS.

The same word is occasionally employed, either as a conjunction, an adverb, or a preposition. "I submitted, _for_ it was in vain to resist;" in this example, _for_ is a conjunction, because it connects the two members of a compound sentence. In the next it is a preposition, and governs _victory_ in the objective case: "He contended _for_ victory only."

In the first of the following sentences, _since_ is a conjunction; in the second, it is a preposition, and in the third, an adverb; "_Since_ we must part, let us do it peaceably; I have not seen him _since_ that time; Our friendship commenced long _since._"

"He will repent _before_ he dies; Stand _before_ me; Why did you not return _before_" [that or this _time_;] in the first of these three examples, _before_ is an adverbial conjunction, because it expresses time and connects; and in the second and third, it is a preposition.

As the words of a sentence are often transposed, so are also its members. Without attending to this circumstance, the learner may sometimes be at a loss to perceive the _connecting_ power of a preposition or conjunction, for every preposition and every conjunction connects either words or phrases, sentences or members of sentences. Whenever a sentence begins with a preposition or conjunction, its members are transposed; as, "_In_ the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha;" "_If_ thou seek the Lord, he will be found of thee; but, _if_ thou forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever."

"_When_ coldness wraps this suffering clay,
"Ah, whither strays the immortal mind?"

That the words _in, if_, and _when_, in these examples, connect the members of the respective sentences to which they are attached, will obviously appear if we restore these sentences to their natural order, and bring these particles _between_ the members which they connect: thus, "Elisha the prophet flourished _in_ the days of Joram, king of Israel;" "The Lord will be found of thee _if_ thou seek him; but he will cast thee off for ever _if_ thou forsake him:"

"Ah, whither strays the immortal mind,
"_When_ coldness wraps this suffering clay?"

As an exercise on this lecture, you may now answer these QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

From what words is the term conjunction derived?--What is a sentence?--What is a simple sentence?--What is a compound sentence?--Give examples.--In what respect do conjunctions and prepositions agree in their nature?--How many sorts of conjunctions are there?--Repeat the lists of conjunctions.--Repeat some conjunctions with their corresponding conjunctions.--Do relative pronouns ever connect sentences?--Repeat the order of parsing a conjunction.--Do you apply any Rule in parsing a conjunction?--What Rule should be applied in parsing a noun or pronoun connected with another?--What Rule in parsing a verb agreeing with two or more nouns singular, connected by a copulative conjunction?--What Rule when the nouns are connected by a disjunctive?--In parsing a verb connected to another by a conjunction, what Rule do you apply?--Is a conjunction ever used as other parts of speech?--Give examples.--What is said of the words _for, since_, and _before?_--What is said of the transposition of sentences?

* * * * *

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

On scientific principles, our _connectives_, commonly denominated
prepositions and conjunctions, are but one part of speech, the
distinction between them being merely technical. Some conjunctions
unite only words, and some prepositions connect sentences. They are
derived from nouns and verbs; and the time has been, when, perhaps,
in our language, they did not perform the office of connectives.

"I wish you to believe, _that_ I would not wilfully hurt a fly."
Here, in the opinion of H. Tooke, our modern conjunction _that_, is
merely a demonstrative adjective, in a disguised form; and he
attempts to prove it by the following resolution: "I would not
wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe _that [assertion_."] Now,
if we admit, that _that_ is an adjective in the latter construction,
it does not necessarily follow, that it is the same part of speech,
nor that its associated meaning is precisely the same, in the former
construction. Instead of expressing our ideas in two detached
sentences, by the former phraseology we have a quicker and closer
transition of thought, and both the mode of employing _that_, and
its _inferential_ meaning, are changed. Moreover, if we examine the
meaning of each of these constructions, taken as a whole, we shall
find, that they do not both convey the same ideas. By the latter, I
assert, positively, that "I would not wilfully hurt a fly:" whereas,
by the former, I merely _wish you to believe_ that "I would not
wilfully hurt a fly;" but I do not _affirm_, that as a fact.

_That_ being the past part, of _thean_, to get, take, assume, by
rendering it as a _participle_, instead of an adjective, we should
come nearer to its primitive character. Thus, "I would not wilfully
hurt a fly. I wish you to believe the _assumed [fact_ or
_statement_;] or, the fact _assumed_ or _taken_."

_If_, (formerly written _gif, give, gin_,) as previously stated, is
the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb _gifan_, to give. In
imitation of Horne Tooke, some of our modern philosophical writers
are inclined to teach pupils to render it as a verb. Thus, "I will
go, _if_ he will accompany me:"--"He will accompany me.
_Grant_--_give_ that [fact] I will go." For the purpose of
ascertaining the _primitive_ meaning of this word, I have no
objection to such a resolution; but, by it, do we get the exact
meaning and force of _if_ as it is applied in our modern, refined
state of the language? I _trow_ not. But, admitting we do, does this
prove that such a mode of resolving sentences can be advantageously
adopted by learners in common schools? I presume it can not be
denied, that instead of teaching the learner to express himself
correctly in modern English, such a resolution is merely making him
familiar with an ancient and barbarous construction which modern
refinement has rejected. Our forefathers, I admit, who were governed
by those laws of necessity which compel all nations in the early and
rude state of their language, to express themselves in short,
detached sentences, employed _if_ as a verb when they used the
following circumlocution: "My son will reform. _Give that fact_. I
will forgive him." But in the present, improved state of our
language, by using _if_ as a _conjunction_, (for I maintain that it
is one,) we express the same thought more briefly; and our modern
mode of expression has, too, a decisive advantage over the ancient,
not only in point of elegance, but also in perspicuity and force. In
Scotland and the north of England, some people still make use of
_gin_, a contraction of _given:_ thus, "I will pardon my son, _gin_
he reform." But who will contend, that they speak pure English?

But perhaps the advocates of what _they_ call a philosophical
development of language, will say, that by their resolution of
sentences, they merely supply an ellipsis. If, by an ellipsis, they
mean such a one as is necessary, to the grammatical construction, I
cannot accede to their assumption. In teaching grammar, as well as
in other things, we ought to avoid extremes:--we ought neither to
pass superficially over an ellipsis necessary to the sense of a
phrase, nor to put modern English to the blush, by adopting a mode
of resolving sentences that would entirely change the character of
our language, and carry the learner back to the Vandalic age.

_But_ comes from the Saxon verb, _beon-utan_, to be-out. "All were
well _but (be-out, leave-out)_ the stranger." "Man is _but_ a reed,
floating on the current of time." Resolution: "Man is a reed,
floating on the current of time; _but (be-out_ this fact) he is not
a stable being."

_And--aned, an'd, and_, is the past part. of _ananad_, to add, join.
_A, an, ane_, or _one_, from the same verb, points out whatever is
_aned, oned_, or made _one. And_ also refers to the thing that is
_joined_ to, _added_ to, or _made one_ with, some other person or
thing mentioned. "Julius _and_ Harriet will make a happy pair."
Resolution: "Julius, Harriet _joined, united_, or _aned_, will make
a happy pair;" i.e. Harriet _made one_ with Julius; will make a
happy pair.

_For_ means _cause_.

_Because_--_be-cause_, is a compound of the verb _be_, and the noun
_cause_. It retains the meaning of both; as, "I believe the maxim,
_for_ I know it to be true;"--"I believe the maxim, _be-cause_ I
know it to be true;" i.e. the _cause_ of my belief, _be_, or _is_, I
know it to be true.

_Nor_ is a contraction of _ne or. Ne_ is a contraction of _not_, and
_or_, of _other. Nor_ is, _not other_-wise: _not_ in the _other_ way
or manner.

_Else_ is the imperative of _alesan, unless_, of _onlesan_, and
_lest_, the past part. of _lesan_, all signifying to dismiss,
release, loosen, set free. "He will be punished, _unless_ he
repent;"--"_Unless, release, give up_, (the fact) he repents he will
be punished." _Though_ is the imperative of the Saxon verb
_thafigan_, to allow, and _yet_ of _getan_, to get. _Yet_ is simply,
_get_; ancient _g_ is the modern _y_. "_Though_ he slay me, _yet_
will I trust in him:--_Grant_ or _allow_ (the fact) he slay me,
_get_, or _retain_ (the opposite fact) I will trust in
him."

* * * * *

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

From what parts of speech are prepositions and conjunctions derived?--What is Horne Tooke's opinion of that?--From what is each of the following words derived, _that, if, but, and, because, nor, else, unless, lest, though_, and _yet?_

LECTURE X.

OF INTERJECTIONS.--CASES OF NOUNS.

INTERJECTIONS are words which express the sudden emotions of the speaker; as, "_Alas!_ I fear for life;" "_O_ death! where is thy sting?"

Interjections are not so much the signs of thought, as of feeling. Almost any word may be used as an interjection; but when so employed, it is not the representative of a _distinct_, idea. A word which denotes a distinct conception of the mind, must necessarily belong to some other part of speech. They who wish to speak often, or rather, to make _noises_, when they have no useful information to communicate, are apt to use words very freely in this way; such as the following expressions, _la, la me, my, O my, O dear, dear me, surprising, astonishing_, and the like.

Interjections not included in the following list, are generally known by their taking an exclamation point after them.

A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL INTERJECTIONS.

1. Of _earnestness_ or _grief_; as, O! oh! ah! alas! 2. _Contempt;_ as, Pish! tush! 3. _Wonder;_ as, Heigh! really! strange! 4. _Calling;_ as, Hem! ho! halloo! 5. _Disgust_ or _aversion;_ as, Foh! fy! fudge! away! 6. _Attention_; as, Lo! behold! hark! 7. _Requesting silence_; as, Hush! hist! 8. _Salutation_; as, Welcome! hail! all hail!

NOTE. We frequently meet with what some call an _interjective
phrase_; such as, Ungrateful wretch! impudence of hope! folly in the
extreme! what ingratitude! away with him!

As the interjection is the least important part of speech in the English language, it will require but little attention. You may, however, make yourself well acquainted with what has been said respecting it, and then commit the

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

_The order of parsing an_ INTERJECTION, is--an interjection, and why?

"O virtue! how amiable thou art!"

_O_ is an interjection, a word used to express some passion or emotion of the speaker.

The ten parts of speech have now been unfolded and elucidated, although some of them have not been fully explained. Before you proceed any farther, you will please to begin again at the first lecture, and read over, attentively, the whole, observing to parse every example in the exercises systematically. You will then be able to parse the following exercises, which contain all the parts of speech. If you study faithfully _six_ hours in a day, and pursue the directions given, you may become, if not a critical, at least, a good, practical grammarian, in _six weeks_; but if you study only _three_ hours in a day, it will take you nearly _three months_ to acquire the same knowledge.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, and promotes the happiness of all around him.

Modesty always appears graceful in youth: it doubles the lustre of every virtue which it seems to hide.

He who, every morning, plans the transactions of the day, and follows out that plan, carries on a thread that will guide him through the labyrinth of the most busy life.

The king gave me a generous reward for committing that barbarous act; but, alas! I fear the consequence.

E'en now, where Alpine solitudes ascend,
I set me down a pensive hour to spend;
And, placed on high, above the storm's career,
Look downward where a hundred realms appear:--
Alas! the joys that fortune brings,
Are trifling, and decay;
And those who mind the paltry things,
More trifling still than they.

NOTE. In the second sentence of the foregoing exercises, _which_ is
governed by the verb _to hide_, according to RULE 16. _He_ is nom.
to _carries; who_ is nom. to _plans. Follows_ agrees with _who_
understood, and is connected to _plans_ by _and_; RULE 34. What did
the king give? A _reward to_ me. Then _reward_ is in the _obj_.
case, gov. by _gave_; RULE 20. _Me_ is gov. by _to_ understood; NOTE
1, RULE 32. The phrase, _committing that barbarous act_, is gov. by
_for_; NOTE 2, under RULE 28. _Hour_ is in the _obj_. case, gov. by
_to spend_; RULE 20. _Look_ is connected to _set_ by _and_; RULE 34.
_Joys_ is nom. to _are. That_ is gov. by _brings_; RULE 16. _Those_
is nom. to _are_ understood. _They_ is nom. to _are_ understood;
RULE 35.

CASES OF NOUNS.

In a former lecture, I promised to give you a more extensive explanation of the cases of nouns; and, as they are, in many situations, a little difficult to be ascertained, I will now offer some remarks on this subject. But before you proceed, I wish you to parse all the examples in the exercises just presented, observing to pay particular attention to the remarks in the subjoined NOTE. Those remarks will assist you much in analyzing.

A noun is sometimes nominative to a verb placed many lines after the noun. You must exercise your judgment in this matter. Look at the sentence in the preceding exercises beginning with, "He who, every morning," &c. and see if you can find the verb to which _he_ is nominative. What does _he_ do? He carries on a thread, &c. _He_, then, is nominative to the verb _carries_. What does _who_ do? Who _plans_, and who _follows_, &c. Then _who_ is nom. to _plans_, and _who_ understood, is nominative to _follows_.

"A soul without reflection, like a pile
Without inhabitant, to ruin runs."

In order to find the verb to which the noun _soul_, in this sentence, is the nominative, put the question; What does a _soul_ without reflection do? Such, a soul _runs_ to ruin, like a pile without inhabitant. Thus you discover, that _soul_ is nominative to _runs_.

When the words of a sentence are arranged according to their natural order, the nominative case, you recollect, is placed before the verb, and the objective, after it; but when the words of a sentence are transposed; that is, not arranged according to their natural order, it frequently happens, that the nominative comes _after_, and the objective, _before_ the verb; especially in poetry, or when a question is asked: as, "Whence _arises_ the _misery_ of the present world?" "What good _thing shall_ I _do_ to inherit eternal life?" Put these expressions in the declarative form, and the nominative will _precede_, and the objective _follow_ its verb: thus, "The _misery_ of the present world _arises_ whence; I _shall do_ what good _thing_ to inherit eternal life."

"Now came still _evening_ on, and twilight gray
Had, in her sober livery, all _things_ clad."

"Stern rugged nurse, thy rigid _lore_
With patience many a _year_ she bore."

What did the _evening_ do? The evening _came on_. Gray _twilight_ had clad what? Twilight had clad all _things_ in her sober livery. _Evening_, then, is nom. to _came_, and the noun _things_ is in the objective case, and gov. by _had clad_: RULE 20. What did _she_ bear? She bore thy rigid _lore_ with patience, _for_, or _during_, many a year. Hence you find, that _lore_ is in the objective case, and governed by _bore_, according to RULE 20. _Year_ is gov. by _during_ understood: RULE 32.

A noun is frequently nominative to a verb understood, or in the objective, and governed by a verb understood; as, "Lo, [_there is_] the poor _Indian!_ whose untutored mind." "O, the _pain_ [_there is!_] the _bliss_ [_there is_] in dying!" "All were sunk, but the wakeful _nightingale_ [_was not sunk_."] "He thought as a _sage_ [_thinks_,] though he felt as a _man_ [_feels_."] "His hopes, immortal, blow them by, as _dust_ [_is blown by_."] Rule 35 applies to these last three examples.

In the next place I will explain several cases of nouns and pronouns which have not yet come under our notice. Sometimes a noun or pronoun may be in the nominative case when it has no verb to agree with it.

OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT.

Whenever a direct address is made, the person or thing spoken to, is in the _nominative case independent_; as, "_James_, I desire you to study."

You notice that, in this expression, I address myself to _James_ that is, I speak to him; and you observe, too, that there is no verb, either expressed or implied, to which James can be the nominative; therefore you know that _James_ is in the nom. case independent, according to Rule 5. Recollect, that _whenever a noun is of the second person_, it is in the nom. case independent; that is, independent of any verb; as, _Selma_, thy halls are silent; Love and meekness, my _lord_, become a churchman, better than ambition; O _Jerusalem, Jerusalem_, how often would I have gathered thy children together, even as a hen gathereth her chickens under her wings, but ye would not!--For a farther illustration of this case, see Note 2, under the 5th Rule of Syntax.

NOTE. When a pronoun of the _second_ person is in apposition with a
noun independent, it is in the same case; as, "_Thou traitor_, I
detest thee."

OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE ABSOLUTE.

A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, without any verb to agree with it, is in the nominative case _absolute_; as, "The _sun being risen_, we pursued our journey."

_Sun_ is here placed before the participle "being risen," and has no verb to agree with it; therefore it is in the nominative case absolute, according to RULE 6.

NOTE 1. A noun or pronoun in the nominative case independent, is always of the _second_ person; but, in the case absolute, it is generally of the _third_ person.

2. The case absolute is always nominative; the following sentence is therefore incorrect; "Whose top shall tremble, _him_ descending," &c.; it should be, _he_ descending.

OF NOUNS IN APPOSITION.

Two or more nouns or pronouns signifying the same person or thing, are put, by _apposition_, in the same case; as, "_Cicero_, the great _orator, philosopher_, and _statesman_ of Rome, was murdered by Antony."

_Apposition_, in a grammatical sense, means something added, or names added, in order more fully to define or illustrate the sense of the first name mentioned.

You perceive that _Cicero_, in the preceding example, is merely the proper name of a man; but when I give him the three additional appellations, and call him a great _orator, philosopher_, and _statesman_, you understand what kind of a man he was; that is, by giving him these three additional names, his character and abilities as a man are more fully made known. And, surely, you cannot be at a loss to know that these four nouns must be in the same case, for they are all names given to the same person; therefore, if _Cicero_ was murdered, the _orator_ was murdered, and the _philosopher_ was murdered, and the _statesman_ was murdered, because they all mean one and the same person.

Nouns and pronouns in the objective case, are frequently in _apposition_; as, He struck _Charles_ the _student_. Now it is obvious, that, when he struck _Charles_, he struck the _student_, because Charles was the _student_, and the _student_ was _Charles_; therefore the noun _student_ is in the objective case, governed by "struck," and put by apposition with Charles, according to RULE 7.

Please to examine this lecture very attentively. You will then be prepared to parse the following examples correctly and systematically.

PARSING.

"Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O _maid_ of Inistore."

_Maid_ is a noun, the name of a person--- com. the name of a sort--fem. gender, it denotes a female--second pers. spoken to--sing. num. it implies but one--and in the nominative case independent, because it is addressed, and has no verb to agree with it, according to

RULE 5. _When an address is made, the noun or pronoun addressed, is put in the nominative case independent_.

"The _general_ being ransomed, the barbarians permitted him to
depart."

_General_ is a noun, the name, &c. (parse it in full:)--and in the nominative case absolute, because it is placed before the participle "being ransomed," and it has no verb to agree with it, agreeably to

RULE 6. _A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case absolute_.

_"Thou man_ of God, flee to the land of Judah."

_Thou_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it personates "man"--second pers. spoken to--mas. gender, sing. num. because the noun "man" is for which it stands; RULE 13 (Repeat the Rule.)--_Thou_ is in the nominative case independent and put by _apposition_ with _man_, because it signifies the same thing, according to

RULE 7. _Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signifying the same thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case_.

_Man_ is in the nominative case independent, according to Rule 5. _Flee_ agrees with _thou_ understood.

"Lo! _Newton, priest_ of Nature, shines afar,
Scans the wide world, and numbers every star."

_Newton_ is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nominative case to "shines." RULE 3.

_Priest_ is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nom. case, it is the actor and subject of the verb "shines," and put by apposition with "Newton," because it signifies the same thing, agreeably to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule.)

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

_Turn_ from your evil ways, O house of Israel! Ye fields of light, celestial plains, ye scenes divinely fair! proclaim your Maker's wondrous power. O king! _live_ for ever. The murmur of thy streams, O Lora, brings back the memory of the past. The sound of thy woods, Garmallar, is lovely in my ear. Dost thou not behold, Malvina, a rock with its head of heath? Three aged pines bend from its face; green is the plain at its feet; there the flower of the mountain grows, and shades its white head in the breeze.

The General being slain, the army was routed. Commerce having thus got into the legislative body, privilege must be done away. Jesus had conveyed himself away, a multitude being in that place. I being in great haste, he consented. The rain having ceased, the dark clouds rolled away. The Son of God, while clothed in flesh, was subject to all the frailties and inconveniences of human nature, sin excepted; (that is, sin being excepted.)

In the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha. Paul the apostle suffered martyrdom. _Come_, peace of mind, delightful guest! and _dwell_ with me. Friends, Romans, countrymen, _lend_ me your ears.

Soul of the just, companion of the dead!
Where is thy home, and whither art thou fled?
Till Hymen brought his love-delighted hour,
There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower:--
The world was sad, the garden was a wild,
And man the hermit sighed, till woman smiled.

NOTE. Those verbs in _italics_, in the preceding examples, are all
in the imperative mood, and _second_ person, agreeing with _thou,
ye_, or _you_, understood. _House of Israel_ is a noun of multitude.
_Was routed_ and _must be done_ are passive verbs. _Art fled_ is a
neuter verb in a passive form. _Clothed_ is a perfect participle.
_Till_ is an adverbial conjunction.

When you shall have analyzed, systematically, every word in the foregoing exercises, you may answer the following

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

Repeat the list of interjections.--Repeat some interjective phrases.--Repeat the order of parsing an interjection.--In order to find the verb to which a noun is nom. what question do you put?--Give examples.--Is the nominative case ever placed after the verb?--When?--Give examples.--Does the objective case ever come before the verb?--Give examples.--Is a noun ever nom. to a verb understood?--Give examples.--When is a noun or pronoun in the nom. case independent?--Give examples.--Are nouns of the _second_ person always in the nom. case independent?--When a pronoun is put by apposition with a noun independent, in what case is it?--When is a noun or pronoun in the nom. case absolute?--Give examples.--When are nouns or nouns and pronouns put, by apposition, in the same case?--Give examples.--In parsing a noun or pronoun in the nom. case independent, what Rule should be applied?--In parsing the nom. case absolute, what Rule?--What Rule in parsing nouns or pronouns in apposition?--Do real interjections belong to written language?--(_Phil. Notes_.)--From what are the following words derived, _pish, fy, lo, halt, farewell, welcome, adieu!_

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PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

The term INTERJECTION is applied to those _inarticulate_ sounds
employed both by men and brutes, not to express distinct ideas, but
emotions, passions, or feelings. The sounds employed by human beings
in groaning, sighing, crying, screaming, shrieking, and laughing, by
the dog in barking, growling, and whining, by the horse in snorting
and neighing, by the sheep in bleating, by the cat in mewing, by the
dove in cooing, by the duck in quacking, and by the goose in
hissing, we sometimes attempt to represent by words; but, as
_written_ words are the ocular representatives of _articulate_
sounds, they cannot be made clearly to denote _inarticulate_ or
_indistinct noises_. Such indistinct utterances belong to natural
language; but they fall below the bounds of regulated speech. Hence,
_real_ interjections are not a part of written language.

The meaning of those words commonly called interjections, is easily
shown by tracing them to their roots.

_Pish_ and _pshaw_ are the Anglo-Saxon _paec, paeca_; and are
equivalent to _trumpery_! i.e. _tromperie_, from _tromper_.

_Fy_ or _fie_ is the imperative, _foe_, the past tense, and _foh_ or
_faugh_, the past part. of the Saxon verb _fian_, to hate.
_Lo_ is the imperative of _look. Halt_ is the imperative of
_healden_, to hold. _Farewell--fare-well_, is a compound of _faran_,
to go, and the adverb _well_. It means, to _go well.
Welcome--well-come_, signifies, it is _well_ that you are _come.
Adieu_ comes from the French _a Dieu_, to God; meaning, I commend
you _to God_.

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LECTURE XI.

OF THE MOODS AND TENSES OF VERBS.

You have now acquired a general, and, I may say, an extensive, knowledge of nine parts of speech; but you know but little, as yet, respecting the most important one of all; I mean the VERB. I will, therefore, commence this lecture by giving you an explanation of the Moods and Tenses of verbs. Have the goodness, however, first to turn back and read over Lecture II., and reflect well upon what is there said respecting the verb; after which I will conduct you so smoothly through the moods and tenses, and the conjugation of verbs, that, instead of finding yourself involved in obscurities and deep intricacies, you will scarcely find an obstruction to impede your progress.