Chapter III: WORDS. Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as (4)

Perhaps I can illustrate their character more clearly. When the imperfect or present and perfect participles are placed before nouns, they become defining or describing adjectives, and are denominated _participial adjectives_; as, A _loving_ companion; The _rippling_ stream; _Roaring_ winds; A _wilted_ leaf; An _accomplished_ scholar. Here the words _loving, rippling, roaring, wilted_, and _accomplished_, describe or define the nouns with which they are associated. And where the participles are placed after their nouns, they have, also, this descriptive quality. If I say, I see the moon _rising_; The horse is _running_ a race; The dog is _beaten_; I describe the several objects, as a _rising_ moon, a _running_ horse, and a _beaten_ dog, as well as when I place these participles before the nouns. The same word is a participle or a participial adjective, according to its manner of meaning. The preceding illustration, however, shows that this distinction is founded on a very slight shade of difference in the meaning of the two. The following examples will enable you to distinguish the one from the other.

_Participles. Participial adjectives_.

See the sun _setting_. See the _setting_ sun. See the moon _rising_. See the _rising_ moon. The wind is _roaring_. Hear the _roaring_ wind. The twig is _broken_. The _broken_ twig fell. The vessel _anchored_ in the The _anchored_ vessel spreads bay, lost her mast. her sail.

The _present_ or _imperfect_ participle is known by its ending in _ing_; as, float_ing_, rid_ing_, hear_ing_, see_ing_. These are derived from the verbs, _float, ride, hear_, and _see_. But some words ending in _ing_ are not participles; such as _evening, morning, hireling, sapling, uninteresting, unbelieving, uncontrolling_. When you parse a word ending in _ing_, you should always consider whether it comes from a verb or not. There is such a verb as _interest_, hence you know that the word _interesting_ is a participle; but there is no such verb as _un_interest, consequently, _un_interesting can _not_ be a participle: but it is an adjective; as, an _uninteresting_ story. You will be able very easily to distinguish the participle from the other parts of speech, when you shall have acquired a more extensive knowledge of the verb.

Speak the participles from each of these verbs, learn, walk, shun, smile, sail, conquer, manage, reduce, relate, discover, overrate, disengage. Thus, Pres. _learning_, Perf. _learned_, Comp. _having learned_. Pres. _walking_, Perf. _walked_, Compound, _having walked_, and so on.

You may now commit the _order_ of parsing a participle, and then proceed with me.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

The _order of parsing_ a PARTICIPLE, is--a participle, and why?--from what verb is it derived?--speak the three--present, perfect, or compound, and why?--to what does it refer or belong?--RULE.

"I saw a vessel _sailing"_

_Sailing_ is a participle, a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective--it comes from the verb to sail--pres. sailing, perf. sailed, comp. having sailed--it is a present or imperfect participle, because it denotes the continuance of an unfinished action--and refers to the noun "vessel" for its subject, according to

RULE 27. _The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting the subject or actor_.

"Not a breath disturbs the _sleeping_ billow."

_Sleeping_ is a participial adjective, a word added to a noun to express its quality--it cannot, with propriety, be compared--- it belongs to the noun "billow," agreeably to

RULE 18. _Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or understood_.

You will please to parse these two words several times over, and, by a little reflection, you will perfectly understand the 27th RULE. Recollect, the participle never varies its termination to _agree_ with a noun or pronoun, for, as it has no _nominative_, it has no agreement; but it simply _refers to_ an actor. Examples: I see a _vessel_ sailing; or, I see three _vessels_ sailing. You perceive that the participle _sailing_ refers to a singular noun in the first example, and to a plural noun in the second; and yet the participle is in the same form in both examples. The noun _vessel_ is in the objective case, and governed by the transitive verb _see_. But when a verb follows a noun, the ending of the verb generally varies in order to agree with the noun which is its nominative; as, the vessel _sails;_ the vessels _sail_.

In this place it may not be improper to notice another Rule that relates to the participle. In the sentence, "The man is _beating_ his horse," the noun _horse_ is in the objective case, because it is the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive participle "beating," and it is governed by the participle beating, according to

RULE 26. _Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they are derived_.

The principle upon which this rule is founded, is quite apparent. As a participle derived from a transitive verb, expresses the same kind of action as its verb, it necessarily follows, that the participle must govern the same case as the verb from which it is derived.

When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, you may proceed and parse the following exercises, containing five parts of speech. If, in analyzing these examples, you find any words which you cannot parse correctly and _systematically_ by referring to your Compend for definitions and rules, you will please to turn back and read over again the whole _five_ lectures. You must exercise a little patience; and, for your encouragement, permit me to remind you, that when you shall have acquired a thorough knowledge of these five parts of speech, only _five_ more will remain for you to learn. Be ambitious to excel. Be thorough in your investigations. Give your reasoning powers free scope. By studying these lectures with attention, you will acquire more grammatical knowledge in _three_ months, than is commonly obtained in _two_ years.

In the following examples, the words _purling, crusted, slumbering_, and _twinkling_, are participial adjectives. _There_ and _its_ you may omit.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Orlando left the herd grazing. The hunters heard the young dog barking. The old fox heard the sportsman's horn sounding. Deep rivers float long rafts. Purling streams moisten the earth's surface. The sun approaching, melts the crusted snow. The slumbering seas calmed the grave old hermit's mind. Pale Cynthia declining, clips the horizon. Man beholds the twinkling stars adorning night's blue arch. The stranger saw the desert thistle bending there its lowly head.

REMARKS ON PARTICIPLES.

Participles frequently become nouns; as, "A good _understanding_; Excellent _writing_; He made a good _beginning_, but a bad _ending_."

Constructions like the following, have long been sanctioned by the best authorities: "The goods are _selling_;" "The house is _building_;" "The work is now _publishing_." A modern innovation, however, is likely to supersede this mode of expression: thus, "The goods are _being sold_;" "The house is _being built_;" "The work is now _being published_."

You may now answer these QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

How many kinds of participles are there?--What is the ending of a present participle?--What does a perfect participle denote?--With what does the perfect participle of a regular verb correspond?--What is a compound participle?--From what word is the term participle derived?--Why is this part of speech thus named?--Wherein does this part of speech partake of the nature of a verb?--Do all participles participate the properties of adjectives?--In what respect?--When are participles called _participial adjectives_?--Give examples.--How may a present participle be known?--Repeat the order of parsing a participle.--What rule applies in parsing a _present_ participle?--What Rule in parsing a participial adjective?--Do participles vary in their terminations in order to agree with their subject or actor?--What Rule applies in parsing a noun in the _objective case_, governed by a participle?--Do participles ever become nouns?--Give examples.

* * * * *

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

Participles are formed by adding to the verb the termination _ing,
ed_, or _en_. _Ing_ signifies the same as the noun _being_. When
postfixed to the noun-state of the verb, the compound word thus
formed, expresses a continued state of the verbal denotement. It
implies that what is meant by the verb, is _being_ continued. _En_
is an alteration of _an_, the Saxon verbalizing adjunct; _ed_ is a
contraction of _dede_; and the terminations _d_ and _t_, are a
contraction of _ed_. Participles ending in _ed_ or _en_, usually
denote the _dodo, dede, doed, did, done_, or _finished_ state of
what is meant by the verb. The book is _printed_. It is a _print-ed_
or _print-done_ book, or such a one as the _done_ act of _printing_
has made it. The book is _written_; i.e. it has received the _done_
or _finish-ed_ act of _writ-ing_ it.

Participles bear the same relation to verbs, that adnouns do to
nouns. They might, therefore, be styled _verbal adjectives_. But
that theory which ranks them with adnouns, appears to rest on a
sandy foundation. In classifying words, we ought to be guided more
by their _manner_ of meaning, and their _inferential_ meaning, than
by their primitive, essential signification. "I have a _broken_
plate;" i.e. I have a plate--_broken_; "I have _broken_ a plate." If
there is no difference in the _essential_ meaning of the word
_broken_, in these two constructions, it cannot be denied, that
there is a wide difference in the meaning--_inferred_ by custom;
which difference depends on the _manner_ in which the term is
applied. The former construction denotes, that I _possess_ a plate
which was _broken_, (whether with or without my agency, is not
intimated,) perhaps, one hundred or one thousand years ago; whereas,
the meaning of the latter is, that I _performed the act_ of reducing
the plate from a whole to a _broken_ state; and it is not intimated
whether I possess it, or some one else. It appears reasonable, that,
in a practical grammar, at least, any word which occurs in
constructions differing so widely, may properly be classed with
different parts of speech. This illustration likewise establishes
the propriety of retaining what we call the _perfect tense_ of the
verb.

* * * * *

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

How are participles formed?--What does the imperfect part express?-- What do perfect participles denote?

* * * * *

LECTURE VI.

OF ADVERBS.

An ADVERB is a word used to modify the sense of a _verb_, a_participle_, an _adjective_, or another _adverb_.

Recollect, an adverb never qualifies a _noun_. It qualifies any of the four parts of speech abovenamed, and none others.

To _modify_ or _qualify_, you know, means to produce some _change_. The adverb modifies. If I say, Wirt's style _excels_ Irving's, the proposition is affirmative, and the verb _excels_ expresses the affirmation. But when I say, Wirt's style _excels not_ Irving's, the assertion is changed to a negative. What is it that thus modifies or changes the meaning of the verb _excels_? You perceive that it is the little word _not_. This word has power to reverse the meaning of the sentence. _Not_, then, is a modifier, qualifier, or negative adverb.

When an adverb is used to modify the sense of a verb or participle, it generally expresses the manner, time, or place, in which the action is performed, or some accidental circumstance respecting it. In the phrases, The man rides _gracefully, awkwardly_, _badly, swiftly, slowly_, &c.; or, I saw the man riding _swiftly, slowly, leisurely, very fast_, &c., you perceive that the words _gracefully, awkwardly, very fast_, &c., are adverbs, qualifying the verb _rides_, or the participle _riding_, because they express the _manner_ in which the action denoted by the verb and participle, is done.

In the phrases, The man rides _daily, weekly, seldom, frequently, often, sometimes, never_; or, The man rode _yesterday, heretofore, long since, long ago, recently, lately, just now_ or, The man will ride _soon, presently, directly, immediately, by and by, to-day, hereafter_, you perceive that all these words in _italics_, are adverbs, qualifying the meaning of the verb, rides, because they express the _time_ of the action denoted by the verb.

Again, if I say, The man lives _here, near by, yonder, remote, far off, somewhere, nowhere, everywhere_, &c., the words in _italics_ are adverbs of _place_, because they tell where he lives.

Adverbs likewise qualify adjectives, and sometimes other adverbs; as, _more_ wise, _most_ wise; or _more wisely, most wisely_. When an adverb is joined to an adjective or adverb, it generally expresses _the degree_ of comparison; for adverbs, like adjectives, have degrees of comparison. Thus, in the phrase, A skilful artist, you know the adjective _skilful_ is in the positive degree; but, by placing the adverb _more_ before the adjective, we increase the degree of quality denoted by the adjective to the comparative; as, A _more_ skilful artist: and _most_ renders it superlative; as, A _most_ skilful artist. And if we place more and most before other adverbs, the effect is the same; as, skilfully, _more_ skilfully, _most_ skilfully.

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

_Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_. soon sooner soonest. often oftener oftenest. much more most. well better best. far farther farthest. wisely more wisely most wisely. justly more justly most justly. justly less justly least justly.

You will generally know an adverb at sight; but sometimes you will find it more difficult to be distinguished, than any other part of speech in the English language. I will, therefore, give you some _signs_ which will assist you a little.

Most words ending in _ly_ are adverbs; such as, _politely, gracefully, judiciously_. Any word or short phrase that will answer to any one of the questions, _how? how much? when?_ or _where?_ is an adverb; as, The river flows _rapidly_; He walks _very fast_; He has gone _far away;_ but he will _soon_ return; She sings _sweetly_; They learn _none at all_. How, or in what manner does the river flow? _Rapidly_. How does he walk? _Very fast_. Where has he gone? _Far away_. When will he return? _Soon_. How does she sing? _Sweetly_. How much do they learn? _None at all_. From this illustration, you perceive, that, if you could not tell these adverbs by the sense, you would know them by their answering to the questions. However, your better way will be to distinguish adverbs by considering the office they perform in the sentence; or by noticing their grammatical relation, or their situation, with respect to other words. To gain a thorough knowledge of their real character, is highly important. _Rapidly, fast, far away, soon, sweetly_, &c. are known to be adverbs by their qualifying the sense of verbs. "A _very_ good pen writes _extremely well." Well_, in this sentence, is known to be an adverb by its qualifying the sense of the verb _writes; extremely_, by its ending in _ly_, or by its being joined to the adverb _well_ to qualify it; and _very_ is known as an adverb by its joining the adjective _good_.

Expressions like these, _none at all, a great deal, a few days ago, long since, at length, in vain_, when they are used to denote the _manner_ or _time_ of the action of verbs or participles, are generally termed _adverbial phrases_.

Adverbs, though very numerous, may, for the sake of practical convenience, be reduced to particular classes.

1. _Of Number;_ as, Once, twice, thrice, &c.

2. _Of Order;_ as, First, secondly, lastly, finally, &c.

3. _Of Place;_ as, Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward, backward, whence, thence, whithersoever, &c.

4. _Of Time_. _Present_; as, Now, to-day, &c. _Past_; as, Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, long ago, &c. _Future_; as, To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, ere long, straightways, &c. _Time indefinite_; as, Oft, often, oft-times, often-times, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then, ever, never, again, &c.

5. _Of Quantity_; as, Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great, enough, abundantly, &c.

6. _Of Manner_ or _quality_; as, Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, quickly, slowly, &c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind; and they are generally formed by adding the termination _ly_ to an adjective or a participle, or by changing _le_ into _ly;_ as, Bad, badly; cheerful, cheerfully; able, ably; admirable, admirably.

7. _Of Doubt_; as, Haply, perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance.

8. _Of Affirmation_; as, Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really, &c.

9. _Of Negation_; as, Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise, &c.

10. _Of Interrogation_; as, How, why, wherefore, whither, &c., and sometimes when, whence, where.

11. _Of Comparison_; as, More, most, better, best, worse, worst, less, least, very, almost, little, alike, &c.

NOTES.

1. This catalogue contains but a small portion of the adverbs in our
language. Many adverbs are formed by a combination of prepositions
with the adverbs of place, _here, there, where_; as, Hereof,
thereof, whereof; hereto, thereto, whereto; hereby, thereby,
whereby; herewith, therewith, wherewith; herein, therein, wherein;
therefore, (i.e. there-for,) wherefore, (i.e. where-for,) hereupon,
hereon, thereupon, thereon, whereupon, whereon, &c.

2. Some adverbs are composed of nouns or verbs and the letter _a_,
used instead of _at, an_, &c.; as, Aside, athirst, afoot, asleep,
aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat, adrift, aghast, ago, askance,
away, asunder, astray, &c.

You will now please to read this lecture _four_ times over, and read slowly and carefully, for unless you understand well the nature and character of this part of speech, you will be frequently at a loss to distinguish it from others in composition. Now do you notice, that, in this sentence which you have just read, the words _slowly, carefully, well_, and _frequently_, are adverbs? And do you again observe, that, in the question I have just put to you, the words _now_ and _just_ are adverbs? Exercise a little sober thought. Fifteen minutes spent in reflection, are worth whole days occupied in careless reading.

In the following exercises six parts of speech are presented, namely, Nouns, Verbs, Articles, Adjectives, Participles, and Adverbs; and I believe you are now prepared to parse them all agreeably to the systematic order, _four_ times over. Those words in _italics_ are adverbs.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

_The order of parsing an_ ADVERB, is--an adverb, and why?--what sort?--what does it qualify?--RULE.

"My friend has returned _again_; but his health is _not very_ good." _Again_, is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of a verb--of time indefinite, it expresses a period of time not precisely defined--it qualifies the verb "has returned," according to

Rule 29. _Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs_.

_Not_ is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of an adverb--of negation, it makes the assertion negative; that is, it changes the proposition from an affirmative to a negative--and it qualifies the adverb "very," agreeably to Rule 29. _Adverbs qualify verbs, &c_.

_Very_ is an adverb, a word used to qualify the sense of an adjective--of comparison, it compares the adjective "good," and qualifies it according to Rule 29. _Adverbs qualify adjectives, &c_.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

The traveller described a lofty castle decaying _gradually. Very_ few literary men _ever_ became distinguished poets. The great Milton excels _not_ Homer. The Roman women, _once voluntarily_ contributed their _most_ precious jewels to save the city.

Many small streams uniting, form _very_ large rivers. The river Funza falling _perpendicularly_ forms a vast cataract. Attentive servants _always_ drive horses _very carefully_; negligent servants _often_ drive horses _very carelessly_. Assiduous scholars improve _very fast_; idle scholars learn _none at all_. Friendship _often_ ends in love; but love in friendship, _never_.

NOTE. Several adverbs frequently qualify one verb. Have you walked? _Not yet quite far enough, perhaps. Not, yet, far_, and _enough_, qualify "have walked" understood; _perhaps_ qualifies _not_; and _quite_ qualifies _far_. The adverbs _always_ and _carefully_ both qualify the verb "drive:" the former expresses _time_, and the latter, _manner. Once_ and _voluntarily_ qualify the verb "contributed;" the former expresses _number_, and the latter, _manner_. The word _their_ you need not parse. The active verb _to save_ has no nominative. The nouns _love_ and _friendship_, following _in_, are in the objective case, and governed by that preposition.

REMARKS ON ADVERBS.

When the words _therefore, consequently, accordingly_, and the like, are used in connexion with other conjunctions, they are _adverbs_; but when they appear single, they are commonly considered _conjunctions_.

The words _when_ and _where_, and all others of the same nature, such as _whence, whither, whenever, wherever, till, until, before, otherwise, while, wherefore_, &c. may be properly called _adverbial conjunctions_, because they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions; of adverbs, as they denote the attributes either of _time_ or _place_; of conjunctions, as they _conjoin sentences_.

There are many words that are sometimes used as adjectives, and, sometimes as adverbs; as, "_More_ men than women were there; I am _more_ diligent than he." In the former sentence _more_ is evidently an adjective, for it is joined to a noun to qualify it; in the latter it is an adverb, because it qualifies an adjective. There are others that are sometimes used as nouns, and sometimes as adverbs; as, "_to-day's_ lesson is longer than _yesterday's_." In this example, _to-day_ and _yesterday_ are nouns in the possessive case; but in phrases like the following, they are generally considered adverbs of time; "He came [_to his] home yesterday_, and will set out again _to-day_." Here they are nouns, if we supply _on_ before them.

"Where _much [wealth, talent_, or something else] is given, _much [increase, improvement_] will be required; _Much_ money has been expended; It is _much_ better to write than starve." In the first two of these examples, _much_ is an adjective, because it qualifies a noun; in the last, an adverb, because it qualifies the adjective _better_. In short, you must determine to what part of speech a word belongs, by its _sense_, or by considering the _manner_ in which it is associated with other words.

An adjective may, in general, be distinguished from an _adverb_ by this rule: when a word qualifies a _noun_ or _pronoun_, it is an adjective, but when it qualifies a _verb, participle, adjective_, or _adverb_, it is an adverb.

Prepositions are sometimes erroneously called adverbs, when their nouns are understood. "He rides _about_;" that is, about the _town, country_, or some-_thing_ else. "She was _near_ [the _act_ or _misfortune of_] falling;" "But do not _after_ [that _time_ or _event_] lay the blame on me." "He came _down_ [the _ascent_] from the hill;" "They lifted him _up_ [the _ascent_] out of the pit." "The angels _above_;"--above _us_--"Above these lower _heavens_, to us invisible, or dimly seen."

Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false Syntax, you may answer these

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

Does an adverb ever qualify a noun?--What parts of speech does it qualify?--When an adverb qualifies a verb or participle, what does it express?--When an adverb qualifies an adjective or adverb, what does it generally express?--Compare some adverbs.--By what signs may an adverb be known?--Give examples.--Repeat some _adverbial phrases_.--Name the different classes of adverbs.--Repeat some of each class.--Repeat the order of parsing an adverb.--What rule do you apply in parsing an adverb?

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES.

Repeat some adverbs that are formed by combining prepositions with adverbs of place.--Repeat some that are composed of the article _a_ and nouns.--What part of speech are the words, _therefore, consequently_, &c.?--What words are styled _adverbial conjunctions_?--Why are they so called?--Is the same word sometimes used as an adjective, and sometimes as an adverb?--Give examples.--What is said of _much_?--By what rule can you distinguish an adjective from an adverb?--Do prepositions ever become adverbs?

* * * * *

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

As the happiness and increasing prosperity of a people essentially
depend on their advancement in science and the arts, and as
language, in all its sublime purposes and legitimate bearings, is
strictly identified with these, it may naturally be supposed, that
that nation which continues, through successive generations,
steadily to progress in the former, will not be neglectful of the
cultivation and refinement of the latter. The truth of this remark
is illustrated by those who have, for many ages, employed the
English language as their medium for the transmission of thought.
Among its refinements may be ranked those procedures by which verbs
and nouns have been so modified and contracted as to form what we
call adverbs, distributives, conjunctions, and prepositions; for I
presume it will be readily conceded, that conciseness, as well as
copiousness and perspicuity in language, is the offspring of
refinement. That an immense amount of time and breath is saved by
the use of adverbs, the following development will clearly
demonstrate. He who is successful in contracting one mode of
expression that is daily used by thirty millions, doubtless does
much for their benefit.

Most adverbs express in one word what would otherwise require two or
more words; as, "He did it _here_," for, He did it _in this place;
there_, for, _in that place; where_, for, _in what place; now_, for,
_at this time. Why_ means _for what reason; how--in what mind, mood,
mode_, or _manner; exceedingly--to a great degree; very--in an
eminent degree; often_ and _seldom_ signify _many times, few times_.

The procedures by which words have been contracted, modified and
combined, to form this class of words, have been various. The most
prolific family of this illegitimate race, are those in _ly_, a
contraction of _like. Gentleman-ly_, means _gentleman-like, like_ a
gentleman. We do not yet say, _ladily_, but _lady-like_. The north
Britons still say, _wiselike, manlike_, instead of, _wisely, manly_.

_Quick_ comes from _gwick_, the past part. of the Anglo-Saxon verb
_gwiccian_, to vivify, give life. _Quick-ly_ or _live-ly_, means, in
a _quick-like_ or _life-like_ manner; in the manner of a creature
that has _life. Rapid-ly--rapid-like, like a rapid_; a _quick-ly_ or
_swift-ly_ running place in a stream.

_Al-ways_, contraction of _in all ways_. By a slight transition, it
means _in_ or _at all times. Al-one_, contraction of _all-one.
On-ly--one-like. Al-so--all the same_ (thing.) _Ever_--an _age_. For
_ever_ and _ever_--for _ages_ and _ages_. Ever is not synonymous
with always. _Never_--_ne ever_. It signifies _no age, no period of
time. No_, contraction of _not. Not_, a modification of _no-thing,
noth-ing, naught_. "He is _not_ greater"--is greater _in
naught_--_in no thing_.

_Adrift_ is the past part. _adrifed, adrif'd, adrift_; from the
Saxon _drifan_, or _adrifan_, to drive. _Ago_, formerly written
_ygo, gon, agon, gone, agone_, is the past part. of the verb _to
go_. It refers to time _gone by. Asunder_, the Saxon past part.
_asundren_, from the verb _sondrian_ or _asondrian_, to separate.
_Aloft--on the loft, on luft, on lyft; lyft_ being the Anglo-Saxon
word for _air_ or _clouds. Astray_, the part. of _straegan_, to
stray. _Awry_, part. of _wry than_, to writhe.

_Needs_--_need-is_; anciently, _nedes_, nede is.
To-_wit_, the infinitive of _witan_, to know. It means, _to be
known_. _Ay_ or _yea_ signifies _have it, enjoy it. Yes_ is _ay-es_,
have, possess, enjoy _that_. Our corrupt _o-yes_ of the crier, is
the French imperative, _oyez_, hear, listen. _Straight way_--by a
straight way. _While--wheel_; period in which some thing _whiles_ or
_wheels_ itself round. _Till_--to while. _Per_, Latin,--the English
_by_. Perhaps--per haps, per chance. These examples of derivation
are given with the view to invite the attention of the intelligent
pupil to the "Diversions of Purley, by John Horne Tooke."

* * * * *

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

How does the use of adverbs contribute to the conciseness of language?--Illustrate the fact.--What is said of _ly, like_, and _quick_?--How are the following words composed, _always, alone, only, also_?--What is the meaning of _ever, never, not, adrift, ago, asunder, aloft, astray, awry_?--Give the signification of _needs, to-wit, ye, yes, o-yes, straightway, while, till_, and _per_.

NOTE. Learners need not answer the questions on the Philosophical Notes, in this or any other Lecture, unless the teacher deem it expedient.

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.

NOTE 3, TO RULE 29, Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as adverbs; as, indifferent honest; excellent well; miserable poor:--She writes elegant; He is walking slow.

The adjectives _indifferent, excellent_, and _miserable_, are here improperly used, because adjectives do not express the degree of adjectives or adverbs, but such modifications are denoted by adverbs. The phrases should, therefore, be, "_indifferently_ honest, _excellently_ well, _miserably_ poor." _Elegant_ and _slow_ are also inaccurate, for it is not the office of the adjective to express the manner, time, or place of the action of verbs and participles, but it is _the office_ of the adverb. The constructions should be, "She writes _elegantly_; He is walking _slowly_."

You may correct the following examples several times over, and explain the principles that are violated.

FALSE SYNTAX.

He speaks fluent, and reasons coherent.

She reads proper, and writes very neat.

They once lived tolerable well, but now they are miserable poor.

The lowering clouds are moving slow.

He behaved himself submissive, and was exceeding careful not to give offence.

NOTE 4, TO RULE 29. Adverbs are sometimes improperly used instead of adjectives; as, "The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but _suitably_ to his offence."

The adverb _suitably_ is incorrect. It does not express the manner of the action of the verb "addressed," but it denotes the _quality_ of the noun _terms_ understood; for which reason it should be an adjective, _suitable_.

FALSE SYNTAX.

The man was slowly wandering about, _solitarily_ and distressed.

He lived in a manner _agreeably_ to his condition.

The study of Syntax should be _previously_ to that of Punctuation.

He introduced himself in a manner very _abruptly_.

_Conformably_ to their vehemence of thought, was their vehemence of gesture.

I saw him _previously_ to his arrival.

LECTURE VII

OF PREPOSITIONS.

A PREPOSITION is a word which serves to connect words, and show the relation between them.

The term _preposition_ is derived from the two Latin words, _pre_, which signifies _before_, and _pono, to place_. Prepositions are so called, because they are mostly placed before the nouns and pronouns which they govern in the objective case.

The principal prepositions are presented in the following list, which you may now commit to memory, and thus you will be enabled to distinguish them from other parts of speech whenever you see them in composition.

A LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS.

of, over, at, after, betwixt, to, under, near, about, beside, for, through, up, against, athwart, by, above, down, unto, towards, with, below, before, across, notwithstanding, in, between, behind, around, out of, into, beneath, off, amidst, instead of, within, from, on upon, throughout, over against, without, beyond, among, underneath, according to.

This list contains many words that are sometimes used as conjunctions, and sometimes as adverbs; but when you shall have become acquainted with the _nature_ of the preposition, and of the conjunction and adverb too, you will find no difficulty in ascertaining to which of these classes any word belongs.

By looking at the definition of a preposition, you will notice, that it performs a _double_ office in a sentence, namely, it _connects_ words, and also shows a _relation_ between them. I will first show you the use and importance of this part of speech as a connective. When corn is ripe--October, it is gathered--the field--men--who go--hill--hill--baskets,--which they put the ears. You perceive, that in this sentence there is a total want of connexion and meaning; but let us fill up each vacancy with a preposition, and the sense will be clear. "When corn is ripe, _in_ October, it is gathered _in_ the field _by_ men, who go _from_ hill _to_ hill _with_ baskets, _into_ which they put the ears."

From this illustration you are convinced, no doubt, that our language would be very deficient without prepositions to connect the various words of which it is composed. It would, in fact, amount to nothing but nonsense. There is, however, another part of speech that performs this office, namely, the conjunction. This will be explained in Lecture IX.; in which lecture you will learn, that the nature of a preposition, as a connective particle, is nearly allied to that of a conjunction. In the next place I will show you how prepositions express a _relation_ between words.

The boy's hat is _under_ his arm. In this expression, what relation does the preposition _under_ show? You know that _hat_ and _arm_ are words used as signs of two objects, or ideas; but _under_ is _not_ the sign of a thing you can think of: it is merely the sign of the _relation_ existing between the two objects. Hence you may perceive, that since the word _under_ is the sign of the _relation_ existing between particular _ideas_, it also expresses a relation existing between the words _hat_ and _arm_, which words are the representatives of those ideas.

The boy holds his hat _in_ his hand. In this sentence the preposition _in_ shows the relation existing between _hat_ and _hand_, or the situation, or relative position, each has in regard to the other. And, if I say, The boy's hat is _on_ his head, you perceive that _on_ shows the relation between _hat_ and _head_. Again, in the expressions, The boy threw his hat _up stairs_--_under_ the bed--_behind_ the table--_through_ the window--_over_ the house--_across_ the street--_into_ the water--and so on, you perceive that the several prepositions express the different relations existing between the _hat_ and the other nouns, _stairs, bed, table, window, house, street_, and _water_.

A preposition tells _where_ a thing is: thus, "The pear is on the ground, _under_ the tree."

Prepositions govern the objective case, but they do _not_ express an action done to some object, as an active-transitive verb or participle does. When a noun or pronoun follows a preposition, it is in the objective case, because it is the object of the _relation_ expressed by the preposition, and _not_ the object of an _action_.

I can now give you a more extensive explanation of the _objective case_, than that which was given in a former lecture. I have already informed you, that the objective case expresses the object of an action _or_ of a relation; and, also, that there are _three_ parts of speech which govern nouns and pronouns in the objective case, namely, _active-transitive verbs, participles derived from transitive verbs_, and _prepositions_. A noun or pronoun in the objective case, cannot be, at the same time, the object of an action _and_ of a relation. It must be either the object of an action _or_ of a relation. And I wish you particularly to remember, that whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a transitive verb or participle, it is the object of an _action_; as, The tutor _instructs_ his _pupils_; or, The tutor is _instructing_ his _pupils_; but whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a preposition, it is the object of a _relation_; as, The tutor gives good instruction _to_ his _pupils_.

Before you proceed to parse the following examples, please to review this lecture, and then the whole seven in the manner previously recommended, namely, read one or two sentences, and then look off your book and repeat them two or three times over in your mind. This course will enable you to retain the most important ideas advanced. If you wish to proceed with ease and advantage, you must have the subject-matter of the preceding lectures stored in your mind. Do not consider it an unpleasant task to comply with my requisitions, for when you shall have learned thus far, you will understand _seven_ parts of speech; and only _three_ more will remain to be learned.

If you have complied with the foregoing request, you may commit the following _order_, and then proceed in parsing.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

_The order of parsing a_ PREPOSITION, is--a preposition, and why?--what does it connect?--what relation does it show?

"He saw an antelope _in_ the _wilderness."_

_In_ is a preposition, a word which serves to connect words, and show the relation between them--it connects the words "antelope" and "wilderness"--and shows the relation between them.

_Wilderness_ is a noun, the name of a place--com. the name of a sort or species--neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex--third pers. spoken of--sing. num. it implies but one--and in the objective case, it is the object of a _relation_ expressed by the preposition "in," and governed by it, according to

RULE 31. _Prepositions govern the objective case_.

The genius of our language will not allow us to say, Stand before _he_; Hand the paper to _they_. Prepositions _require_ the pronoun following them to be in the objective form, position, or case; and this requisition amounts to _government_. Hence we say, "Stand before _him_;" "Hand the paper to _them_." Every preposition expresses a relation, and every relation must have an _object_: consequently, every preposition must be followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

The all-wise Creator bestowed the power of speech upon man, for the most excellent uses. Augustus heard the orator pleading the client's cause, in a flow of most powerful eloquence. Fair Cynthia smiles serenely over nature's soft repose. Life's varying schemes no more distract the laboring mind of man. Septimius stabbed Pompey standing on the shore of Egypt.

A beam of tranquillity often plays round the heart of the truly pious man. The thoughts of former years glide over my soul, like swift-shooting meteors over Ardven's gloomy vales.

At the approach of day, night's swift dragons cut the clouds full fast; and ghosts, wandering here and there, troop home to church-yards.

Love still pursues an ever devious race,
True to the winding lineaments of grace.

* * * * *

NOTE.--The words _my_ and _and_ you need not parse. The noun "meteors," following the adverb "like," is in the objective case, and governed by _unto_ understood, according to NOTE 2, under Rule 32. The noun "home" is governed by _to_ understood, according to Rule 32.

REMARKS ON PREPOSITIONS AND VERBS.

A noun or pronoun in the objective case, is often governed by a preposition understood; as, "Give _him_ that book;" that is, "Give that book _to_ him;" "Ortugrul was one _day_ wandering," &c. that is, _on_ one day. "Mercy gives _affliction_ a grace;" that is, Mercy gives a grace _to_ affliction. See Note 1, under Rule 32.

To be able to make a proper use of prepositions, particular attention is requisite. There is a peculiar propriety to be observed in the use of _by_ and _with;_ as, "He walks _with_ a staff _by_ moonlight;" "He was taken _by_ stratagem, and killed _with_ a sword." Put the one preposition for the other, and say, "He walks _by_ a staff _with_ moonlight;" "He was taken _with_ stratagem, and killed _by_ a sword;" and it will appear, that the latter expressions differ from the former in signification, more than one, at first view, would be apt to imagine.

Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a _preposition;_ as, to _up_hold, to _with_stand, to _over_look; and this composition gives a new meaning to the verb; as, to _under_stand, to _with_draw, to _for_give. But the preposition is more frequently placed after the verb, and separately from it, like an adverb; in which situation it does not less affect the sense of the verb, and give it a new meaning; and in all instances, whether the preposition is placed either before or after the verb, if it gives a new meaning to the verb, it may be considered as _a part of the verb_. Thus, _to cast_ means _to throw_; but _to cast up_ an account, signifies _to compute_ it; therefore _up_ is a part of the verb. The phrases, _to fall on, to bear out, to give over_, convey very different meanings from what they would if the prepositions _on, out_ and _over_, were not used. Verbs of this kind are called _compound_ verbs.

You may now answer the following

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

From what words is the term _preposition_ derived?--Why is it thus named?--Repeat the list of prepositions.--Name the three parts of speech that govern nouns and pronouns in the objective case.--When is a noun or pronoun in the objective case, the object of an action?--When is it the object of a relation?--Repeat the order of parsing a preposition.--What rule do you apply in parsing a noun or pronoun governed by a preposition?--Does every preposition require an objective case after it?--Is a noun or pronoun ever governed by a preposition understood?--Give examples.--What is said of verbs compounded of a verb and preposition?--Give the origin and meaning of the prepositions explained in the Philosophical Notes.

* * * * *

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

_From_, according to H. Tooke, is the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic noun
_frum_, beginning, source, author. "He came _from (beginning_)
Rochester." _Of_, he supposes to be a fragment of the Gothic and
Saxon noun _afora_, consequence, offspring, follower. "Solomon, the
son _of (offspring_) David." _Of_ or _off_, in its modern
acceptation, signifies _disjoined, sundered_: A piece _of (off_) the
loaf, is, a piece _disjoined_, or _separated_ from the loaf. The
fragrance _of_ or _off_ the rose.

_For_ signifies _cause_. "I write _for_ your satisfaction;" i.e.
your satisfaction being the _cause. By_ or _be_ is the imperative
_byth_, of the Saxon _beon_, to be. _With_, the imperative of
_withan_, to join; or, when equivalent to _by_, of _wyr-than_, to
be. "I will go _with_ him." "I, _join_ him, will go." _In_ comes
from the Gothic noun _inna_, the interior of the body; a cave or
cell. _About_, from _boda_, the first outward boundary. _Among_ is
the past part. of _gamaengan_, to mingle. _Through_ or _thorough_ is
the Gothic substantive _dauro_, or the Teutonic _thuruh_. It means
passage, gate, door.

_Before_--_be-fore, be-hind, be-low, be-side, be-sides, be-neath_
are formed by combining the imperative, _be_, with the nouns _fore,
hind, low, side, neath. Neath_--Saxon _neothan, neothe_, has the
same signification as _nadir. Be-tween, be-twixt_--_be_ and _twain_.
A dual preposition. _Be-yond_--_be-passed. Beyond_ a place, means,
_be passed_ that place.
_Notwithstanding--not-stand-ing-with, not-withstanding_. "Any order
to the contrary not-withstanding," (this order;) i.e. _not_
effectually _withstanding_ or _opposing_ it.

* * * * *

LECTURE VIII.

OF PRONOUNS.

A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun, and generally to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word. A pronoun is, likewise, sometimes a substitute for a sentence, or member of a sentence.

The word _pronoun_ comes from the two Latin words, _pro_, which means _for_, or _instead of_, and _nomen_, a _name_, or _noun._ Hence you perceive, that _pronoun_ means _for a noun_, or _instead of a noun_.

In the sentence, "The man is happy; _he_ is benevolent; _he_ is useful;" you perceive, that the word _he_ is used instead of the noun _man;_ consequently _he_ must be a _pronoun_. You observe, too, that, by making use of the pronoun _he_ in this sentence, we avoid the _repetition_ of the _noun_ man, for without the pronoun, the sentence would be rendered thus, "The man is happy; _the man_ is benevolent; _the man_ is useful."

By looking again at the definition, you will notice, that pronouns always _stand for_ nouns, but they do not always _avoid the repetition_ of nouns. _Repetition_ means _repeating_ or mentioning the same thing again. In the sentence, "I come to die for my country," the pronouns, _I_ and _my, stand_ for the name of the person who speaks; but they do not _avoid the repetition_ of that name, because the name or noun for which the pronouns are used, is not mentioned at all. Pronouns of the _third_ person, generally avoid the repetition of the nouns for which they stand; but pronouns of the _first_ and _second_ person, sometimes avoid the repetition of nouns, and sometimes they do not.

A little farther illustration of the pronoun will show you its importance, and, also, that its nature is very easily comprehended. If we had no pronouns in our language, we should be obliged to express ourselves in this manner: "A woman went to a man, and told the man that the man was in danger of being murdered by a gang of robbers; as a gang of robbers had made preparations for attacking the man. The man thanked the woman for the woman's kindness, and, as the man was unable to defend the man's self, the man left the man's house, and went to a neighbor's."

This would be a laborious style indeed; but, by the help of pronouns, we can express the same ideas with far greater ease and conciseness: "A woman went to a man, and told _him_, that _he_ was in great danger of being murdered by a gang of robbers, _who_ had made preparations for attacking _him. He_ thanked _her_ for _her_ kindness, and, as _he_ was unable to defend _himself_, _he_ left _his_ house and went to a neighbor's."

If you look at these examples a few moments, you cannot be at a loss to tell which words are pronouns; and you will observe too, that they all stand for nouns.

Pronouns are generally divided into three kinds, the _Personal_, the _Adjective_, and the _Relative_ pronouns. They are all known by the _lists_.

1. OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Personal Pronouns are distinguished from the relative, by their denoting the _person_ of the nouns for which they stand. There are five of them; _I_, _thou, he, she, it_; with their plurals, _We, ye_ or _you, they_.

To pronouns belong gender, person, number, and case.

GENDER. When we speak of a _man_, we say, _he, his, him_; when we speak of a _woman_, we say, _she, hers, her_; and when we speak of a _thing_, we say _it_. Hence you perceive, that gender belongs to pronouns as well as to nouns. Example; "The general, in gratitude to the lady, offered _her his_ hand; but _she_, not knowing _him_, declined accepting _it_." The pronouns _his_ and _him_, in this sentence, personate or represent the noun _general_; they are, therefore, of the masculine gender: _her_ and _she_ personate the _lady_; therefore, they are feminine: and _it_ represents _hand_; for which reason it is of the neuter gender. This illustration shows you, then, that pronouns must be of the same gender as the nouns are for which they stand. But, as it relates to the variation of the pronouns to express the sex,

Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns, _he, she, it. He_ is masculine; _she_ is feminine; _it_ is neuter.

You may naturally inquire, why pronouns of the first and second persons are not varied to denote the gender of their nouns, as well as of the third. The reason is obvious. The first person, that is, the person speaking, and the second person, or the person spoken to, being at the same time the subjects of the discourse, are supposed to be present; from which, and other circumstances, their sex is commonly known, and, therefore, the pronouns that represent these persons, need not be marked by a distinction of gender; but the third person, that is, the person or thing spoken of, being absent, and in many respects unknown, necessarily requires the pronoun that stands for it, to be marked by a distinction of gender.

In parsing, we sometimes apply gender to pronouns of the first and second person, and also to the plural number of the third person; but these have no peculiar form to denote their gender; therefore they have no agreement, in this respect, with the nouns which they represent.

PERSON. Pronouns have three persons in each number.

_I_, is the first person } _Thou_, is the second person } Singular. _He, she_, or _it_, is the third person }

_We_, is the first person } _Ye_ or _you_, is the second person } Plural. _They_, is the third person }

This account of persons will be very intelligible, when you reflect, that there are three persons who may be the subject of any discourse: first, the person who speaks, may speak of himself; secondly, he may speak of the person to whom he addresses himself; thirdly, he may speak of some other person; and as the speakers, the persons spoken to, and the persons spoken of, may be many, so each of these persons must have a plural number.

Pronouns of the second and third person, always agree, in person with the nouns they represent; but pronouns of the first person, do not. Whenever a pronoun of the first person is used, it represents a noun; but nouns are _never_ of the first person, therefore these pronouns cannot agree in person with their nouns.

NUMBER. Pronouns, like nouns, have two numbers, the singular and the plural; as, _I, thou, he_; _we, ye_ or _you, they_.

CASE. Pronouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.

In the next place I will present to you the _declension_ of the personal pronouns, which declension you must commit to memory before you proceed any farther.

The advantages resulting from the committing of the following declension, are so great and diversified, that you cannot be too particular in your attention to it. You recollect, that it is sometimes very difficult to distinguish the nominative case of a noun from the objective, because these cases of nouns are not marked by a difference in termination; but this difficulty is removed in regard to the personal pronouns, for their cases are always known by their termination. By studying the declension you will learn, not only the cases of the pronouns, but, also, their genders, persons, and numbers.

DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

FIRST PERSON. _Sing. _Plur_. _Nom_. I, we, _Poss_. my _or_ mine, our _or_ ours, _Obj_. me. us.

SECOND PERSON. _Sing_. _Plur_. _Nom_. thou, ye _or_ you, _Poss_. thy _or_ thine, your _or_ yours, _Obj_. thee. you.

THIRD PERSON. _Mas. Sing._ _Plur_. _Nom_, he, they, _Poss_. his, their _or_ theirs, _Obj_. him. them.

THIRD PERSON. _Fem. Sing._ _Plur_. _Nom_. she, they, _Poss_. her _or_ hers, their _or_ theirs. _Obj_. her. them.

THIRD PERSON. _Neut. Sing._ _Plur_. _Nom_. it, they, _Poss_. its, their _or_ theirs, _Obj._ it. them.

* * * * *

NOTES.

1. When _self_ is added to the personal pronouns, as himself,
myself, itself, themselves, &c. they are called _compound personal
pronouns_, and are used in the nominative or objective case, but not
in the possessive.

2. In order to avoid the disagreeable harshness of sound, occasioned
by the frequent recurrence of the terminations _est, edst_, in the
adaptation of our verbs to the nominative _thou_, a modern
innovation which substitutes _you_ for _thou_, in familiar style,
has generally been adopted. This innovation contributes greatly to
the harmony of our colloquial style. _You_ was formerly restricted
to the plural number; but now it is employed to represent either a
singular or a plural noun. It ought to be recollected, however, that
when used as the representative of a singular noun, this word
retains its original _plural form_; and, therefore, the verb
connected with it, should always be plural. Inattention to this
peculiarity, has betrayed some writers into the erroneous
conclusion, that, because _you_ implies unity when it represents a
singular noun, it ought, when thus employed, to be followed by a
singular verb; as, "When _was you_ there?" "How far _was you_ from
the parties?" Such a construction, however, is not supported by
_good_ usage, nor by analogy. It is as manifest a solecism as to
say, We _am_, or we _is_. Were it, in any case, admissible to
connect a singular verb with _you_, the use of _was_ would still be
ungrammatical, for this form of the verb is confined to the first and
third persons, and _you_ is second person. _Wast_ being second
person, it would approximate nearer to correctness to say, you
_wast_. We never use the singular of the present tense with
you:--you _art_, you _is_; you _walkest_, you _walks_. Why, then,
should any attempt be made to force a usage so unnatural and
gratuitous as the connecting of the singular verb in the past tense
with this pronoun? In every point of view, the construction, "When
_were_ you there?" "How far _were_ you from the parties?" is
preferable to the other.

3. The words _my, thy, his, her, our, your, their_, are, by many,
denominated _possessive adjective pronouns_; but they always _stand
for_ nouns in the possessive case. They ought, therefore, to be
classed with the _personal_ pronouns. That principle of
classification which ranks them with the adjective pronouns, would
also throw all nouns in the possessive case among the adjectives.
Example: "The lady gave the gentleman _her_ watch for _his_ horse."
In this sentence _her_ personates, or stands for, the noun "lady,"
and _his_ represents "gentleman." This fact is clearly shown by
rendering the sentence thus, "The lady gave the gentleman the
_lady's_ watch for the _gentleman's_ horse." If _lady's_ and
_gentleman's_ are nouns, _her_ and _his_ must be personal pronouns.
The same remarks apply to _my, thy, our, your, their_ and _its_.
This view of these words may be objected to by those who speculate
and refine upon the principles of grammar until they prove their
non-existence, but it is believed, nevertheless, to be based on
sound reason and common sense.