Chapter XI: The Geologic Functions of Life (3)

McConnell, J. C., 313, 322, 323, 549

McGee, W. J., 59, 524

Meander belt, relation to width of stream, 193

Meanders, flood-plain, 190
intrenched, 164
of the Meuse, 164
of the Moselle, 164
of the Seine, 164

Mean sphere level, 548

Medial moraine, 266, 297

Medlicott, H. B., 203

Medicinal springs, 235

Melaphyres, 412, 431, 453, 471

Menaccanite, 464

Mendelejeff, D. (and Moissan, H.), 646

Mental element, material effects of, 649

Merrill, G. P., 35, 111, 221

Mesas, 142

Mesophytes, 667

Meta-diabase, 471

Meta-igneous rock, 471

Metamorphic rocks, 17

Metamorphism, 427, 433, 440, 449
by heat, 446
by lateral pressure, 448
deep-seated, 449

Meteorites, 4
number of, 381

Meuse, meanders of, 164

Mica, 400, 464

Mica schists, 448

Microcline, 400, 464

Microlites, 407, 471

Microgranite, 471

Migration of dunes, 33

Millstone, 471

Milne, J., 533, 537, 538, 583
(and Gray, T.), 578
(and Burton), 636

Mineral matter in sea, 324–326
amount of, 325

Minerals, felspathic, 400, 462
ferromagnesian, 400, 460
formation of, 397, 612
of igneous rocks, 399
list of, 460–467

Mineral springs, 235

Minette, 415, 471

Mining geology, 1

Minnehaha Falls, 137

Mirlic rocks, 458

Mississippi River, delta, 197, 202
depth of channel, 171
flood-plain, 194
floods of, 188
levees of, 188
material in solution in, 108
sediment carried by, 106

Mississippi flood-plain, 194
lakes of, 192

Missouri River, scour-and-fill of, 195

Mitic rocks, 456

Moissan, H., 646

Mollusca, geologic contribution of, 662

Molluscoidea, geologic contribution of, 662

Molten interior, lava from, 624

Molten magmas, nature of, 401

Molten reservoirs, lavas from, 624

Monadnocks, 145

Monoclinal shifting, 127

Monocline, 504

Monzonite, 471

Moon, 3, 598

Moraines, dump, 301
ground, 302
lateral, 266, 302
lodge, 301
medial, 266, 297
molluscan shells in, 297
push, 301
surface, 266
terminal, 266, 301
types, 301

Moselle River, intrenchment meanders, 164

Moseley, H., 322

Mosses, geologic contributions of, 656

Moulton, F. R., 565

Mountain-forming movements, 542

Mountains, serration of, 48, 50

Mount Erebus, 603

Mount Hecla, 603

Mount Shasta, 611

Mount Terror, 603

Movements of glaciers, 259, 261, 279, 313–323

Movements of sea-water, 334–342
causes of, 334–339

Movements of the earth’s body, 526–589
causes of, 551–557
continent-forming, 544
distribution in time, 545
epeirogenic, 537
folding movements, 545
minute and rapid, 526
mountain-forming, 542
orogenic, 537
periodic, 542
plateau-forming, 543
relation of vertical and horizontal, 545
slow and massive, 537

Mud-cracks, 489

Mud-flows, volcanic, 610

Mud-rain, 25

Mudstone, 471

Mügge, O., 313, 322, 323

Muir glacier, 259

Murray, Sir John, 11, 215, 325, 326, 369, 604, 655

Muscovite, 400, 464

Narrows, 141

Natural bridges, 153, 231
of Virginia, 156
on coasts, 351

Natural gases, 646

Natural levees (see Levees)

Natural oils, 646

Nebraska, volcanic dust in, 23

Nephelinite, 471

Nephelite, 400, 464

Nevadite, 471

Névé, 246

New River, 168

Newsom, J. F., 514

Niagara Falls, 139
recession of, 139

Niagara River, 120

Nicholson, A. (and Lydekker, R.), 658

Nile River, delta of, 202
material in solution in, 108
sediment carried by, 107

Nitrogen and life, 642

Nodules, 471

Nomenclature of rocks, 449
new system of, 451

Norite, 471

Normal faults, 517

North America, average elevation of, 106

Nosite, 465

Novaculite, 471

Nummulites, 661

Oblique fault, 525

Obsidian, 407, 453, 471

Ocean basins, 11
areas of, 7
connection of, 8
deposits on, 368–386
relief of bottom, 11
topography of, 326

Ocean basin segments, size of, 547

Oceanic deposits, chemical, 375
deep-sea, 368, 378–386
organic, 375, 382
shallow water, 369–378

Ocean, the, 7, 324–392
changes in, 329
composition of, 324
diastrophism in, 329
gradation in, 333
salts of, 324
volume of, 8
vulcanism in, 332
work of, 324–392

Offset with gap, 525

Offset with overlap, 525

Oldham, R. D., 534, 535

Oligoclase, 400, 465

Olivine, 400, 465

Omeose, 459

Omphacite, 465

Onyx, 471

Oolite, 435, 471, 496

Ooze, 471

Opal, 465

Ore deposits (see Ores)

O’Reilly, J. P., 538

Ore regions, origin of, 477

Ores, 428, 474–485
concentration by reprecipitation, 479
concentration by solution, 479
concentration by surface leaching, 478
“flaxseed,” 497
influence of rock walls on deposition, 484
magmatic segregation, 475
marine segregation, 476
original distribution, 475
purification by leaching, 478
residual concentration, 478

Organic processes, 638

Organic residue, 640, 641

Organic rocks, 449, 646

Original heat distribution, 559–568

Origin and descent of rocks, 393–484

Orogenic movements, 537

Orthoclase, 400, 465

Orthophyre, 471

Osars, 306

Outcrops, effects of faults on, 522

Outwash plain, 306

Overloading of streams, 177, 178, 186

Overthrust, 518

Oxbow lakes, 192, 198

Oxidation, 42, 427

Ozocerite, 465, 646

Paleontologic geology, 1

Paleontology, 1

Paraffine, 646

Peastone, 472

Peat, 406, 472

Pegmatite, 472

Pelagic deposits, 379–386
organic constituents of, 382

Pelagic fauna, 670

Pelecypods, shells of, 662

Pele’s, 618

“Pele’s hair,” 404

Pelites, 472

Peneplain, 81, 169

Penrose, R. A. F., Jr., 478

Peralkalic rocks, 458

Percaleic rocks, 458, 459

Perfemane, 455

Perfemic rocks, 454

Perfelic rocks, 456

Perferrous rocks, 459

Peridotites, 416, 453

Perlenic rocks, 456

Perlite, 408, 453, 472

Permiric rocks, 458

Permirlic rocks, 458

Permitic rocks, 457

Perolic rocks, 457

Perpolic rocks, 456

Perpotassic rocks, 458

Perpyric rocks, 457

Perquaric rocks, 456

Perrey, A., 537

Perrine, 538

Persalane, 455, 459

Persalic rocks, 454

Persodic rocks, 458

Pertilic rocks, 457

Petrifaction, 223

“Petrified turtles,” 496

Petroleum, 465

Petrology, 1, 393–485

Petrosilex, 472

Pfaff, F., 537

Phanerites, 451

Phanerocrystalline rocks, 412

Phenocrysts, 412

Philosophic geology, 1

Phonolite, 472

Photobathic fauna, 670

Photobathic zone, 670

Phyllite, 472

Physiographic geology, 1

Picrolite, 465

Pictotite, 465

Piedmontite, 465

Piedmont glacier, 254

Piedmont plain, alluvial, 183

Piracy, 160
domestic, 104
extent of, in Appalachians, 170
foreign, 104
of Kaaterskill Creek, 105
of Plaaterskill Creek, 105

Pirsson, Louis V., 412 451, 573

Pisolite, 465, 496

Pitchstones, 408, 453, 472

Plagioclase, 465

Plain, alluvial, 181, 184
graded, 169
outwash, 306

Planation, 82

Plant kingdom, geologic contributions of, 652–658

Plant life and carbon dioxide, 665

Plant societies, 667

Plants, contributions to deposits, 652–658
contribution to limestone, 654
effect on erosion, 131, 644
reference table of, 653
weathering influenced by, 112

Platte River, 187

Plaaterskill Creek, piracy of, 105

Plugs, volcanic, 591

Plumbago, 465

Plunging anticline, 155

Plutonic rocks, 472

Polar glaciers, 254

Poincaré, H., 576

Polic rocks, 456

Polmitic rocks, 457

Ponding of streams, 171

Po River, delta of, 202
sediment carried by, 107

Porphyries, 453

Porphyrite, 472

Porphyritic rocks, 411

Porphyry, 472

Posepny, F., 474

Potash, in sea-water, 377

Pot holes, 140

Potomac River, 168
sediment carried by, 107

Potonié, H., 652

Powell, J. W., 519, 521

Precipitation, 50
from atmosphere, 51
from solution, 41, 225, 239, 375–379

Precipitation from solution, conditions influencing, 225
influenced by algæ, 225

Pressures within earth, based on Laplace’s law, 564

Prestwich, J., 203, 225

Propylite, 472

Protogine, 472

Protozoa, geologic contribution of, 660

Provincial faunas, 668

Pseudomorphs, 465

Psilomelane, 465

Psychological factors 651

Pteridophytes, geologic contribution of, 657

Pteropod ooze, 380, 382

“Pulpit rocks,” 350

Pumice, 406, 453, 472

Push moraine, 301

Puzzalana, 405

Pyrite, 465

Pyroclastic rocks, 404, 406, 472

Pyrolic rocks, 457

Pyroxene, 400, 465

Pyroxenite, 417, 452, 472

Quaquaversal dip, 504

Quardofelic rocks, 456

Quarfelic rocks, 456

Quartz, 466

Quartzite, 447, 472

Quartz-leucophyres, 453

Quartzophyres, 453

Quartz-porphyries, 453

Radiolarian ooze, 380, 382, 425, 661

Rain, amount of, 51
erosion by, 57
mechanical work of, 51

Rain-drop impressions, 490

Rainfall, effect on erosion, 128

Ransome, F. L., 130, 513

Rapids, development of, 133, 146

Rate of erosion, conditions affecting, 123

Ravine, 64

Raymond, R. W., 474

Reade, T. M., 225, 366, 561, 572

Reconstructed glacier, 256

Red clay, 380, 383, 384

Red mud, 380

Red River of Louisiana, 188

Reid, H. F., 256, 259, 261

Regolith, 400, 472

Rejuvenation of streams, 162–163
criteria of, 164, 165, 166

Relief, of lithosphere, 11
of ocean basins, 11
representation on maps, 30

Relief of pressure, a cause of volcanic action, 627

Rendu, L. C., 321, 322

Restrictive evolution, 672

Reversed fault, 517, 521

Reyer, E., 636

Rhine River, material in solution in, 108

Rhizopoda, geologic contributions of, 660

Rhone River, delta of, 203
material in solution in, 108
sediment carried by, 107

Rhyolite, 472

Rhyolitic structure, of lavas, 41

Ricard, T. A., 474

Richthofen, Baron von, 23, 604, 614, 615

Rigidity, distribution of, 578

Rill-marks, 372, 489

Rink, H., 248

Ripple-marks, 371, 489
due to wind, 37

Rio Grande River, sediment of, 107

River lakes, 198

River erosion (see Stream erosion)

Roanoke River, 168

Roches Moutonnées, 304

Rock breaking, by changes of temperature, 44, 49

Rocks, alferric, 454
alkalicalcic, 458
alkalimirlic, 458
alterations of, 426
aqueous, 467
arenaceous, 468
autoclastic, 444
calcimiric, 458
“chimney,” 350
chloritic, 431
classification and nomenclature, 449
clastic, 468
crystalline, 16
determination of age, 15
disruption by hydration, 111
docalcic, 458
dofemic, 454
doferrous, 459
dohemic, 457
dolenic, 456
domagnesic, 459
domalkalic, 458
domilic, 457
domiric, 458
domirlic, 458
domitic, 457
dopolic, 456
dopotassic, 458
dopyric, 457
doquaric, 456
dosalic, 454
dosodic, 458
dotilic, 457
eolian, 469
femic, 454
glassy, 406
holocrystalline, 412
hypogene, 470
igneous, 16, 393, 498
leading elements of, 396
lendofelic, 456
lenfelic, 456
magnesiferrous, 459
meta-igneous, 471
metamorphic, 16
mirlic, 458
mitic, 456
organic, 646
origin and descent of, 393–485
peralkalic, 458
percalcic, 458, 459
perfelic, 456
perfemic, 454
perferrous, 459
perhemic 457
perlenic, 456
permagnesic, 459
permiric, 458
permerlic, 458
permitic, 457
perolic, 457
perpolic, 456
perpotassic, 458
perquaric, 456
persalic, 454
persodic, 458
pertilic, 457
perpyric, 457
phanerocrystalline, 412
plutonic, 472
polic, 456
polmitic, 457
porphyritic, 411
precipitate, 427
“pulpit,” 350
pyroclastic, 404, 406, 472
quardofelic, 456
quarfelic, 456
salfemic, 454
salic, 454
secondary, 420
sedimentary, 422, 486
sodipotassic, 458
solution of, 427
specific heat of, 552
stratified, 14
talcose, 431
tilhemic, 457

Rock terraces, 140, 204

Rock waste, 12

Roots, wedge-work of, 112, 131, 150

Rotation of earth, change in rate of, 575
effect on stream erosion, 194

Rotation and vulcanism, 604

Roth, J., 108

Running water (see Streams)

Run-off, 59

Russell, I. C., 108, 118, 151, 172, 194, 203, 232, 256, 283, 388, 392, 636

Rutile, 466

Saint Vincent, 605

Salfemane, 455

Salfemic rocks, 454

Saline lakes (see Salt lakes)

Saline springs, 235

Salisbury, R. D., 203, 256

Salt lakes, 391
composition of, 372
deposits in, 388

Salts, deposition of, 375–378
in sea-water, 324–326

Sand, eolian, 26–37

Sandstone, 422, 434, 472
stratification of, 487

Sandstone dikes, 514

Sanidine, 466

Sapping, 127, 133

Satinspar, 466

Schist, 446, 472

Schistosity, 443

Schmidt, J. F. J., 537

Schoharie Creek, beheaded, 105

Scoriæ, 405, 473

Scour-and-fill, 194
of Missouri River, 195

Scrope, G. P., 636

Sea-caves, 350

Sea-cliffs, 349

Sea, the (see Ocean)

Sea-water, aperiodic movements of, 338
movements generated by attraction, 337
movements of, 334–342
salts in, 376, 377, 378

Sea-waves, caused by earthquake, 535

Secondary rocks, derivation of, 420

“Second bottoms,” 205

Secretions, 497

Sediment, carried by Danube, 107
carried by Irrawaddy, 107
carried by Mississippi, 107
carried by Nile, 107
carried by Po, 107
carried by Potomac, 107
carried by Rhone, 107
carried by Rio Grande, 107
carried by Uruguay, 107
character of, influenced by land vegetation, 645
deposited by rivers, 65, 177–204
deposited in lakes, 387
deposited in sea, 368–386
effect on corrasion, 120
effect on falls, 137
how carried by streams, 116

Sedimentary rocks, classes of, 422
structural features of, 486

Sedimentation and vulcanism, 629

Seed-plants, 657

Segregation of ores, 475

Seiches, 386

Seine River, intrenched meanders of, 164

Selenite, 466

Septaria, 473, 495

Serpentine, 431, 466, 473

Serpentine kames, 306

Seward, A. C., 652

Shale, 422, 434, 473
stratification of, 487

Shaler, N. S., 227, 349, 357 (and Davis, W. M.), 256

Shallow-water deposits, 368, 369, 379
characteristics of, 373
topography of, 374

Shearing of glacier ice, 317

Sheet erosion, 59

Shell marl, 655

Shore currents, 342
deposition by, 355

Shore deposition and coastal configuration, 363

Shore drift, 355

Shore ice, 389

Shoshone Falls, 135

Siderite, 425, 466

Silicified wood, 439

Silicious deposits, 425

Sills, 446, 592

Sketcherly, S. B., 23

Slate, 473

Slaty structure, 441

Slichter, C. S., 221, 563, 576

Slumps, 231

Smaragdite, 466

Smith, E. A., 543

Snow-fields, 244
distribution of, 244

Snowflakes, forms of, 310

Snow-line, 245
in Andes, 246
in Antarctica, 246
in Greenland, 246
in Himalayas, 246

Snow, work of, 244

Soapstone, 431, 473

Sodipotassic rocks, 458

Solms-Laubach, 652

Solution, by ground-water, 222
by rivers, 108, 122

Solution of rocks, 427

Solvent action, location of, 480

Sorby, H. C., 367

Source of streams, 178

Spatter cones, 609, 610

Specific heat of rock, 552

Spermatophytes, geologic contribution of, 657

Sphenophyllum, 657

Sphericity, a factor in deformation, 580

Spherosiderite, 466

Spinel, 466

Spit, the, 357

Sponges, secretions of, 661

Sporadosiderites, 5

“Spouting horn,” 351

Springs, calcareous, 235
chalybeate, 235
cold, 234
common, 235
deep, 234
intermittent, 235
medicinal, 235
mineral, 235
saline, 235
shallow, 234
sulphur, 235

Stalactite, 437, 473
formation of, 227

Stalagmite 437, 473

St. Anthony Falls, 136

Stapff, F. M. 388

Staurolite, 466

Steam discharge from volcanoes, 635

Steatite, 431, 466, 473

Stevenson, D., 341, 344, 370

Stoping, 632

Stoss side, 299

Strachey, R., 51

Stratification, 486

Stratified rocks, 14

Stratigraphic geology, 1

Stratigraphy and fossils, 647

Stratigraphy and paleontology, 647

Stream erosion, 56–177
economic effects of, 108
influenced by rock, 124
influenced by declivity, 123
influenced by structure, 125, 127
topography developed by, 92

Streams, abrasion by, 119
adjustment in Appalachians, 148
adjustment of, 146, 147
affected by rotation of earth, 194
aggradational work of, 177–204
antecedent, 169, 171
characteristics of aggrading, 179, 187
compared with glaciers, 262
consequent, 78
corrasion by, 119
cross-currents in, 117
decrease in size of, 179, 180
deposition by, 177
drowning of, 170
effect of change of level on, 161, 171
erosion by, 57–177
floods of, 109
ice of, 118
intermittent, 71, 72
mature, 86
mechanical work of, 226
migration from synclines to anticlines, 159
mineral matter in solution in, 225
old age of, 89
overloading of, 178, 179, 186
permanent, 70
piracy of, 103
ponding of, 171
relation of width to meander belt, 193
solution by, 108, 122
sources of, 178
struggle for existence among, 100
superimposed, 150
topographic adjustment of, 162, 163, 197
transportation by, 115, 116
velocity of, 115
young, 85

Stream-terraces, 204–212

Stream velocity, effect on transportation, 115

Stream work, 57–212

Stress-accumulation, 583, 588

Striæ, 283

Strike, 501

Strike fault, 522

Stromboli, 636

Structural adjustment of valleys, 147

Structural features of rocks, 486–525
arising from disturbance, 500
of igneous rocks, 498
of sedimentary rock, 486

Structural geology, 1, 486

Structural valleys, 77

Structure of glacier ice, 308

Structure of rock, influence on erosion, 125

Struggle for existence among valleys, 100

Subaërial erosion, 58

Sub-atomic forces, causes of crustal movement, 556

Subdivisions of geology, 1

Subglacial load, 282

Subsidence, effect on coast-lines, 331

Suess, Edw., 538

Sulphur, 466

Sulphur springs, 235

Sun-cracks, 373, 490

Superglacial load, 282

Superimposed streams, 150

Surface moraines, 266

Susquehanna River, 168

Switzerland, snow-fields of, 245

Syenites, 415, 452, 473

Syncline, 157, 504

Synclinoria, 504

Syssiderites, 5

Tachylite, 473

Tait, P. G., 552, 572, 573 (and Thompson, J.), 560, 579

Talc, 466

Talcose rock, 431

Talus, 112

Talus cone, 182

Talus glacier, 233, 232

Tarr, R. S., 165

Temperature, at centre of earth, 571
atmospheric, 43, 46, 49
based on Laplace’s law, 564
effect on erosion, 129
effects of changes on rocks, 44
expansion and contraction due to changes of, 44
in excavations, 569
of interior of earth, 559–570
of lavas, 615, 627

Tennessee River, history of, 168–169

Tension joints, 514

Terminal moraine, 266, 301

Terraces, stream, 204–212
flood-plain, 205
rock, 140, 204
termini of, 210
wave-built, 363
wave-cut, 351, 353

Terrigenous deposits, in sea, 379

Thallophytes, geologic contribution of, 653

Thames River, 224
material in solution in, 108

Thibetan plateau, 548

Thompson, James, 322, 560, 579

Thompson, W. G., 119

“Thorofares,” 358

Thrust-fault, 517, 518

Tides, 4, 338
effect on rotation, 4

Tilden, W. A., 620

Tilhemic rocks, 457

Till, 473

Titanite, 467

Todd, J. E., 195

Topaz, 467

Topographic adjustment of streams, 162, 163, 197

Topographic effects of glacial erosion, 287

Topographic effects of ground-water, 231

Topographic map, explanation of, 30

Topographic maturity, 86

Topographic old age, 89

Topographic youth, 86

Topography, developed by river erosion, 92
dune, 32
landslide, 231
mature, 86
of alluvial deposits, 196
of glaciers, 266
of ocean bottom, 326
of shallow-water deposits, 374
youthful 86

Top-set beds, 202

Trachyte, 473

Transportation, 110
by glaciers, 281
by ocean currents, 367
by streams, 115, 119
by waves, 354
by wind, 22, 25

Trap, 419, 473

Travertine, 473

Trees, uprooting of, 40

Tremolite, 447, 467

Tributaries, development of, 78
position of, 79
topographic adjustment of, 197

Tripoli, 661

Tripolite, 426

Trout creek, 193

Tschermak, G., 538

Tufa (see Tuffs)

Tufa cones, 611

Tufa deposits, 611

Tuffs, 404, 434, 473

Tuscarora deep, 548

Two Medicine River, 154, 157

Tyndall, J., and Huxley, T. H., 322

Udden, J. A., 22

Uinta Mountains, lateral moraines of, 303

Underground water (see Ground-water)

Undertow, 341
deposition by, 355
erosion by, 342, 347

United States Geological Survey, VI., 32

Upham, W., 388

Uprooting of trees, 40

Uralite, 431

Uruguay River, sediment carried by, 107

Usiglio, 375

Valleys,
affected by folds, 154
antecedent (see Streams, antecedent)
canoe-shaped, 155
consequent, 78
courses of, 77
development of, 63, 70, 73, 80
hanging, 164, 290
limits of growth, 67
oldest parts, 76
profiles of, 66
relations to lakes, 74
slopes of, 94
special forms of, 94
structural, 77
struggle for existence among, 100

Van Hise, C. R., 219, 434, 448, 474, 479, 504, 543, 555, 570

Vegetation,
effect on dunes, 29
effect on erosion, 131, 644
effect on sediments, 645
effect on weathering, 131

Veins, 223, 428, 511

Vermes, geologic contribution of, 662

Vermeule, C. C., 109

Vertebrata, geologic contribution of, 663

Vesuvius, 605

Virginia, natural bridge of, 156

Viridite, 467

Volcanic action, causes of, 623–633
activity, periodicity of, 607
ash, 23, 404, 592, 617
bombs, 406, 592, 617
cinders, 592
cones, 500
débris in sea, 381
dust (see Volcanic ash)
eruptions, 594
and atmospheric pressure, 606
and tidal strain, 607
types of, 593
gases, 617–623
action of, 617
kinds of, 618
proportions of, 620, 622
sources of, 619, 620, 621, 633
glass (see Obsidian)
in sea, 381
mud, 380
flows of, 610
neck, 500
plug, 500
rocks, 395–418
residual gases in, 619
smoke, 592, 617

Volcanoes, 599–611
coincidence in eruption of, 606
cones of, 608
distribution of, in curved lines, 603
distribution of, in latitude, 603
distribution of, in relation to crustal movements, 601, 604, 628
distribution of, in relation to land and sea, 599
distribution of, in time, 599
independence of, 605, 623
periodicity of, 607
relations of, 604–607
relations to one another, 605

Volume of ocean, 325

Vuggs, 437

Vulcanism, 2, 590–637
causes of, 623–633
effects on coast-lines, 332
in ocean, 332

Vulcanism and deep sedimentation, 629
ground-water, 635
rotation, 603

Wacke, 422, 473, 645

Wad, 467

Walcott, C. D., 194, 246, 371, 438, 440, 441, 502, 503, 509

Wallace, A. R., 665, 668

Walther, J., 50, 670

Warming, E., 667

Warping, effect of, on streams, 171
of earth’s crust, 526, 541, 542

Wasatch Mountains, lateral moraines of, 303

Washington, H. S., 412, 451, 573

Waste of glaciers, 273

Water (see Streams, Ground-water, Ocean, etc.)
amount of, 7
geologic activity of, 8

Water-gaps, 141, 167

Waterfalls, 132
development of, 133
Minnehaha, 137
Niagara, 139
Shoshone, 135
St. Anthony, 135
Upper Yosemite, 138
Yellowstone, 135

Waterfalls and sediment, 137

Water-lime, 473

Water-table, 71, 215

Water-vapor, climatic effects of, 643

Wave-built terraces, 363

Wave-cut terraces, 351, 352

Wave erosion, 342–354
range of, 346
topographic features developed by, 349

Wave erosion and horizontal configuration, 353, 363, 364

Wave-marks, 490

Wave-motion, 339

Waves, 339
deposition by, 355
erosion by, 342–354
force of, 344
transportation by, 354
work of, 342–366

Weathering, 54, 110, 226
affected by life, 644
aided by plants, 112
aided by hot vapors, 113
effect of gravity, 112
effect of joints, 151, 153
importance of, in valley growth, 114

Wedgework of ice, 45, 48, 150
of roots, 112, 131, 150

Weed, W. H., 225, 237, 474, 656

Wells,
artesian, 242
flowing, 234, 242, 243

Wheeling well, temperature of, 569

White glacier, 263

Whitfield, J. E. (and Gooch, F. A.), 236

Williams, H. S., 658

Willis, B., 157, 168, 169, 257, 344, 355, 365, 516, 543, 550

Winchell, H. V., 474

Wind, abrasion by, 38
effects on plants, 40
movements of sea, generated by, 336
transports organisms, 41
work of, 21–41

Wind-blown dust, 22

Wind-blown sands, 25

Wind-ripples, 37

Winslow, A., 474

Wisconsin River, dells of, 152

Woodward, R. S., 560, 581

Work of glaciers, 281

Wyandotte Cave, 227, 228

Yazoo River, 188

Yellowstone Park,
geysers of, 238
hot springs of, 225

Yellowstone River,
canyon of, 100
falls of, 135

Yukon River, delta of, 202

Zeiller, 652

Zeolites, 428, 467

Zircon, 467

Zittel, K. von, 658, 659

Zone of fracture, 219, 427

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The Earth. Johnson’s Encyclopædia. See also statement of Murray in
Smithsonian An. Rept., 1899, p. 312. Reprint from Brit. A. A. S.,
Dover meeting, 1899, and Scot. Geog. Mag., Vol. XV, 1899, p. 511.

[2] Its specific gravity as a whole is about 5.57, and the specific
gravity of its outer portion is about 2.7.

[3] For an excellent study of the erosion, transportation, and
sedimentation performed by the atmosphere, see Udden, Jour. of Geol.,
Vol. II, pp. 318–331. See also Pop. Sci. Mo., September, 1896.

[4] The Eruption of Krakatoa. Committee of the Royal Society, 1888.

[5] A brief account of the influence of the dust on sunsets is found in
Davis’s Elementary Meteorology, pp. 85 and 119.

[6] Science, New Ser., Vol. IV, p. 816, 1896.

[7] Von Richtofen. “China.”

[8] Sketcherley and Kingsmill. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. LI, 1895,
pp. 238–254.

[9] Chamberlin. Jour. of Geol., Vol. V, p. 795.

[10] A thoroughgoing study of the _Formation of Sand Dunes_ (by V.
Cornish) is to be found in the Geog. Jour., Vol. IX, 1897, pp.
278–309.

[11] Blanford. Geology of India, 2d ed., p. 455 et seq.

[12] Cornish, loc. cit.

[13] Cornish, loc. cit., p. 294.

[14] Diller states (17th Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, p. 450)
that on the coast of Oregon the slope of dunes is sometimes 40°.

[15] From folio preface, U. S. Geol. Surv.

[16] Credner. Elemente der Geologie, 6th ed., p. 271.

[17] Merrill. Rocks, Rock Weathering, and Soils, p. 295.

[18] Cowles. The Ecological Relations of the Vegetation of the Sand
Dunes of Lake Michigan. Botanical Gazette, Vol. XXVII, 1899. An
excellent study of the relations of sand dunes and vegetation.

[19] For example, in the Big Horn Mountains of Wyoming.

[20] It should be noted that it is the change of temperature of the
rock surface, not the change of temperature of the air above it,
which is to be considered. Many data concerning temperature changes
are to be found in Bartholomew’s Atlas of Meteorology.

[21] Buckley. Wisconsin Survey, Bull. IV, 1899, pp. 81–3.

[22] Livingstone has reported that the temperature of rock surfaces
in Africa sometimes reaches 137° Fahr. during the day, and cools
sufficiently at night to split off blocks of 200 lbs. weight.

[23] Buckley. Surv. of Wis., Bull. IV, pp. 19, 20.

[24] For an excellent discussion of erosion in dry regions see
Walther’s Die Denudation in der Wüste.

[25] On the assumption that condensation takes place at an average
elevation of 3000 feet, it has been estimated that the force
necessary to evaporate and diffuse the moisture which falls as
rain and snow would be equivalent to 300,000,000,000 horse-power
constantly in operation. (Strachey, Lectures on Geography, p. 145.)

[26] McGee. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. VIII, pp. 87–112.

[27] For a discussion of convex and concave erosion slopes see Bain,
Geol. Surv. of Ia., Vol. VI, p. 449.

[28] Great rivers, like the Mississippi, cut their _channels_ somewhat
below sea-level, but probably not by an amount exceeding the depth of
the stream itself (see p. 79).

[29] Davis. Jour. of Geol., Vol. X, p. 87.

[30] _Ibid._, p. 77 et seq.

[31] In regions where canyons are common, the term is often applied to
all valleys.

[32] Humphreys and Abbot. Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi
River.

[33] From Russell’s Rivers of North America, p. 78.

[34] Alkaline carbonates considered as sodium carbonates.

[35] Carbonic acid by difference.

[36] Babb. Science, Vol. XXI, p. 343. 1893.

[37] Quoted by Mason. Water-supply, p. 204.

[38] Sot. Geog. Mag., Vol. III, p. 76. 1887.

[39] Acids and bases combined according to the principles indicated by
Bunsen.

[40] Chemical Geology, Vol. I, pp. 76, 77, English ed., 1854.

[41] Allgemeine und chemische Geologie, Vol. I, pp. 456, 457. 1879.

[42] Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 79.

[43] For disastrous floods of the lower Mississippi, see Johnson, Bull.
Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II, pp. 20–25. For effect of precipitation
and forests on floods, see Russell’s Meteorology, pp. 198–217, and
Vermeule, Report on Water Supply, Geol. Surv. of N. J.

[44] An excellent discussion of this subject is given by Gilbert in The
Henry Mountains, pp. 99 et seq., and more briefly in the Am. Jour.
Sci., Vol. XII, p. 85 et seq. 1876.

[45] Jour. of Geol., Vol. IV, p. 718. An excellent summary of the
principles of Rock Weathering.

[46] Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 17.

[47] W. G. Thompson. Nature, Vol. I, p. 555, 1870. The Matapediac
River, N. B. Cited by Russell in Rivers of North America, p. 25.

[48] Dutton. Tertiary History of the Grand Canyon District, Mono. II,
U. S. Geological Survey.

[49] The terms rapids, falls, and cataracts are rather loosely used.
Many moderate rapids are incorrectly called falls. The “Falls of the
Ohio” is an example. The term cataract is often applied to very steep
rapids or falls.

[50] Gilbert, article on Niagara Falls, in Physiography of the United
States.

[51] Gilbert. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XII. p. 99, 1876.

[52] For a brief account of this fall see Gilbert in Physiography of
the United States.

[53] Gilbert. Science, Vol. VIII, p. 205, 1886.

[54] See Campbell, Jour. Geol., Vol. IV, pp. 567, 657.

[55] Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 280. The influence of joints
on drainage is further discussed by Hobbs, Jour. Geol., Vol. IX, p.
469.

[56] See Willis. The Northern Appalachians, in Physiography of the
United States.

[57] This process of adjustment has been well described by Davis in The
Rivers and Valleys of Pennsylvania, Natl. Geog. Mag., Vol. I, p. 211
et seq.

[58] This sort of adjustment may be called _topographic adjustment_.
A tributary is in topographic adjustment when its gradient is
harmonious with that of its main.

[59] Davis. The Seine, the Meuse and the Moselle. Nat’l Geog. Mag.,
Vol. VII, pp. 181–202, and 228–238. An article which throws much
light on the behavior of rivers.

[60] Another view has been advocated by Tarr, Am. Geol. Vol. XXI, pp.
351–370.

[61] Campbell. Bull. Geol. Soc. of Am., Vol. XIV, p. 277.

[62] Willis. Physiography of the United States. The Northern
Appalachians.

[63] For excellent accounts of the rivers of the Appalachian Mountains
see Davis, Rivers of Northern New Jersey, Nat’l Geog. Mag., Vol.
II, pp. 81–110; and Rivers of Pennsylvania, op. cit., pp. 183–253;
Willis, The Northern Appalachians, Physiography of the United States,
pp. 169–202; Hayes, the Southern Appalachians, op. cit., pp. 305–336;
Hayes and Campbell, The Geomorphology of the Southern Appalachians,
Nat’l Geog. Mag., Vol. VI, pp. 63–126, and Hayes, Physiography of the
Chattanooga District, 19th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. II, pp.
1–58.

[64] This is the case at Davis and Lone Star. Capt Howell, Miss. Riv.
Commission.

[65] Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 279.

[66] Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 279.

[67] Hayes. Physiography of the Chattanooga District, 19th Ann. Rep.,
U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. II, pp. 9–58. See, also, Hayes and Campbell,
Geomorphology of the Southern Appalachians, Nat’l Geog. Mag., Vol.
VI, pp. 63–126.

[68] Figs. 165–168 are based on reports of Hayes, and Hayes and
Campbell, already referred to. Drawn by E. S. Bastin.

[69] A question might be raised in this case as to what should be
called the source. A spring issues from beneath the surface and flows
away in a stream. The stream is said to begin where the water appears
at the surface, though in some cases the water of the spring was a
subsurface stream before it reached the surface. Water escaping from
beneath a glacier as a stream may likewise be considered a spring at
the point of its issue.

[70] Davis. Science, Vol. X, p. 142, 1887.

[71] L. C. Johnson. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II, pp. 20–25, 1891.

[72] Jefferson. Nat’l Geog. Mag., Vol. XIII, pp. 373–84.

[73] According to map published by the Mississippi River Commission in
1887.

[74] Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 114.

[75] Gilbert. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXVII, 1884, pp. 427–34.

[76] Cooley. Rept. U. S. Engineers for 1879–80, Pt. II, pp. 1060 and
1071.

[77] Gerber. Cited by Todd. Bull. 158, U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 150, 151.

[78] Chamberlin. Jour. of Geol., Vol. X, pp. 747–754.

[79] For an excellent discussion of deltas, see Gilbert, Fifth Ann.
Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., pp 104–8. Also Lake Bonneville, Monograph I,
U. S. Geol. Surv. (same article).

[80] Davis. Physical Geography, p. 294.

[81] Humphreys and Abbot. Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi
River.

[82] Corthell. Nat’l Geog. Mag., Vol. VIII, p. 351, 1897.

[83] Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 132.

[84] Prestwich. Chemical and Physical Geology, Vol. I, p. 85.

[85] Geike. Text-book of Geology, 3d ed., p. 402.

[86] Medlicott and Blanford, Geology of India. Chap. XVII; Medlicott,
Records of the Geological Survey of India, 1881; Oldham, Geology of
India, 2d ed., Chap. XVII; and Ferguson, Q. J. G. S., Vol. XIX, pp.
321–54. The extent of this and other deltas is variously stated,
probably because it is difficult to determine the exact position of
its head and borders.

[87] Dana. Manual of Geology, 4th ed., p. 198.

[88] Salisbury and Kümmel. Lake Passaic. Ann. Rept. of the State
Geologist of New Jersey, 1893, and Jour. of Geol., Vol. III. p. 533.

[89] Gilbert. Lake Bonneville, Mono. I, U. S. Geol. Surv.

[90] For discussions of terraces see Gilbert’s Henry Mountains, p. 126;
Davis’ River Terraces in New England, Bull. of the Mus. of Comp.
Zool., Geol. Series, Vol. V, pp. 282–346; and Dodge, Proc. Boston
Soc. of Nat. Hist., Vol. XXVI, pp. 257–73.

[91] Davis, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Geol. Ser., Vol. V.

[92] This point has recently been emphasized by Davis, loc. cit., pp.
282–346.

[93] Murray. Scot. Geog. Mag., Vol. III, p. 70, 1887.

[94] Hoskins. 16th Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 853.

[95] Van Hise. Principles of North American Pre-Cambrian Geology, 16th
Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv.

[96] For a full discussion of this subject see King, 19th Ann. Rept.,
U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. II, and Slichter, Water Supply and Irrigation,
Paper No. 67, U. S. Geol. Surv.

[97] For tables see Buckley, Building and Ornamental Stones, Bull. IV,
Wis. Surv., and Merrill, Stones for Building and Decoration, and
various Survey Reports.

[98] It is probable that the porosity decreases in more than an
arithmetic ratio, both because the deeper rocks are not of porous
kinds, and because of the pressure which tends to close openings.

[99] Slichter (op. cit., p. 15) estimates that the ground-water is
sufficient in amount to cover the earth’s surface to a depth of
3000 to 3500 feet. Earlier estimates gave still higher figures (see
Delesse, Bull. Soc. Geol., France, Second Series, Vol. XIX, 1861–62,
p. 64).

[100] Geikie. Text-book of Geology, 3d ed., p. 367.

[101] Ibid., p. 378.

[102] Prestwich, Q. J. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXVIII, p. lxvii.

[103] Reade. Liverpool Geol. Soc., 1876 and 1884.

[104] This is not true in the case of minerals, such as lime carbonate,
dissolved under the influence of gases in solution in the water.

[105] Weed. The Formation of Hot Springs Deposits. Excursion to the
Rocky Mountains. Compte Rendu. Fifth Session of the International
Geological Congress, p. 360, and Ninth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv.,
pp. 613–76. Also B. M. Davis, Science, Vol. VI, pp. 145–57, 1897.

[106] For a racy and interesting account of caverns see Shaler’s
Aspects of the Earth.

[107] Russell has emphasized this point in 20th Ann. U. S. Geol. Surv.,
Pt. II, pp. 193–202, and Cross, 21st Ann. U. S. Geol. Surv., Part II,
pp. 129–150.

[108] Gooch and Whitfield. Bull. 47, U. S. Geol. Surv.

[109] Copied from Russell, Mono., XI. U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 176.

[110] Correction for specific gravity only approximate, as specific
gravity was not given in original analyses.

[111] As carbonates.

[112] As carbonate.

[113] As oxide.

[114] As carbonate.

[115] As sodium chloride.

[116] As fluoride of calcium.

[117] Oxygen added to SiO₂ to form SiO₃ of Na₂SiO₃.

[118] Liters of gas thrown off per liter of water.

[119] Weed. Ninth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 613–76, and Am.
Jour. Sci., Vol. XXXVII, 1889, pp. 351–59.

[120] Geikie. Geological Sketches, pp. 206–38. Hayden. Amer. Jour.
Sci., Vol. III, 1872, pp. 105–15 and 161–76.

[121] Chamberlin. Geol. of Wis., Vol. I, pp. 689–97, and Fifth Ann.
Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 131–73. The former a brief, and the
latter an elaborate, exposition of the principles involved.

[122] Russell. Nat’l Geog. Mag., Vol. III, pp. 127 and 181.

[123] For an account of experiments illustrating the mobility of ice
see Aitkin, Am. Jour. Sci., Vols. V, p. 303, and XXXIV, p. 149, and
Nature, Vol. XXXIX, p. 203.

[124] Jour. of Geol., Vol. III, p. 888.

[125] The following list includes many of the more available articles
and treatises on existing glaciers; others are referred to in the
following pages.

_Alaskan glaciers_: Reid, (1) Nat. Geog. Mag., Vol. IV, pp. 19–55;
(2) Sixteenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., Part I, pp. 421–461.
Russell, (1) Nat. Geog. Mag., Vol. III, pp. 176–188; (2) Jour. of
Geol., Vol. I, pp. 219–245.

_Glaciers in the United States_: Russell, (1) Fifth Ann. Rept., U.
S. Geol. Surv., pp. 309–355; (2) Eighteenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol.
Surv., Part II, pp. 379–409; (3) Glaciers of North America.

_Greenland glaciers_: Chamberlin, Jour. of Geol., Vol. II, pp.
768–788; Vol. III, pp. 61–69, 198–218, 469–480, 565–582, 668–681,
and 833–843; Vol. IV, pp. 582–592. Salisbury, Jour. of Geol., Vol.
III, pp. 875–902, and Vol. IV, pp. 769–810.

_Glaciers in general_: Shaler and Davis, Illustrations of the
Earth’s Surface; Forbes, Norway and its Glaciers, and Theory of
Glaciers; Heim, Handbuch der Gletscherkunde.

[126] Reid. Natl. Geog. Mag., Vol. IV, p. 44.

[127] Rink’s Greenland.

[128] Reid. Variations of Glaciers. Jour. of Geol., Vols. III, p. 278;
V, p. 378; VI, p. 473; VII, p. 217; VIII, p. 154; IX, p. 250, and X,
p. 313.

[129] For example, in the Middle Blase Dale glacier, Island of Disco,
Jour. of Geol., Vol. II, p. 784, and in the Bowdoin glacier (Fig.
242).

[130] Centimeter-gramme-second system. The rate of conductivity has not
been very accurately determined.

[131] Russell. Jour. of Geol., Vol. III, p. 823.

[132] Geikie. The Great Ice Age, 3d ed., p. 529.

[133] Carried out by C. E. Peet and E. C. Perisho under the direction
of one of the authors.

[134] Ueber die Plasticität der Eiskrystalle. Neues Jahrbuch für
Mineralogie, etc., 1895, Bd. II, p. 211.

[135] On the Plasticity of Glaciers and other Ice. Proc. Roy. Soc.,
Vol. XLIV, 1888, pp. 331–67 (with D. A. Kidd); Vol. XLVIII, 1890, pp.
259, 260; Vol. XLIX, 1891, pp. 323–43.

[136] Grönland-Expedition der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin,
1891–93, Bd. I, p. 491 et seq.

[137] _References on glacier structure and motion._—L. Agassiz, Études
sur les Glaciers, Neuchâtel, 1840. Rendu, Théorie des Glaciers de la
Savoie, Soc. Roy. Acad., Savoie, Mém. 1840 (in English, ed. by Geo.
Forbes, London, 1874). J. de Charpentier, Essai sur les Glaciers
et le terrain erratique du Basin du Rhone, Lausanne, 1841. F. J.
Hugi, Ueber das Wesen der Gletscher und Wintereise in dem Eismeer,
Stuttgart, 1842. R. Mallet, The Mechanism of Glaciers, Jour. Geol.
Soc. Dublin, Vol. I, p. 317; On the Plasticity of Glacier Ice,
Jour. Geol. Soc. Dublin, 1845, Vol. III, p. 122; On the Brittleness
and Non-plasticity of Glacier Ice, Phil. Mag., XXVI, p. 586. James
Thompson, On the Plasticity of Ice as Manifested in Glaciers, Roy.
Soc. Proc., Vol. 8, 1857, pp. 455–58. J. Tyndall and T. H. Huxley,
On the Structure and Motion of Glaciers, Phil. Trans., 1857, Vol.
CXLVII, p. 327. J. D. Forbes, Occasional Papers on the Theory of
Glaciers, Edinburgh, 1859. W. Hopkins, On the Theory of the Motion
of Glaciers, Phil. Trans., 1862, p. 677; Phil. Mag., 1863, Vol. XXV,
p. 224. J. Tyndall, Forms of Water, New York, 1872; The Glaciers of
the Alps, London, 1861. James Croll, On the Physical Cause of the
Motion of Glaciers, Phil. Mag., 1869, Vol. 38, pp. 201–6. A. Heim,
On Glaciers, Phil. Mag., 1871, Vol. 41, pp. 485–508; Handbuch der
Gletscherkunde, 1885. H. Moseley, On the Cause of the Descent of
Glaciers, Br. Assoc. Rept., 1860, Pt. 2, p. 48; also Phil. Mag.,
1869, Vol. 37, pp. 229, 363; Vol. 39, p. 241; Vol. 42, p. 138; Vol.
43, p. 38. Ch. Grad, La Constitution et le movement des Glaciers,
Revue Sci., 1872. H. J. Rink, Danish Greenland, 1877. R. M. Deeley,
A Theory of Glacial Motion, Phil. Mag., 1888, Vol. 25, pp. 136–64.
J. C. McConnel, On the Plasticity of an Ice Crystal, Proc. Roy.
Soc. London, Vol. 48, 1890, pp. 256–60; ibid., Vol. 49, 1891, pp.
323–43. O. Mügge, Über die Plasticität der Eiskrystalle, Nachr. k.
Ges. d. Wiss., Göttingen, 1895, pp. 1–4. R. M. Deeley and George
Fletcher, The Structure of Glacier Ice and its Bearings on Glacier
Motion, Geol. Mag. (London), Decade 4, Vol. 2, 1895, pp. 152–62. T.
C. Chamberlin, Presidential address before the Geol. Soc. Am., Bull.
Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. VI, February 1895, pp. 199–220. Reid, Mechanics
of Glaciers, Jour. Geol., Vol. IV, 1896, p. 912. Erich von Drygalski,
Grönland-Expedition der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, 1891–93,
Vol. I, 1897.

[138] Much information on these and other points is to be found in
the following books: Wild’s Thalassa; Thompson’s Depths of the Sea;
Barker’s Deep Sea Soundings, and Maury’s Physical Geography; Agassiz’
The Three Cruises of the Blake, and the Challenger Reports give much
more detailed information concerning these and other matters.

[139] Dittmar, Challenger Reports, Physics and Chemistry, Vol. I, p.
204.

[140] For a discussion of the way in which this gas is held in
solution, see Tolman, Jour. of Geol., Vol. VII, pp. 598–618.

[141] Murray, Scot. Geogr. Mag., Vol. IV, p. 39.

[142] Murray, Scot. Geogr. Mag., Vol. III, p. 76.

[143] Ibid., p. 70.

[144] Limited areas of the ocean bottom are actually concave upward;
that is, they are basins in the more commonly accepted sense of the
term (see Chapter IX).

[145] J. Geikie. Earth Sculpture, p. 329.

[146] Murray. Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. XV, p. 507.

[147] Lindenkohl. Science, Vol. X, 1899, p. 807.

[148] This does not hold for tropical latitudes.

[149] National Geographic Magazine, Vol. XI, pp. 377–392.

[150] For causes of ocean-currents, see Croll’s Climate and Time; Proc.
Roy. Soc., 1869–73, and Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc., 1871–77.

[151] In the following pages concerning the waves and their work
Gilbert’s classic discussion of shore features, in the Fifth Annual
Report of the U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 80–100, is freely drawn on.
Another incisive discussion of certain shore phenomena is that of
Fenneman, Jour. of Geol., Vol. X, pp. 1–32.

[152] Dana. Manual of Geology, 4th ed., p. 213.

[153] Delesse. Lithologie des Mers de France. Cited by Geikie,
Text-book of Geology, 3d ed., p. 438.

[154] Sir G. Airy. Encyclopedia Metropolitana, Art. Waves. Cited by
Geikie, loc. cit., p. 438.

[155] Stevenson. Treatise on Harbors.

[156] Willis. Jour. of Geol., Vol. I, p. 481.

[157] Stevenson. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., Vol. XVI, p. 25. Treatise on
Harbors, p. 42. Quoted by Geikie, Text-book of Geology, p. 437.

[158] Geikie. Text-book of Geology, 3d ed., p. 437.

[159] Brit. Assoc. Rept., 1850, p. 26.

[160] Davis. Physical Geography, p. 354.

[161] Dana. Manual of Geology, 4th ed., p. 219.

[162] Shaler. Sea and Land, p. 29.

[163] Gulliver, Shore Line Topography: Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci.,
Vol. XXXIV, 1899, pp. 151–258. A valuable study of shore-line
topography.

[164] Willis. Jour. of Geol., Vol. I, p. 481.

[165] See Gilbert. Topographic Features of Lake Shores, 5th Ann. Rept.
U. S. Geol. Surv.

[166] Shaler, Sea Coast Swamps of the U. S., 6th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol.
Surv.; and Merrill, Pop. Sci. Mo., Oct., 1890.

[167] Willis. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. IX, p. 113, and Tacoma,
Wash., Folio, U. S. Geol. Surv.

[168] Agassiz. Three Cruises of the Blake, Vol. I, p. 259. Agassiz
would ascribe the Blake plateau itself to the Gulf Stream, p. 138.
See also Am. Jour. Sci., Vol XXXV, 1888, p. 498.

[169] Reade. Phil. Mag., Vol. XXV (1888), p. 342.

[170] Murray. Challenger Report, Deep Sea Deposits, pp. 184, 185.

[171] Murray, loc. cit., pp. 187, 188.

[172] Ibid.

[173] Stevenson. Harbors, 2d ed., p. 15.

[174] Usiglio. Encyclopædia Britannica. Article on Salt.

[175] Willis. Jour. of Geol., Vol. I, p. 500, where the evidences for
deposition are fully set forth.

[176] Murray, loc. cit.

[177] Ibid., p. 186.

[178] Murray, loc. cit., p. 295.

[179] Challenger Report, Deep Sea Deposits, p. 327.

[180] Young’s Astronomy, p. 472.

[181] Murray. Scottish Geog. Mag., Vol. XV, p. 511. An excellent
summary of deep-sea deposits.

[182] Murray, Challenger Report on Deep Sea Deposits, p. 337 et seq.,
and Buchanan, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., Vol. XVIII, 1892, pp. 17–39.

[183] Challenger Report on Deep Sea Deposits, pp. 385–391. See also
Jour. of Geol., Vol. II, pp. 167–172.

[184] Forel, Compte Rendu, 1875, 1876, 1878, 1879, and P. Du Bois,
1891. Also Forel’s Lac Leman.

[185] C. A. Davis, Journ. of Geol., Vol. VIII, pp. 485–97, and 498–503,
and Vol. IX, pp. 491–506.

[186] Russell, Lake Lahontan, Mono. XI, U. S. Geol. Surv., Chap. V;
also Third Ann. Rept., pp. 211–221. Gilbert, Lake Bonneville, Mono.
I, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 167.

[187] Stapff, Zeit. deut. geol. Gesell., Vol. XVIII, pp. 86–173.

[188] Upham, Lake Agassiz, Mono. XXV, U. S. Geol. Surv.; Salisbury and
Kümmel, Lake Passaic, Rept. of the State Geologist of N. J., 1893,
and Jour. of Geol., Vol. III, pp. 533–560; Gilbert, Lake Bonneville,
Mono. I, U. S. Geol. Surv.; Russell, Lake Lahontan, Mono. XI, U. S.
Geol. Surv.; and Mono Lake, Eighth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt.
I.

[189] Gilbert, Lake Bonneville, Mono. I, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 71, and
Topographic Features of Lake Shores, Fifth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol.
Surv., p. 109.

[190] Buckley. Wis. Acad. of Sci., Vol. XIII, Pt. I, 1900. A study
of ice ramparts formed about the shores of Lake Mendota, Wis., in
1898–99.

[191] Copied from Russell’s Lake Lahontan, Mono. XI, U. S. Geol. Surv.

[192] Less .04254 carbonic acid added to amount found. Average of two
analyses.

[193] Average from four analyses.

[194] Average of two analyses.

[195] As sesquicarbonates.

[196] As chloride.

[197] As peroxide.

[198] Carbonic acid by difference.

[199] Analyses of Rocks, Bull. 168, U. S. Geol. Surv., 1900, p. 15.

[200] Quantitative Classification of Igneous Rocks, by Whitman Cross,
Joseph P. Iddings, Louis V. Pirsson, and Henry S. Washington. 1903.

[201] Van Hise. 16th Ann. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, pp. 589–94.

[202] The application of these principles we owe chiefly to Van Hise:
Metamorphism of Rocks and Rock Flowage, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 9,
pp. 269–328.

[203] Cross, Iddings, Pirsson, and Washington. Quantitative
Classification of Igneous Rocks.

[204] The initials f.n. (field names) are introduced to show that the
term is used in the broad field sense proposed.

[205] Added by the authors of this work.

[206] The following definitions are given, as nearly as practicable, in
accordance with present common usage, which is, however, more or less
varying and inconsistent.

[207] A comprehensive discussion of the “Genesis of Ore Deposits” may
be found in Vols. XXIII and XXIV of the Trans. of the Am. Inst. of
Min. Eng. (also printed with additions in book form by the Institute,
1902), in which Posepny, Emmons, Van Hise, LeConte, Blake, Becker,
Ricard, Raymond, Lindgren, Weed, Vogt, Winslow, Winchell (H. V.),
Church, Cazin, Adams, Keyes, Bain, Collins, Beck, and DeLaunay
participated. Various phases of the leading modern views are set
forth.

[208] Chamberlin. Geol. of Wis., Vol. IV, p. 599 et seq., 1882.

[209] Penrose. Jour. of Geol., Vol. XI, pp. 135–155, 1903.

[210] Van Hise, Mono. XIX, U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 268–295, 1892.

[211] Gilbert. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. X, pp. 135–140, 1898.

[212] Branner. Jour. of Geol., Vol. VIII, pp. 481–484, 1900.

[213] Iddings. Jour. of Geol., Vol. VI, pp. 704–710.

[214] Daubrée. Géologie d’Expérimentale, pp. 306–372.

[215] Crosby. American Geologist, Vol. XII, 1893, pp. 368–375.

[216] Becker. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., Vol. X, pp. 41–75.

[217] Van Hise. Principles of North American Pre-Cambrian Geology. 16th
Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, pp. 668–672.

[218] Diller. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. I, pp. 441–442. Ibid. Hay,
Vol. III, pp. 50–55; and Newsom, ibid. Vol. XIV, pp. 227–268.

[219] Willis. Bull. Geol. Soc. of Am., Vol. XIII, pp. 331–336.

[220] McConnell. Canada Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv., 1886, Pt. II.

[221] Geikie. Text-book of Geology.

[222] Becker. Geology of the Comstock Lode, Mono. III, U. S. Geol.
Surv., Chapter IV.

[223] Reference, Van Hise. Sixteenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt.
I, pp. 672–678.

[224] Davison. Jour. of Geol., Vol. VIII, p. 301.

[225] Nature, October 24, 1895.

[226] Milne. The Geog. Jour., Vol. XXI, p. 1. See also Seismology, a
more technical work than the same author’s Earthquakes.

[227] Darwin. Journal of Researches, 1845, p. 303.

[228] Oldham. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXVIII, p. 257.

[229] Geikie. Text-book of Geology, 4th ed., p. 372.

[230] Kotô. Jour. Coll. Sci., Japan, Vol. V, Pt. IV (1893), pp. 329,
339. Cited by Geikie, loc. cit., p. 373.

[231] An elaborate account of this earthquake is given by Dutton, Ninth
Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 209–528.

[232] Cross. Twenty-first Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. II, Chap.
V.

[233] Oldham. Report on the Indian Earthquake of June 12, 1897, p. 138.
Mem. Geol. Surv. of India. Cited by Geikie, loc. cit., p. 374.

[234] Oldham, loc. cit., p. 80.

[235] Geikie. Text-book of Geology, 4th ed., p. 375.

[236] Ibid., p. 376.

[237] Forster, Seismology, 1877. Summarized in the Am. Geol., Vol. III,
1889, p. 182.

[238] The literature of seismology is very extensive. Some of the
more general treatises are the following: Mallet, Brit. Assoc.,
1847, Part II, p. 30; 1850, p. 1; 1851, p. 272; 1852, p. 1; 1858,
p. 1; 1861, p. 201; and The Great Neapolitan Earthquake of 1857,
2 Vols., 1862; A. Perrey, Mém. Couronn. Bruxelles, XVIII (1844),
Comptes Rendus, LII, p. 146; R. Falb, Grundzüge einer Theorie der
Erdbeben und Vulkanenausbrüche, Graz, 1871, and Gedanken und Studien
über den Vulkanismus, etc., 1874; Pfaff, Allgemeine Geologie als
exacte Wissenschaft, Leipzig, 1873, p. 224; Schmidt, Studien über
Erdbeben, 2d ed., 1879, and Studien über Vulkane und Erdbeben,
1881; Dieffenbach, Neues Jahrb., 1872, p. 155; M. S. di Rossi, La
Meteorologia Endogena, 2 Vols., 1879 and 1882; J. Milne, Earthquakes
and other Earth-movements (contains a bibliography), 4th ed., 1898;
Seismology, ibid., 1898; Dutton, Earthquakes, 1904.

Records of earthquakes have been preserved more or less fully in
several countries, especially in recent years. A few of the more
accessible publications where these records are found are cited
below: California earthquakes, Perrine, Bull. 147, U. S. Geol.
Surv.; Earthquakes of the Pacific Coast, Holden, Smithson. Misc.
Coll., No. 1087, 1898; Records of recent earthquake movements in
Great Britain since 1890 are published by Davison in Quar. Jour.
Geol. Soc., Geol. Mag., and Nature; Records of earlier earthquakes
are found in the reports of the Brit. Assoc. (Mallet), in the
Edinburgh New Philos. Jour., Vols. XXXI-XXXVI (Milne), and in
Trans. of the Roy. Irish Acad., 1884 and 1886 (O’Reilly); The
Earthquakes of Scandinavia have been recorded in volumes of the
Geol. Fören, Förhandl.; Records of other continental European
earthquakes are found in Gerland’s Beiträge zur Geophysik, 1895,
1900, and 1901; Neues Jahrb., 1865–71; Zeitschr. Naturwissen.
(1884), (Credner); Bericht. k. Sachs. Geol. Wissen., 1889 and 1900
(Credner); Jahrb. Geol. Reichsanst., 1895 and 1897; Tschermak’s
Min. Mitth., 1873, and later; Transactions of the Seismological
Soc. of Japan. An index to these Transactions is given at the end
of Milne’s Seismology.

[239] Antlitz der Erde. Vol. 1, p. 136.

[240] Eugene A. Smith. Underthrust Folds and Faults, Am. Jour. Sci.,
Vol. XLV, 1893, pp. 305–6.

[241] Manual of Geology, 3d ed., p. 23.

[242] For discussions of folds, see Van Hise, Sixteenth Ann. Rept.
U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, pp. 603–632; and Willis, Thirteenth Ann.
Rept., Pt. II, pp. 217–296.

[243] Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung, p. 213.

[244] Am. Nat., Vol. XIX, p. 257, 1885.

[245] Geol. Surv. of Canada, p. 33 D, 1886.

[246] Elements of Geology, 5th ed., p. 266.

[247] Van Hise. Bull. Geol. Soc. of Am., 1897, Vol. IX, p. 291.

[248] See Woodward’s address, Mathematical Theories of the Earth, Proc.
Am. Assc. for Adv. Sci., 1889, pp. 59–63.

[249] Nat. Phil. Thompson and Tait, Pt. II, p. 477. See also Popular
Lectures and Addresses, 1894, II, p. 313.

[250] Physics of the Earth’s Crust, Fisher, p. 95.

[251] Origin of Mountain Ranges, T. Mellard Reade, p. 125.

[252] Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Vol. 178, pp. 231–49.

[253] Amer. Jour. Sci., 1893, 3d series, Vol. 45, p. 7.

[254] Essentially the same as atmospheres.

[255] The pressures and densities here given are essentially the same
as those previously worked out by others and already published. The
temperatures are the results of recent preliminary computations made
under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution, and are subject
to change on further study. They are based on the assumption that
the increase in density is due to compression. They are in general
accord with the results previously reached by Dr. F. R. Moulton
(see “A Group of Hypotheses Bearing on Climatic Changes,” by T. C.
Chamberlin, Jour. of Geol., 1897, p. 674). The Rev. O. Fisher, in the
Am. Jour. of Sci., 1901, p. 420, gives much higher results.

[256] Attention was called to this feature by Chamberlin in a paper
before the Geol. Soc. of Am. at Rochester, December, 1901.

[257] These are reckoned by assuming that the temperature of no
variation at 50 feet below the surface is 40° F.

[258] Am. Jour. of Sci., Vol. V, 1898, p. 161.

[259] Van Hise. Personal communication.

[260] Bull. 168 U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 14.

[261] Daniell’s Physics, p. 407.

[262] Heat. Tait, p. 225.

[263] All the feldspars are calculated as anorthite. Augite is used for
hypersthene, ilmenite is included with magnetite, and all minerals
are calculated as if of the isometric system.

[264] Physics of the Earth’s Crust, Chap. VIII.

[265] Penn Monthly, Philadelphia, May, 1876.

[266] The following conclusion by an eminent authority has come to our
notice since this was written:

L’influence des marées océanienes sur la durée du jour est donc
tout à fait minime et n’est nullement comparable à l’effet des
marées dues à la viscosité et à l’elasticité de la partie solide
du globe, effet sur lequel M. Darwin à insisté dans une series
de Mémoires du plus haut intérêt. Par H. Poincaré, Bulletin
Astronomique, tome XX (June, 1903), p. 223.

[267] On the Secular Changes in the Elements of the Orbit of a
Satellite revolving about a Tidally-distorted Planet. Phil. Trans.,
Roy. Soc., Pt. II, 1880.

[268] Jour. Geol., Vol. VI, 1898, p. 65.

[269] Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. 39, 1883, p. 140. Everett (Units and
Physical Constants) gives 837 × 10⁶ for steel, but as the modulus
for granite seems low, we have taken the lower estimate for steel to
avoid exaggerating the ratio between them.

[270] Nat. Phil. Thompson & Tait, Vol. II, p. 424, 1890.

[271] Computations made at the request of the authors. See also Fisher,
Physics of the Earth’s Crust, p. 36.

[272] Of like import is the statement of Woodward—“If the crust of the
earth were self-supporting, its crushing strength would have to be
about thirty times that of the best cast steel, or five hundred to
one thousand times that of granite.” Mathematical Theories of the
Earth, Proc. Am. Assoc. for Adv. Sci., 1889, p. 49.

[273] It is assumed that the direction of the supporting thrust at the
periphery of the dome is at every point parallel to the tangent to
the domed surface. This is justified by symmetry in the case of a
shell conforming to the sphericity of the earth, and in the other
cases it would seem to be as favorable an assumption in the direction
of high supporting capacity as can reasonably be made.

[274] Prepared at the authors’ request by W. H. Emmons.

[275] The terms are here used in their narrow technical sense.
Extrusion is also used in a broad generic sense to indicate the whole
process of outward movement.

[276] Gilbert. 14th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, p. 187.

[277] Gilbert, after a careful study of the moon’s topography, has
suggested that the lunar pits may be indentations produced by
infalling meteorites or planetoids, and has shown by experiment that
pits of a similar type, with similar central cones, can be produced
by impact. The Moon’s Face: A Study of the Origin of its Features.
Presidential address, Phil. Soc. of Washington, 1892, Bull. Vol. XII,
pp. 241–292.

[278] Structure and Distribution of Coral Islands.

[279] Corals and Coral Islands.