Chapter III: Appendix (2)

πλέκω πλέξω πέπλεχα
πράσσω πράξω πέπρᾱχα

and in the same way the final π of the root appears as φ; thus—

τύπτω τύψω τέτυφα
γράφω γράψω γέγραφα

In the pluperfect, which is not often used, the same reduplication takes place, and the terminations are—

-ειν -εις -ει
-ειμεν -ειτε -εισαν or -εσαν

as in—

ἐτετύφειν ἐτετύφεις ἐτετύφει
ἐτετύφειμεν ἐτετύφειτε ἐτετύφεισαν

ἔτυπτον ἐγὼ τὸ παιδάριον, ὅτε εἰσελθὼν ὁ ἀστυνόμος ἥρπασέ με εἰς τὸ δεσμωτήριον, _I was beating the boy, when the policeman entering took me to prison_.

γέγραφα ἐπιστολὴν πρὸς τὸν πατέρα σου λέγων παῖδά σε εἶναι κόσμιον τοὺς τρόπους, _I have written a letter to your father saying that you are a well-behaved young man_.

ἐτύγχανον ὕπτιος κείμενος ἐν τῇ κοίτῃ ὅτε μέγας τις μῦς ὑπερπηδήσας τὰ στρώματα δεινόν μοι ἐνεποίησε φόβον, _I happened to be lying on my back in the bed when a rat, leaping over the bedcover, gave me a great fright_.

δικαίως γε, _and with good reason_.

τὰ νῦν δὲ ποῦστι τὸ ἀναιδὲς θρέμμα; _and now, where is the shameless creature?_

κέκαφεν αὐτὸ τὸ κυνάριόν μου τὸ ἐκ τῆς Ὀρεινῆς, _my little Skye terrier has just snapped it up_.

δίκαια ἔπαθεν, _served it right!_

ποῦστι τὸ μελανοδοχεῖόν μου; _where is my inkstand?_

εὕρηκα, εὕρηκα, ἐν τῷ λουτρῶνι, _I have found it, I have found it, in the bathroom_.

παράδοξον τοῦτο· οὐκ ἔγραφον ἔγωγε ἐν τῷ λουτρῶνι, _strange; I was not writing in the bathroom_.

οὐχ ὁρῶ τὸν κάλαμον, _I do not see my pen_.

ἰδοῦ· εὗρον ἐν τῷ δειπνητηρίῳ, _here it is; I found it in the dining-room_.

ἔπαιζεν ὁ αἴλουρος τῷ καλάμῳ σου καὶ τῷ πετάσῳ, καὶ τῇ χλαμύδι, καὶ ταῖς κρηπῖσι, καὶ δεινόν τινα ἐποίει θόρυβον, _the cat was playing with your pen, and with your hat, and your plaid, and your boots, and making a terrible row._

σφάξον τὸ θρέμμα, _kill the brute!_

οὐδαμῶς· αὐτὸς σὺ αἴτιος, ὃς δὴ ἔλιπες τὸ οἴκημα ἐν πάσῃ ἀκοσμίᾳ, ὁ δὲ αἴλουρος πεπλήρωκε τὸ ἔργον σου, _not at all; you yourself are to blame, who left the room in great disorder, and the cat has finished your work_.

δίκαια λέγεις, _you are right_.

καὶ ἐγὼ μεγάλην ὤφληκα μωρίαν, _and I have committed an act of great folly_.

μετανοῶ ἐπὶ τῷ πράγματι, _I repent of the business_.

ἔρρωσο, _farewell_.

ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Harpy. Graphic. Epistle. Tropic. The Cosmos. Cosmetic. Big. Melancholy. Paradox. Autonomy. Pragmatic.

LESSON XI

VERBS IN μι

The great mass of Greek verbs, whatever their variations of person and tense may be, agree in this one prominent feature, that the first person singular of the present indicative ends in ω, as in Latin _ō_, possibly a relic of the pronoun ἐγώ, _I_. But there is a small class of verbs in familiar use which, instead of the ω, affix to the first person μι, evidently identical with the English _me_ and the German _mich_—a confusion of the nominative and accusative cases familiar to our ears in French and vulgar English, when we say _it is me_ instead of _it is I_. Whatever may have been the original form of the verbs in μι, as a matter of practice, if we fling off the μι from the present, the future and the tenses cognate with it may be formed directly from an assumed form in ω: thus ἵστημι, _I cause to stand_, στήσω, _I will cause to stand_, as if from στάω; τίθημι, _I place_, θήσω, _I will place_, as if from θέω; δείκνῡμι, _I show_, δείξω, _I will show_, as if from δείκω; and δίδωμι, _I give_, future δώσω, _I will give_, as if from δόω, the Latin _dō_ evidently preserving the simple form from which δίδωμι comes by the prefix of δι and the suffix μι.

_Present_

ἵστημι, ἵστης, ἵστησι, _I, thou, he_ } _cause to stand_.
ἵσταμεν, ἵστατε, ἱστᾶσι, _we, you, they_ }

_Imperfect_

ἵστην ἵστης ἵστη
ἵσταμεν ἵστατε ἵστασαν

_Second Aorist_

ἔστην ἔστης ἔστη
ἔστημεν ἔστητε ἔστησαν

The middle and passive voice follow the form of the regular verb.

The perfect active of ἵστημι, ἕστηκα, is used as a present with a neuter sense, _I stand_, and in like manner, the pluperfect ἑστήκειν, and the 2nd aorist ἔστην, _I stood_.

τίθημι and its analogues have ε for the α in the plural, and first aorist ἔθηκα instead of ἔθησα; and in the same way ἵημι, _to send_, has first aorist ἧκα, _I sent_; so also δίδωμι has ἔδωκα, _I gave_, not ἔδωσα.

The irregular verbs εἰμί, _I am_, εἶμι, _I go_ (usually future: _I will go_), evidently fall under this scheme. For εἰμί, _I am_, see supra, Lesson I. The verb _to go_ has εἶμι, _I go_; εἶ, _thou art going_; εἶσι, _he is going_; ἴμεν, _we are going_; ἴτε, _you are going_; ἴᾱσιν, _they are going_. Imperative ἴθι, _go_.

ἄπιθι, ἄπιθι, ἄκλητος καθίζεις ἐπ’ ἐκείνῃ τῇ ἕδρᾳ· στήσω σε ἐνταῦθα, _begone, begone! you have no business in that seat; I will plant you here_.

ἕστηκα ὅπου ἕστηκα, καὶ καθίζω ὅπου καθίζω, _I stand where I stand, and I sit where I sit_.

σοὶ ἔδωκα τὴν βίβλον τὴν κομψήν, σὺ δὲ ἔδωκας τῷ παιδισκαρίῳ τούτῳ· ἐς τοσοῦτον ἆρα καταφρονεῖς μου, καὶ τοῦ δώρου μου; _I gave the pretty book to you, and you gave it to that little girl. Do you so despise me and my gift?_

συνῆκα ἃ λέγεις· ἡ δὲ παρθένος μᾶλλον τῆς βίβλον ὀνήσεται ἢ ἐγώ, _I understand what you say; but the young lady will be more profited by the book than I_.

μάλα ταπεινόφρων σύ γε, _you are very humble_.

οὐχ οὕτως· φιλῶ τὴν παρθένον, _not at all; I love the girl_.

πιθανόν, _likely enough_.

οἱ πολλοὶ τί φασι περὶ τοῦ Γλάδστωνος; _what do people say about Gladstone?_

θαυμάζουσι αὐτὸν δικαίως ὡς δεινὸν μὲν περὶ τοὺς λόγους, τῶν δὲ περὶ τὰς τῆς πόλεως προσόδους ἐμπειρότατον, καὶ δὴ καὶ τῶν τε Ἰταλικῶν καὶ τῶν Ἑλληνικῶν γραμμάτων ἐπιστήμονα, _they admire him, with good reason, as a great speaker, also as an expert and apt financier, and besides a great Greek and Italian scholar_.

ἀληθέστατα λέγεις· εἰ κατέστησαν αὐτὸν καθηγητὴν τῆς Ἑλληνικῆς φιλολογίας ἐν τῷ τοῦ Βουπόρου πανεπιστημίῳ, οὐκ ἐλάττων ἂν ἐγένετο[6] τοῦ Βοεκίου, τοῦ Ἑρμάννου, τοῦ Μυλλέρου, καὶ τῶν ἄλλων Γερμανῶν ὅσοι περὶ τὴν πολυμαθίαν ἐν τοῖς πρώτοις εὐδοκιμοῦσι, _very true; if they had made him professor of Greek in the university of Oxford, he would not have stood below Boeckh, or Hermann, or Müller, or any of the Germans who are most distinguished for great learning_.

[6] For the use of the particle ἄν here and below see Lesson XV _infra_.

καὶ οὕτως γε ἐτύγχανεν ἂν εὐτυχῶς διαφυγὼν τόν τε πολὺν θόρυβον καὶ διαφθορὰν τοῦ βίου πολιτικοῦ, _and so he might have happily escaped the great bother and the corruption of political life_.

δυνατὰ λέγεις· ὅμως οὐκ ἄν τις τυγχάνοι διαπεφευγὼς τὴν εἱμαρμένην, _possibly; however no man can escape his destiny_.

ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Stand. Sit. Seat. Dowry. Philology. Mathematics. Empiric. Dynamics. Logic. Grammar. Allopathy. Biology.

LESSON XII

COMPOUND VERBS

Verbs compounded with a preposition place the augment and reduplication between the preposition and the verb. Except περὶ and πρὸ all prepositions ending in a vowel have the vowel elided before the augment; πρὸ generally forms a crasis with the augment and becomes προὐ. The ν in ἐν and σύν, which had been assimilated in the present, is resumed before the augment.

The prepositions that most frequently occur in compound verbs are—

περί, _round about_, as in English _periphery_.
ἀπό, _off_ or _away from_, as in _apogee_.
ὑπό, _under_, as in _hypocrite_.
ἐν, _in_, as in _energy_.
εἰς, _into_.
σύν, _together_, as in _sympathy_.
πρό, _before_, as in _prophet_.
παρά, _alongside_ or _away_, as in _parallel_, _parasite_.
ἀντί, _instead of_, _opposite to_, as in _antidote_.
μετά, _with_ or _after_, as in _metaphysics_.
πρός, _toward_, as in _proselyte_.
ἀνά, _up_ or _back_, as in _anatomy_.
κατά, _down_, as in _catalepsy_.
ἐπί, _on_ or _upon_, as in _epilogue_.

ὁ φίλος μου ὁ ἀληθῶς φιλικὸς περιέβαλε τοῖς ὤμοις μου τὴν χλαῖναν σκέπην ψύχους, _my true friend threw his cloak round my shoulders as a protection against the cold_.

ὑπόδησον τὰ ὑποδήματά μου, _put on my shoes_.

ἀπέβαλον τὰ ὑποδήματα τὰ ἀρχαϊκά· κομψότερα τὰ καινότροπα, _I flung away the old-fashioned shoes; those of the new fashion are more elegant_.

χάριν ἔχω σοι τοῦ ἀγάλματος, _thanks to you for the pretty gift_.

σήμερον μεταβέβληκεν ὁ οὐρανὸς εἰς τὸ χεῖρον, _to-day the weather has changed for the worse_.

κατὰ φύσιν τοῦτο ἐν τῇ ἡμετέρᾳ πατρίδι οὗ οὐδὲν ἔχει στάσιμον ὁ οὐρανός, _quite natural, at least in our country, where the weather is never steady_.

χθὲς κατέβην εἰς τὸ χῶμα, καὶ εἶδον τὸ μέγα ἀτμόπλοιον, _yesterday I went down to the pier and saw the big steamboat_.

πότερον ἤρεσέ σοι ἢ οὔ; _did it please you or not?_

ὑπερεθαύμασά γε, _I admired it exceedingly_.

ἆρα οὐκ εἰσέβης; _did you not go on board?_

εἰσέβην γὰρ καὶ τὸν ναύκληρον εἶδον καὶ τῶν ναυβατῶν δεινὸν πλῆθος, _I did, and saw the captain and a great number of the crew_.

ἔπειτα δὲ κατέβην εἰς τὴν κοίλην καὶ ἐθαύμασα ἄπειρα σάγματα πίθων καὶ λαρνάκων καὶ κιστῶν καὶ κοφίνων καὶ ἄλλης παντοδαπῆς κατασκευῆς, _afterwards I went down into the hold, and saw with wonder countless piles of barrels, boxes and chests, baskets, and all sorts of stuff_.

ἔπειτα δὲ ἀνέβην, καὶ προσέβλεψα τὸν κυανοῦν οὐρανόν, καὶ χάριν εἶχον τῷ Θεῷ, _then I came up, and looked on the blue sky, and thanked God_.

τελευταῖον δὲ συνέλεξα τὰ σκεύη μου, καὶ ἕστηκα ἐνώπιόν σου ἐν ὁλοκλήρῳ δέρματι, _lastly, I gathered up my chattels, and stand before you with a whole skin_.

ἀγαθῇ τύχῃ· ἀεὶ εὐτυχεῖς· πανταχοῦ πίπτεις, τρόπον τῶν αἰλούρων, τοὺς πόδας ἔχων ἐμπέδους ἐν τῷ δαπέδῳ, _good luck be with you; you are a lucky dog; you always fall on your feet like the cats_.

οὐ τυφλώττω· καὶ ἕκαστα εἴωθα πράττειν προσκόποις τοῖς ὀφθαλμοῖς, _I am not blind, and am accustomed to do everything with forecasting eyes_.

σοφός σύ γε, _a wise man you!_

ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Philanthropy. Steady. Navy. Hollow. Chest. Theology. Epidermis. Physiology. Patriot. Atmosphere. Plethora. Podagra.

LESSON XIII

MOODS: SUBJUNCTIVE AND CONDITIONAL

The subjunctive or conjunctive mood is the form which the verb takes when no independent assertion is made as a fact, but only as a sequence of an asserted fact or truth, and having only a secondary or conditional existence; as if I should say in English, _I give you this, that it may be in your power to do so and so_, the secondary sentence preceded by _that_ is altogether dependent on the precedent thing done, _I give you this_. In this example the substantival proposition is in the present indicative, and the subjunctive nature of the dependent sentence is expressed by the auxiliary verb _may_; but, if the leading clause is in the past tense, the dependent clause is expressed by _might_, which in fact is the past tense of _may_, as _I gave you this that you might_. In Greek this past conditional is, from a peculiar usage, commonly called the _optative mood_. In the present lesson we shall confine ourselves to the dependent tense subjoined to a present or a future. The form of the subjunctive is very simple, consisting as it does in the mere change of the terminational vowel or diphthong of the present into ω and η—

κόπτ-ω, -ῃς, -ῃ, _I, thou, he_ } _may strike_;
κόπτ-ωμεν, -ητε, -ωσι, _we, you, they_ }

and in the first and second aorist the same—κόπτω, ἔκοψα, κόψω,-ῃς, -ῃ.

The subjunctive mood is often introduced by ἐάν or ἤν, ἵνα, and ὅταν, and when a negative particle belongs to it, it is μή, not οὐ.

δίδωμί σοι ταύτην τὴν βίβλον ἵνα καταλαμβάνῃς ὅσον ἐστὶ χαλεπὸν τὸ πρᾶγμα περὶ οὗ ἔγραφες, _I give you this book that you may understand how difficult the matter is on which you were writing_.

ἐὰν μὴ ἐκπονῇς τὰ διδάγματα, οὐ διδάξω σε, _if you don’t work out the lessons, I will not teach you_.

ἢν τὸν δάκτυλον κόψῃς ἐκείνῃ τῇ ὀξείᾳ μαχαίρᾳ, οὐ παρ’ ἐμοὶ ἡ αἰτία, _if you cut your finger with that sharp knife, the blame is not with me_.

ἐκτέλεσον τὸ ἔργον τὸ προκείμενον, ἵνα μή σε ταράσσῃ αὔριον τὰ τῆς σήμερον ἡμέρας ὑστερήματα, _finish the work that lies before you, that the leavings of to-day may not disturb you to-morrow_.

λαβὼν τὸ σκάλευθρον κΐνει τὸ πῦρ, ἵνα μὴ πνίγῃ τὴν φλόγα τὸ βάρος τῶν ἀνθράκων, _take the poker and stir the fire, that the weight of the coals may not choke the flame_.

ἐὰν μὴ φυλάττῃ τὴν φλόγα, καύσεις τὰς χειρίδας τοῦ ἱματίου, _if you do not take care of the flame, you will burn the sleeves of your coat_.

φέρε δὴ τὸν Ὅμηρον ἐκ τοῦ θηκίου, ἵνα ἀκούω τί λέγει περὶ τοῦ κάλλους τῶν γυναικῶν, _bring me Homer from the shelf, that I may hear what he says about the beauty of women_.

ἰδοῦ, _here it is_.

ἀνάγνωθι, _read it_.

καλὴ καὶ μεγάλη καὶ ἀγλαὰ ἔργ’ εἰδυῖα, _beautiful and tall, and skilful in tasteful works_.

φεῦ· ὡς εὖ λέγεις. οὐκ ἀργαὶ αἱ γυναῖκες αἱ παρὰ τῷ ἀοιδῷ, _excellent. The singer’s ladies were no idlers._

μιμήτριαί γε τῆς ἐν τοῖς περὶ τὸν βίον σοφῆς προστατίδος Παλλάδος, _they were imitators of their patron goddess Pallas, wise in all that relates to life_.

ῥίψον τὸ κυνάριον εἰς τὸ ὕδωρ, ἵνα μανθάνῃ τὸ νήχεσθαι, _fling the dog into the water, that he may learn to swim_.

ἰδοῦ—νήχεται—ὡς εὐμαθὲς τὸ θρέμμα, _there he goes—he swims—what a clever creature!_

ποίησον σὺ κατὰ ταὐτά, _do you the same_.

οὐδαμῶς· φοβοῦμαι μὴ βαπτίσῃ με τὸ κῦμα, _no; I fear the wave will overwhelm me_.

γελοῖα λέγεις· ἐλαφρότερον γὰρ τὸ σῶμα τὸ ἀνθρώπινον τοῦ ὕδατος, _nonsense; the human body is lighter than the water_.

οὐ καταποντίσει σε τὸ ὕδωρ ἀλλὰ ὁ φόβος, _it is not the water that will drown you, but fear_.

πιθανόν· ὅμως ἀντέχομαι τῆς ξηρᾶς, _likely enough; nevertheless I hold by the dry land_.

σοφός σύ γε, δεξιώτερον δὲ τὸ ζῷον. χαῖρε, _you are wise, but the animal is more clever. Adieu._

ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Anthracite. Barometer. Phlogiston. Caustic. Ferry. Mimetic. Pantomime. Hydropathy. Baptize. Anthropology. Dexterity.

LESSON XIV

THE OPTATIVE MOOD

The optative mood, or subjunctive in a historic sequence after a past tense, is distinguished by the domination of the diphthong οι, and runs thus—

βουλεύω, _I advise._
βουλεύοιμι, βουλεύοις, βουλεύοι, _I, thou, he_ } _might_
βουλεύοιμεν, βουλεύοιτε, βουλεύοιεν, _we, you, they_ } _advise_.

And so in the second aorist, where there is one, as λάβοιμι, λάβοις, λάβοι, etc., from λαμβάνω, _might, could, would_, or _should get_.

In the first aorist the vowel α rules, and becomes αι, as singular, βουλεύσαιμι, βουλεύσαις or ειας, βουλεύσαι or ειε; plural, βουλεύσαιμεν, βουλεύσαιτε, βουλεύσαιεν or ειαν.

The most common uses of the optative may be classified thus—

(1) In narrating what some one said, without
guaranteeing the fact; as if I should say in
English, _he said that he were going to do so_,
instead of _was_; _e.g._ ἔλεγεν ὅτι ἀνδρὶ νέῳ καὶ
σφοδρῷ οὐ ῥᾴδιον εἴη κολάζειν τὰ πάθη, _he said
that it was not easy for a man young and vehement
to control his passions_.

(2) To express a purpose or consequence in past time,
with ὡς, ἵνα, or ὅπως, as ἐπόνει σταθερῶς ἵνα ἆθλον
λάβοι, _he laboured steadily that he might gain a prize_.

(3) After εἰ, _if_, to express an indefinite future,
generally with ἄν in the dependent clause, as εἴ
τις αἵρεσίν μοι δοίη, σπουδάζοιμι ἂν περὶ τὴν
Ἑλληνικὴν γλῶσσαν μᾶλλον ἢ περὶ τὴν Ἰταλικήν, _if
one gave me the choice, I should prefer to study
Greek rather than Italian_.

(4) To express a wish (from which use the name
_optative_ came), as μὴ γένοιτο, _may it not
happen—God forbid!_

ὁ φίλος μου συνεβούλευσέ μοι πηδᾷν εἰς τὸ ὕδωρ, ὅπως κυνὸς δίκην μάθοιμι τὸ νήχεσθαι· ἐγὼ δὲ οὐκ ἐς τοσοῦτο ἥκω μωρίας, _my friend advised me to leap into the water that I might learn to swim like a dog; but I am not such a fool_.

εὖ λέγεις· ὁμολογῶ σοι τερπνότερον μὲν εἶναι τὸ ὀρχεῖσθαι, χρησιμώτερον δέ ποτε τὸ νήχεσθαι ἔν γε τῇ ναυαγίᾳ, _you say well; I must confess dancing is more agreeable, but swimming is sometimes more useful, especially in a shipwreck_.

τῶν γνωρίμων τῶν ἐμῶν τις εἶπε ὅτι ἀσκοῖ τὸ νήχεσθαι, ἵνα διαφεύγοι τοὺς κινδ́ῡνους τῆς θαλάσσης, _an acquaintance of mine told me that he is practising swimming to escape the dangers of the sea_.

σοφὸς ἐκεῖνος, _a wise man he_.

ἀσπὶς τῶν σοφῶν ἡ πρόνοια, _forethought is the shield of the wise_.

ἀκούσας ᾄδοντος τοῦ ἀλεκτρυόνος εὐθὺς ἀπέσεισα τὸν ὕπνον καὶ ἀπέδραμον ὡς τάχιστα ἵνα μὴ ὑστεροῖμι τῶν ἀγώνων, _hearing the cock crow I forthwith shook off sleep, and ran at full speed that I might not be too late for the games_.

ἐγὼ δὲ ἄνευ τῆς χλαίνης ἀπέδραμον ἵνα μὴ τοῦ λαμπροῦ θεάματος ἀστοχοῖμι, _and I ran off without my plaid, that I might not miss so splendid a spectacle_.

ἐκεῖ δὲ τί εἶδες; _what did you see there?_

θύλακον μέγαν εἶδον ὑδρογόνῳ οἰδοῦντα ἀέρι, _I saw a huge bag full of hydrogen gas_.

καὶ ἄνδρα ἔντοσθεν ἀεροβατοῦντα, ἵνα γε προσχάνοι αὐτῷ πολὺς ὄχλος ὡς ἐπισκεψομένῳ δῆθεν τὸν ἄνδρα τὸν ἐν τῇ σελήνῃ, _and a man inside, sailing through the air, that he might make a rabble of people stare at him, as one going to pay a visit to the man in the moon_.

ὦ τῆς μωρίας, _O what folly!_

μωρὸς μωρὸν θαυμάζει, _fool admires fool_.

καταβαίνοντα αὐτὸν σφοδρότερος αἰφνιδίως ἁρπάσας ἄνεμος παρήνεγκε εἰς τὸ κωδωνοστάσιον τοῦ μεγάλου ἱεροῦ τῶν ἐπισκοπικῶν, καὶ ὁ ἀλεκτρυὼν ὁ ἐν τῷ ἄκρῳ διεκέντησε τὰ ἐντόσθια, _as he was coming down a strong blast suddenly seized him and drove him on to the steeple of the cathedral, and the cock on the top of the steeple pierced his bowels_.

ὦ τοῦ δειλαίου, _O the poor wretch!_

ὦ τοῦ ἄφρονος· δίκαια ἔπαθεν· ἀεροβατεῖν δεῖ τὰς ὄρνῑθας τὸν αἰθέρα, οὐ τοὺς ἀνθρώπους, _O the fool! served him right! birds ought to tread the air, not men._

ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Mathematics. Homologate. Orchestra. Ode. Agony. Theatre. Acrobat. Ochlocracy. Sceptic. Ornithology. Fugitive. Hypnotism. Pathology. Ether.

LESSON XV

THE PARTICLE ἄν

Besides the use of ἄν with the optative in reference to a future probability, noticed in the last lesson, it is joined in Greek with the past tenses, the imperfect or aorists, to express what _might_, _could_, _would_, or _should have taken place_ in past time if something else had happened, or had not happened, as ἔπραξας ἂν τὸ δίκαιον εἰ ἔπραξας τοῦτο, _you would have done what is right if you had done this_.

ἐγώ, εἰ ἔγνων τὸ ἦθός σου, οὐκ ἂν ἔδωκά σοι τὸ ἀργύριον, _if I had known your character, I would not have given you the money_.

τίνα δὴ ἁμαρτίαν ἡμάρτηκα; _how have I done wrong?_

ἐσπάθησας ἀχρήστως τὰ χρήματα· εἰ γὰρ ἐτύγχανες νοῦν ἔχων, οὐκ ἂν ἀνήλωσας ἅπαντα εἰς τέρψιν ἐξίτηλον, _you squandered your money uselessly. If you had had sense, you would not have spent it all on a fleeting pleasure._

εἰ ἐτύγχανες σοφὸς ὤν, διέσωσας ἂν τι τῶν σήμερον θησαυρῶν εἰς τὴν χρείαν τῆς αὔριον, _if you had been wise, you would have saved some of to-day’s treasure for to-morrow’s need_.

μωρὸς ἂν ἦν ὀνειροπολῶν τὴν μέλλουσαν ἡδονήν, τῆς δὲ παρούσης ἁμαρτών, _I should have been a fool, dreaming of the future and missing the present pleasure_.

οὕτως λέγοντα ἐλέγχουσί σε οἱ μύρμηκες καὶ αἱ μέλισσαι, _when you speak thus the ants and the bees confute you_.

εἰ ὁ Βρούσσιος ἔτυχε μὴ νικήσας ἐν τῇ μάχῃ τοῦ Βαννοκβούρνου, τί ἂν συνέβη; _if Bruce had not gained the victory at Bannockburn, what would have been the consequence?_

ἐπικρατήσασα ἡ Ἀγγλία ἠφάνισεν ἂν τὸν Σκῶτον ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς, _dominant England would have caused the Scot to disappear from the face of the earth_.

καὶ τοῦτο θεῖον πάνυ ἂν ἐγένετο εὐτύχημα, _and this would have been a great piece of good luck_.

ἐνίοις μὲν οὕτως δοκεῖ, ἐνίοις δὲ οὔ, _some think so and some not_.

τί ἂν συνέβη, εἰ ὁ Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ τοῦ Φιλίππου οὐκ ἐνίκησε τὴν ἐν Ἀρβήλοις νίκην; _what would have been the consequence if Alexander, the son of Philip, had not gained the battle of Arbela?_

διετέλει ἂν ὁ Πέρσης δεσπόζων τῆς ἀνατολῆς, καὶ οὐκ ἂν ἐκήρυσσον τὸ εὐαγγέλιον οἱ ἀπόστολοι Ἑλληνιστί· εἰσήγαγε γὰρ ὁ τοῦ Φιλίππου υἱὸς τὴν Ἑλληνικὴν παιδείαν εἰς ὅλην τὴν ἀνατολήν, _the Persian would have continued lording it over the East, and the Apostles would not have preached the gospel in Greek; for it was the son of Philip that introduced Greek learning into all the East_.

λαμπαδηφόρος δήπου τῆς Ἑλληνικῆς σοφίας ὁ μέγας Ἀλέξανδρος, καὶ προάγγελος τοῦ εὐαγγελίου, _Alexander the Great truly was the torch-bearer of Greek wisdom and the harbinger of the gospel_.

ἀληθέστατα λέγεις, _very true_.

καὶ ταῦτα μὲν περὶ τῆς ἄγαν ὑπηρετικῆς ταύτης προσθήκης εἰρήσθω. χαῖρε, _and now enough of this very serviceable particle ἄν. Adieu!_

ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Ethics. Terpsichore. Ephemeral. Treasure. Alexander. Despot. Anatolia. Evangel. Angel. Scheme. Geography. Apostle. Pedagogue.

LESSON XVI

THE PASSIVE VOICE

expressing not what a man does to another person or thing by the putting forth of his active force, but what he suffers from the active force of another, has its characteristic form in Greek as follows—

_Present_

Indicative—

πείθ-ομαι, -ῃ, -εται, _I, thou, he is_ } _persuaded_.
-όμεθα, -εσθε, -ονται, _we, you, they are_ }

Subjunctive, with the long vowel as in the active voice—

πείθ-ωμαι -ῃ -ηται
-ώμεθα -ησθε -ωνται

and optative with οι—

πειθ-οίμην -οιο -οιτο
-οίμεθα -οισθε -οιντο

_Imperfect_
ἐπειθόμην ἐπείθου ἐπείθετο
ἐπειθόμεθα ἐπείθεσθε ἐπείθοντο

_Future_
πεισθ-ήσομαι -ήσῃ -ήσεται
-ησόμεθα -ήσεσθε -ήσονται

_First Aorist_
ἐπείσθ-ην -ης -η
-ημεν -ητε -ησαν

Optative—

singular, πεισθ-είην -είης -είη
plural, -εῖμεν -εῖτε -εῖεν

In the perfect as in the active voice the reduplication takes place, as—

πέπεισμαι πέπεισαι πέπεισται
πεπείσμεθα πέπεισθε πεπεισμένοι εἰσίν

Certain verbs have a second aorist, as στέλλω, _I send_, not ἐστάλθην but ἐστάλην, _I was sent_; and pure verbs have the characteristic contraction of the vowel into a diphthong, as φιλούμεθα for φιλεόμεθα; but these variations are best learned by practice.

ἐστάλησαν οἱ ἀπόστολοι κηρύξοντες τὸ εὐαγγέλιον, καὶ ἐκήρυξαν δεινῶς, _the Apostles were sent to preach the gospel, and they preached it with power_.

ὅτε οἱ ἀπόστολοι ἐκήρυξαν τὸ εὐαγγέλιον ἐν ταῖς Ἀθήναις, ὀλίγοι ἐπείσθησαν, _when the Apostles preached the gospel in Athens, few were persuaded_.

ὁ κακοῦργος ἐκεῖνος ἐπήνεγκέ μοι βιαίαν πληγὴν τῇ βακτηρίᾳ καὶ τὸ νῶτόν μοι ἐτραυματίσθη χαλεπῶς, _that bad fellow struck me a heavy blow with his cudgel, and my back was severely wounded_.

εἶτα δὲ τί συνέβη; _then what happened?_

τῶν τοξοτῶν τις τῶν φυλασσόντων τὴν πόλιν ἥρπασεν αὐτόν, καὶ εὐθὺς ἐνεβλήθη εἰς τὸ δεσμωτήριον, _one of the policemen who keep the peace of the city laid hold of him, and he was forthwith cast into prison_.

δίκαια ἔπαθεν, _served him right_.

κατὰ φύσιν τοῦτο· πάντες ὅσοι ἄνομοι καὶ βίαιοι δικαίως ἐμβληθήσονται εἰς τὸ δεσμωτήριον· οὐ γὰρ ἄνθρωποι οἱ τοιοῦτοι ἀλλὰ συγγενεῖς τῶν τίγρεων, _quite natural; all lawless and violent persons will naturally be cast into prison; for such persons are not men, but related to tigers_.

οἴμοι πέπληγμαι, πόθεν ἡ πληγή; _woe’s me, I am struck! whence came the blow?_

ὁ γνώριμός μου ὁ Ἰωάννης Καμερὼν παίζων τὴν κορύνην ἐν τῷ πεδίῳ ἔπληξε πλαγίως τὴν σφαῖραν, ἥπερ παρετράπη εἰς τὴν κεφαλήν σου, _my acquaintance John Cameron, playing at golf on the links, struck his ball obliquely and it was driven against your head_.

οἴμοι—μοι—ὀτοτοτοτοῖ, _O woe’s me, woe!_

ὦ τοῦ ταλαιπώρου, _O poor fellow._

τί χρὴ πρᾶξαι; _what must we do?_

φέρε εἰς τὸ νοσοκομεῖον, καὶ κάλεσον τὸν ἰατρόν· ἔχει γὰρ κίνδῡνον τὸ πρᾶγμα, _take him to the infirmary and call the doctor; it is a dangerous business_.

αὐτίκα μάλα· κληθήσεται, _instantly; he shall be called_.

ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Oligarchy. Plague. Toxicology. Phylacteries. Tiger. Sphere. Nosology. Call. Physic.

LESSON XVII

THE MIDDLE VOICE

The middle voice, or, as it might more significantly be called, the reflexive or the subjective voice, is a form of the verb where the action does not pass on from the agent to an outward object, but comes back on him, or in some loose way is looked on as done for his benefit, or affecting himself specially. Thus it is in the main identical with what in Latin grammar used to be called neuter verbs, only it is subject to not a few nice shades of personal reference, which leads to its apparent confusion with the active voice, and to various anomalous usages which can only be learned by practice. It is, of course, in strictness more nearly allied to the passive than to the active voice; for in both these voices, as distinguished from the active, the force of the verb is either altogether spent on the agent, or is in some way passively or emotionally or intentionally connected with him. This intimate relationship leads to a similarity of form in the two voices, the present and imperfect middle being in fact identical with the same tenses in the passive voice, and the other tenses, in their characteristic changes, more allied to the passive than to the active.

_Future Indicative_
λύσομαι λύσῃ λύσεται
λυσόμεθα λύσεσθε λύσονται

_First Aorist_
ἐλυσάμην ἐλύσω ἐλύσατο
ἐλυσάμεθα ἐλύσασθε ἐλύσαντο

οὐ τῶν τυχόντων κατέλαβέ με ἔχειν διδασκάλους τῆς σοφίας, τὰ νῦν δὲ δικαίως αὐτὸς σοφίζομαι, _I had the good luck to have no common teachers of wisdom, but now with good reason I profess wisdom for myself_.

ἐδεξάμην τὴν βίβλον ἣν σὺ ἐδέξω παρὰ τοῦ ἀνεψιοῦ, καὶ ἀναγνώσομαι αὐτὴν πάσῃ σπουδῇ, _I received the book which you got from your cousin, and I will read it carefully_.

οὗτος ὁ νεανίας τρέχει δεινῶς· βλάψεται, _this young man runs furiously; he will hurt himself_.

οὐ φοβοῦμαι, _I am not afraid_.

ἀσφαλὴς ἐστὶ τοῖς ποσίν, _he is a steady-footed fellow_.

οὗτος ὁ νεανίας ταλαιπώρως κυπτάζει εἰς τὰς βίβλους· τρίψεται ὑπερτρυφῶν ἐν τῇ ἀναγνώσει, _this young man stoops miserably down into his books; he will wear himself away, stuffing himself with reading_.

μὴ χαλέπαινε· βαθμηδὸν ἀκμάζει πάντα. τὰ μικρότατα σπέρματα, ἀρξάμενα ἀπὸ τοῦ ἠρινοῦ χρόνου, πρὸ τῆς ὀπώρας γενήσεται φυτὰ μεγάλα, _do not repine. All things grow ripe by degrees. The smallest seeds beginning with the spring by harvest time will become large plants._

οὑτοσὶ πλήρεσιν ἀνάγεται τοῖς ἱστίοις, ἡμεῖς δὲ οὐχ ἡττησόμεθα, _this fellow sails out with full sails, but we shall not fall behind_.

σήμερον λαμπρῷ χρώμεθα τῷ οὐρανῷ, _to-day we have fine weather_.

αὔριον δὲ ὕσει ὁ θεός, _but it will rain to-morrow_.

ὤ, τάλᾱς ἐγώ· οὐδὲν διαγίγνεται μένον ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ τῷ κατὰ τὴν Καληδονίαν, _alas, alas! there is no continuity or permanence of weather in Scotland_.

ἀληθῆ λέγεις· μόνον τὸ τῶν Καληδονίων ἦθος σεμνύνεται ἐπὶ τῷ ἄγαν σταθερῷ καὶ ἀμεταβόλῳ· κρατερὸν τὸ Καληδόνιον ἦθος ὡς ὁ γρανιτόλιθος, ὁ ἐν Ἀβερδονίᾳ, _true; only the character of the Scots boasts of steadiness and permanence. The Scottish character is strong as the Aberdeen granite._

χάριν οἶδα τῷ Θεῷ· αὐτὸς ἀλαζονεύομαι τῆσδε τῆς ἐπιμόνου κράσεως οὐ σπανίως μεταλαμβάνεσθαι, _thank God! myself boast that I have a fair share of this persistent temperament_.

δικαίως γε· ἐγγυᾶται τὴν κατόρθωσιν ἡ ἐπιμονή. ἔρρωσο, _and with good reason; perseverance is the pledge of success. Farewell_.

ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Didactic. Sophist. Study. New. Early. Vernal. Chronology. Grace. Hypertrophy. Idiosyncrasy. Orthography. Acme. Phytology.

LESSON XVIII

PARTICIPLES

The Greek participle has a large range of idiomatic and significant usages, which can only be learned by reading. For a start, however, it may be enough to say that the participle follows the leading verb of the sentence in many cases where both Latin and English use the infinitive, and that when joined with the definite article the participle performs the function of a relative clause in a less formal style; as if in English, instead of _the man who used such language_ is not a gentleman, we should say _the man the having used_, which no doubt sounds very clumsy, because we require an auxiliary verb to express the past participle, but in Greek ὁ ταῦτα λέξας is manifestly neater and more succinct than ὃς ταῦτα ἔλεξε.

οὐκ ἀνέχομαι οὕτω διαβαλλόμενος, _I cannot stand to be slandered in this way_.

ἀμέλει· ἀμέλει· οἶδα τὸ ἀνθρωπάριον· χαίρει ἀεὶ βλασφημῶν κατὰ τῶν κρεισσόνων, _never mind; never mind; I know the creature; it is his delight always to be speaking ill of men better than himself_.

ποία τις ἦν ἡ βλασφημία; _what was he slandering about?_

ἐτύγχανον ἐγὼ ἐπαινῶν τινὰ τῶν δυνατῶν, ἄνδρα πλούσιον καὶ εὔφρονα καὶ σώφρονα ἐν Μαγκεστρίῳ· ὁ δὲ εὐθὺς ἤρξατο διαβάλλων ὁλοσχερῶς ἅπᾱσαν τήν τε ἀριστοκρατίαν καὶ πλουτοκρατίαν τὴν ἐν τῇ πόλει, _I happened to be praising a gentleman of the influential classes in Manchester, rich and good and sensible, and forthwith he began to denounce in a sweeping style all the plutocracy and the aristocracy of the country_.

φαίνεται διάβολος ὤν, καὶ ὡς ἀληθῶς συγγενὴς τοῦ Κακοδαίμονος, τοῦ Διαβόλου, _he appears to be a calumniator, and a cousin-german of the evil Spirit, the Devil_.

καὶ διετέλει ἐπηρεάζων, ὡς ἐμοῦ παρασίτου ὄντος καὶ ἀκολούθου τῆς βδελυκτῆς τῶν ὀλιγαρχῶν αἱρέσεως· πρὸς δὲ τούτοις τὰ τοιαῦτα λοιδορήματα ἐποίησε τυπωθῆναι ἐν ταῖς ἐφημερίσι, _and he went on to use insolent language, saying_ (or _implying_) _that I was a parasite and a flunkey of the detestable faction of the oligarchs; and in addition to all this he got this insulting language printed in the newspapers_.

τοὺς τοιούτους ἀνθρώπους ἐχρῆν μαστίξαι· ὅμως, τὸ πρότερον λεχθέν, ἀμέλει. δηλός ἐστι νικήσας τὴν ὀργὴν ὁ λέγων ἀμέλει, _such ill-tongued rascals should have been flogged; but, as I said before, never mind. It is plain that the man who says ἀμέλει has conquered his passion._

δυνατὰ λέγεις· ὅμως σύνοιδα ἐμαυτῷ τὴν τῶν Κυαικέρων ἀπάθειαν οὐκ ἐπαγγελλόμενος, _possibly; but I am conscious that I do not profess the apathy of the Quaker_.

ἀμέλει· ἀμέλει· τρὶς νῑκηφόρος ὁ νῑκήσας τὴν ὀργήν. βραχεῖα μανία ἡ ὀργή, _never mind; never mind; he is three times conqueror who has conquered his passion. Anger is a brief madness._

ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Devil. Blasphemy. Dynamics. Dynasty. Plutocracy. Aristocracy. Cacodemon. Parasite. Heresy. Oligarchy. Type. Ephemeral. Apathy. Maniac.