Chapter IV: Part 4

1. I will never desert Mr. Micawber. 2. The great event occurred soon after. 3. The boy stood there with dizzy brain. 4. The Spaniard's shot went whing! whing! 5. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin. 6. A sincere word was never utterly lost. 7. It stands written so. 8. Venus was yet the morning star. 9. You must speak thus. 10. Lady Impudence goes up to the maid. 11. Thy proud waves shall be stayed here.

+Direction+.--_Write ten sentences in the transposed order, using these adverbs_:--

Still, here, now, so, seldom, there, out, yet, thus, never.

+Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to the usual order by moving the phrase and the verb to their customary places, and note the loss_:--

1. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh. 2. Seven years after the Restoration appeared Paradise Lost. 3. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. 4. To such straits is a kaiser driven. 5. Upon such a grating hinge opened the door of his daily life. 6. Between them lay a mountain ridge. 7. In purple was she robed. 8. Near the surface are found the implements of bronze. 9. Through the narrow bazaar pressed the demure donkeys. 10. In those days came John the Baptist. 11. On the 17th of June, 1775, was fought the battle of Bunker Hill. 12. Three times were the Romans driven back.

+Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the phrase and the verb_:--

1. The disciples came at the same time. 2. The dreamy murmur of insects was heard over our heads. 3. An ancient and stately hall stood near the village. 4. His trusty sword lay by his side. 5. Pepin eventually succeeded to Charles Martel. 6. The house stands somewhat back from the street. 7. Our sphere turns on its axis. 8. The bridle is red with the sign of despair. 9. I have served in twenty campaigns. 10. Touch proper lies in the finger-tips and in the lips.

+Direction+.--_Write ten sentences in the usual order, using these prepositions to introduce phrases, and then transpose the sentences, and compare the two orders_:--

Beyond, upon, toward, of, by, into, between, in, at, to.

+Direction+.--_Write six sentences in the transposed order, beginning them with these words_:--

There (independent), nor, neither.

* * * * *

LESSON 55.

ARRANGEMENT--INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

If the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it, the order is usual.

+Examples+.--_Who_ came last evening? _What star_ shines brightest?

+Direction+.--_Write five interrogative sentences, using the first word below as a subject; the second as a subject and then as a modifier of the subject; the third as a subject and then as a modifier of the subject_:--

Who, which, what.

If the interrogative word is object complement or attribute complement or a modifier of either, the order is transposed.

+Examples+.--_Whom_ did you see? _What_ are personal consequences? _Which course_ will you choose?

+Direction+.--_Write an interrogative sentence with the first word below as object complement, and another with the second word as attribute complement. Write four with the third and the fourth as_ _complements, and four with the third and the fourth as modifiers of the complement_:--

Whom, who, which, what.

If the interrogative word is an adverb, the order is transposed.

+Examples+.--_Why_ is the forum crowded? _Where_ are the flowers, the fair young flowers?

+Direction+.--_Write five interrogative sentences, using these adverbs_:--

How, when, where, whither, why.

If there is no interrogative word, the subject stands after the verb when this is simple; after the first word of it when it is compound.

+Examples+.--_Have you_ your lesson? _Has the gentleman_ finished?

+Direction+.--_Write six interrogative sentences, using these words_:--

Is, has, can learn, might have gone, could have been found, must see.

+Direction+.--_Change the sentences you have written in this Lesson into declarative sentences_.

* * * * *

LESSON 56.

ARRANGEMENT--IMPERATIVE AND EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES.

The subject is usually omitted in the imperative sentence; but, when it is expressed, the sentence is in the transposed order.

+Examples+.--_Praise ye_ the Lord. _Give_ (_thou_) me three grains of corn.

+Direction+.--_Using these verbs, write ten sentences, in five of which the subject shall be omitted; and in five, expressed_:--

Remember, listen, lend, love, live, choose, use, obey, strive, devote.

Although any sentence may without change of order become exclamatory (Lesson 46), yet exclamatory sentences ordinarily begin with _how_ or _what_, and are usually in the transposed order.

+Examples+.--_How quietly_ the child sleeps! _How excellent_ is thy loving-kindness! _What visions_ have I seen! _What a life_ his was!

+Direction+.--_Write six exclamatory sentences with the word how modifying (1) an adjective, (2) a verb, and (3) an adverb--in three sentences let the verb follow, and in three precede, the subject. Write four sentences with the word what modifying (1) an object complement and (2) an attribute complement--in two sentences let the verb follow, and in two precede, the subject_.

* * * * *

LESSON 57.

CONTRACTION OF SENTENCES.

+Direction+.--_Contract these sentences by omitting the repeated modifiers and prepositions, and all the conjunctions except the last_:--

1. Webster was a great lawyer, a great statesman, a great debater, and a great writer. 2. By their valor, by their policy, and by their matrimonial alliances, they became powerful. 3. Samuel Adams's habits were simple and frugal and unostentatious. 4. Flowers are so fragile, so delicate, and so ornamental! 5. They are truly prosperous and truly happy. 6. The means used were persuasions and petitions and remonstrances and resolutions and defiance. 7. Carthage was the mistress of oceans, of kingdoms, and of nations.

+Direction+.--_Expand these by repeating the adjective, the adverb, the preposition, and the conjunction_:--

1. He was a good son, father, brother, friend. 2. The tourist traveled in Spain, Greece, Egypt, and Palestine. 3. Bayard was very brave, truthful, and chivalrous. 4. Honor, revenge, shame, and contempt inflamed his heart.

+Direction+.--_Write six sentences, each with one of these words used four times; and then contract them as above, and note the effect of the repetition and of the omission_:--

Poor, how, with, through, or, and.

+Direction+.--Expand these sentences by supplying subjects:--

1. Give us this day our daily bread. 2. Why dost stare so? 3. Thank you, sir. 4. Hear me for my cause. 5. Where hast been these six months? 6. Bless me! 7. Save us.

+Direction+.--_Expand these by supplying the verb or some part of it_:--

1. Nobody there. 2. Death to the tyrant. 3. All aboard! 4. All hands to the pumps! 5. What to me fame? 6. Short, indeed, his career. 7. When Adam thus to Eve. 8. I must after him. 9. Thou shalt back to France. 10. Whose footsteps these?

+Direction+.--_Expand these by supplying both subject and verb, and note the loss in vivacity_:--

1. Upon them with the lance. 2. At your service, sir. 3. Why so unkind? 4. Forward, the light brigade! 5. Half-past nine. 6. Off with you. 7. My kingdom for a horse! 8. Hence, you idle creatures! 9. Coffee for two. 10. Shine, sir? 11. Back to thy punishment, false fugitive. 12. On with the dance. 13. Strange, strange! 14. Once more unto the breach. 15. Away, away! 16. Impossible!

+Direction+.--_Contract these by omitting the subject or the verb_:--

1. Art thou gone? 2. Will you take your chance? 3. His career was ably run. 4. Are you a captain? 5. May long life be to the republic. 6. How great is the mystery! 7. Canst thou wonder? 8. May a prosperous voyage be to you. 9. Are you here?

+Direction+.--_Contract these by omitting both subject and verb, and note the gain in force and animation_:--

1. I offer a world for sale. 2. Now, then, go you to breakfast. 3. Sit you down, soothless insulter. 4. I want a word with you, wife. 5. Those are my sentiments, madam. 6. Bring ye lights there. 7. It is true, sir. 8. We will drink a health to Preciosa. 9. I offer a penny for your thoughts. 10. Whither are you going so early?

+Direction+.--_Construct ten full sentences, using in each, one of these adverbs or phrases or nouns, and then contract the sentences by omitting both subject and verb_:--

Why, hence, to arms, silence, out, to your tents, peaches, room, for the guns, water.

* * * * *

LESSON 58.

REVIEW.

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16.

+Direction+.--_Review from Lesson_ 51 _to Lesson_ 57, _inclusive_.

Illustrate the different positions--Usual and Transposed--that the words and phrases of a declarative sentence may take; illustrate the different positions of the parts of an interrogative, of an imperative, and of an exclamatory sentence; illustrate the different ways of contracting sentences.

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

(SEE PAGES 162-165.)

TO THE TEACHER.--See notes to the teacher, pages 30, 150.

* * * * *

LESSON 59.

COMPLEX SENTENCE--ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.

+Introductory Hints+.--The sentences given for analysis in the preceding Lessons contain each but one subject and one predicate. They are called +Simple Sentences+.

_A discreet youth makes friends_. In Lesson 17 you learned that you could expand the adjective _discreet_ into a phrase, and say, A youth of discretion makes friends. You are now to learn that you can expand it into an expression that asserts, and say, A youth _that is discreet_ makes friends. This part of the sentence and the other part, _A youth makes friends_, containing each a subject and a predicate, we call +Clauses+.

The adjective clause _that is discreet_, performing the office of a single word, we call a +Dependent Clause+; _A youth makes friends_, not performing such office, we call an +Independent Clause+.

The whole sentence, composed of an independent and a dependent clause, we call a +Complex Sentence+.

A dependent clause that does the work of an adjective is called an +Adjective Clause+.

Analysis.

1. They that touch pitch will be defiled.

They | will be defiled
=======|=====================
` |
`
`
that ` | touch | pitch
--------|--------'-------
|

+Explanation+.--The relative importance of the two clauses is shown by their position, by their connection, and by the difference in the shading of the lines. The pronoun _that_ is written on the subject line of the dependent clause. _That_ performs the office of a conjunction also. This office is shown by the dotted line. As modifiers are joined by slanting lines to the words they modify, you learn from this diagram that _that touch pitch_ is a modifier of _they_.

+Oral Analysis+.--This is a complex sentence because it consists of an independent clause and a dependent clause. _They will be defiled_ is the independent clause, and _that touch pitch_ is the dependent. _That touch pitch_ is a modifier of _they_ because it limits the meaning of _they_; the dependent clause is connected by its subject _that_ to _they_.

TO THE TEACHER.--Illustrate the connecting force of _who, which_, and _that_ by substituting for them the words for which they stand, and noting the loss of connection.

2. The lever which moves the world of mind is the printing-press. 3. Wine makes the face of him who drinks it to excess blush for his habits.

+Explanation+.--The adjective clause does not always modify the subject.

4. Photography is the art which enables commonplace mediocrity to look like
genius.
5. In 1685 Louis XIV. signed the ordinance that revoked the Edict of
Nantes.
6. The thirteen colonies were welded together by the measures which Samuel
Adams framed.

+Explanation+.--The pronoun connecting an adjective clause is not always a subject.

7. The guilt of the slave-trade, [Footnote: See Lesson 61, foot-note.] which sprang out of the traffic with Guinea, rests with John Hawkins. 8. I found the place to which you referred.

I | found | place
====|==================
| \the `
`
you | referred `
------|---------- `
| \to `
\ which `
\-------

9. The spirit in which we act is the highest matter. 10. It was the same book that I referred to.

+Explanation+.--The phrase _to that_ modifies _referred_. _That_ connects the adjective clause. When the pronoun _that_ connects an adjective clause, the preposition never precedes. The diagram is similar to that of (8).

11. She that I spoke to was blind. 12. Grouchy did not arrive at the time that Napoleon most needed him.

+Explanation+.--A preposition is wanting. _That = in which_. (Can you find a word that would here sound better than _that_?)

13. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of. 14. It is to you that I speak.

+Explanation+.--Here the preposition, which usually would stand last in the sentence, is found before the complement of the independent clause. In analysis restore the preposition to its usual place--It is you that I speak _to_. _That I speak to_ modifies the subject.

15. It was from me that he received the information.

(_Me_ must be changed to _I_ when _from_ is restored to its usual position.)

16. Islands are the tops of mountains whose base is in the bed of the
ocean.

mountains
-----------
`
` base | is
` ------|-----
` \
`.....\whose

+Explanation+.--The connecting pronoun is here a possessive modifier of _base_.

17. Unhappy is the man whose mother does not make all mothers interesting.

* * * * *

LESSON 60.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES--CONTINUED.

Analysis.

1. Trillions of waves of ether enter the eye and hit the retina in the time
you take to breathe.

+Explanation+.--The connecting pronoun _that_ [Footnote: When _whom_, _which_, and _that_ would, if used, be object complements, they are often omitted. Macaulay is the only writer we have found who seldom or never omits them.] is omitted.

2. The smith takes his name from his smoothing the metals he works on. 3. Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever saw. 4. Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth.

+Explanation+.--The adjective clause modifies the omitted antecedent of _whom_. Supply _him_.

5. He did what was right.

He | did | x
====|======================
| `
`
what ` | was \ right
---------|-------------

+Explanation+.--The adjective clause modifies the omitted word _thing_, or some word whose meaning is general or indefinite. [Footnote: Many grammarians prefer to treat _what was right_ as a noun clause (see Lesson 71), the object of _did_. They would treat in the same way clauses introduced by _whoever_, _whatever_, _whichever_.

"_What_ was originally an interrogative and introduced substantive clauses. Its use as a compound relative is an extension of its use as an indirect interrogative; it is confined to clauses which may be parsed as substantives, and before which no antecedent is needed, or permitted to be expressed. Its possessive _whose_ has, however, attained the full construction of a relative."--_Prof. F. A. March_.]

6. What is false in this world below betrays itself in a love of show. 7. The swan achieved what the goose conceived. 8. What men he had were true.

The relative pronoun _what_ here precedes its noun like an adjective. Analyze as if arranged thus: The men _what_ (= _that_ or _whom_) _he had_ were true.

9. Whoever does a good deed is instantly ennobled.

+Explanation+.--The adjective clause modifies the omitted subject (_man_ or _he_) of the independent clause.

10. I told him to bring whichever was the lightest. 11. Whatever crushes individuality is despotism. 12. A depot is a place where stores are deposited.

depot | is \ place
=======|==============
\A | \a `
\where
stores | ` are deposited
-------|---------------------
|

+Explanation+.--The line representing _where_ is made up of two parts. The upper part represents _where_ as a conjunction connecting the adjective clause to _place_, and the lower part represents it as an adverb modifying _are deposited_. As _where_ performs these two offices, it may be called a _conjunctive adverb_. By changing _where_ to the equivalent phrase _in which_, and using a diagram similar to (8), Lesson 59, the double nature of the conjunctive adverb will be seen.

13. He raised the maid from where she knelt. (Supply _the place_ before _where_.) 14. Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown. 15. Shylock would give the duke no reason why he followed a losing suit against Antonio. 16. Mark the majestic simplicity of those laws whereby the operations of the universe are conducted.

* * * * *

LESSON 61.

COMPOSITION--ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.

+COMMA--RULE.--The _Adjective Clause_, when not restrictive, is set off by the comma.+

+Explanation+.--I picked the apple _that was ripe_. I picked the apple, _which was ripe_. In the first sentence the adjective clause restricts or limits _apple_, telling which one was picked; in the second the adjective clause is added merely to describe the apple picked, the sentence being nearly equivalent to, I picked the apple, _and it_ was ripe. This difference in meaning is shown by the punctuation.[Footnote: There are other constructions in which the relative is more nearly equivalent to _and he_ or _and it_; as, I gave the letter to my friend, _who will return it to you_.

Those who prefer to let their classification be governed by the logical relation rather than by the grammatical construction call such a sentence compound, making the relative clause independent, or co-ordinate with its antecedent clause.

Such classification will often require very careful discrimination; as, for instance, between the preceding sentence and the following: I gave the letter to my friend, _who can be trusted_.

But we know of no author who, in every case, governs his classification of phrases and clauses strictly by their logical relations. Let us examine the following sentences:--

John, _who did not know the law_, is innocent. John is innocent; _he
did not know the law_. John is innocent _because he did not know the
law_.

No grammarian, we think, would class each of these three italicized clauses as an adverb clause of cause. Do they differ in logical force? The student should carefully note all those constructions in which the grammatical form and the logical force differ. (See pages 119, 121, 138, 139, 142, 143.)]

+Caution+.--The adjective clause should be placed as near as possible to the word it modifies.

+Direction+.--_Correct the following errors of position, and insert the comma when needed_:--

1. The Knights of the Round Table flourished in the reign of King Arthur who vied with their chief in chivalrous exploits. 2. Solomon was the son of David who built the Temple. 3. My brother caught the fish on a small hook baited with a worm which we had for breakfast. 4. I have no right to decide who am interested.

+Direction+.--_Construct five complex sentences, each containing an adjective clause equivalent to one of the following adjectives_:-- Ambitious, respectful, quick-witted, talkative, lovable.

+Direction+.--_Change the following simple sentences to complex sentences by expanding the participle phrases into adjective clauses_:--

1. Those fighting custom with grammar are foolish. 2. The Constitution framed by our fathers is the sheet-anchor of our liberties. 3. I am thy father's spirit, doomed for a certain term to walk the night. 4. Some people, having lived abroad, undervalue the advantages of their native land. 5. A wife and children, threatened with widowhood and orphanage, have knelt at your feet on the very threshold of the Senate Chamber.

+Direction+.--_Change these simple sentences to complex sentences by expanding the infinitive phrases into adjective clauses_:--

1. I have many things to tell you. 2. There were none to deliver. 3. He had an ax to grind. 4. It was a sight to gladden the heart. 5. It was a din to fright a monster's ear.

+Direction+.--_Form complex sentences in which these pronouns and conjunctive adverbs shall be used to connect adjective clauses_:--

Who, which, that, what, whoever, and whatever.

When, where, and why.

+Direction+.--_Change "that which", in the following sentences to "what", and "what" to "that which"; "whoever" to "he who", and "whatever" to "anything" or "everything which"; "where" and "when" to "at", "on", or "in which"; "wherein" to "in which"; and "whereby" to "by which"_:--

1. _That which_ is seen is temporal. 2. _What_ God hath joined together let not man put asunder. 3. _Whoever_ lives a pious life blesses his race. 4. _Whatever_ we do has an influence. 5. Scholars have grown old and blind, striving to put their hands on the very spot _where_ brave men died. 6. The year _when_ Chaucer was born is uncertain. 7. The play's the thing _wherein_ I'll catch the conscience of the king. 8. You take my life in taking the means _whereby_ I live.

+Direction+.--_Expand these possessive and explanatory modifiers into adjective clauses_:--

1. A man's heart deviseth _his_ way. 2. _Reason's_ whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, Lie in three words--_health, peace_, and _competence_.

* * * * *

LESSON 62.

+Direction+.--_Analyze the first nine sentences in the preceding Lesson, and write illustrative sentences as here directed_:--

Give an example of an adjective clause modifying a subject; one modifying a complement; one modifying the principal word of a phrase; one modifying some word omitted; one whose connective is a subject; one whose connective is a complement; one whose connective is the principal word of a phrase; one whose connective is a possessive modifier; one whose connective is omitted; one whose connective is an adverb.

* * * * *

LESSON 63.

COMPLEX SENTENCE--ADVERB CLAUSE.

+Introductory Hints+.--_He arrived late_. You have learned that you can expand the adverb _late_ into a phrase, and say, He arrived _at midnight_. You are now to learn that you can expand it into a clause of +Time+, and say, He arrived _when the clock struck twelve_.

_He stood where I am_. The clause introduced by _where_ expresses +Place+, and is equivalent to the adverb _here_ or to the phrase _in this place_.

_This exercise is as profitable as it is pleasant_. The clause introduced by _as ... as_ modifies _profitable_, telling the +Degree+ of the quality expressed by it.

A clause that does the work of an adverb is an +Adverb Clause+.

Analysis.

The +adverb clause+ may express +time+.

1. When pleasure calls, we listen.

we | listen
===|=========
| \
`When
`
pleasure | \ calls
---------|---\-------
|

+Explanation+.--_When_ modifies both _listen_ and _calls_, denoting that the two acts take place at the same time. It also connects _pleasure calls_, as an adverb modifier, to _listen_. The offices of the conjunctive adverb _when_ may be better understood by expanding it into two phrases thus: We listen _at the time at which_ pleasure calls. _At the time_ modifies _listen_, _at which_ modifies _calls_, and _which_ connects.

The line representing _when_ is made up of three parts to picture these three offices. The part representing _when_ as a modifier of _calls_ is, for convenience, placed above its principal line instead of below it.

2. While Louis XIV. reigned, Europe was at war. 3. When my father and my mother forsake me, then ths Lord will take me up.

Lord | will take | me
======|=====================
\The | \up \
..\ then
` \
`
`When
father \
------------'\ \
\my ' \ \
' \ \
' \ | \ forsake | me
'and \----|---------------------
' / |
' /
mother ' /
------------'/
\my

+Explanation+.--By changing _then_ into _at the time_, and _when_ into _at which_, the offices of these two words will be clearly seen. For explanation of the line representing _when_, see Lesson 14 and (1) above.

4. Cato, before he durst give himself the fatal stroke, spent the night in
reading Plato's "Immortality." [Footnote: Some prefer, in constructions
like this, to treat _before_, _ere_, _after_, _till_, _until_, and
_since_ as prepositions followed by noun clauses.]
5. Many a year is in its grave since I crossed this restless wave.
[Footnote: See (11), Lesson 38, and foot-note.]

+Explanation+.--_Many_ here modifies _year_, or, rather, _year_ as modified by _a_.

6. Blucher arrived on the field of Waterloo just as Wellington was meeting
the last onslaught of Napoleon.

Blucher | arrived
===========|===========
| \
\------\
\ `as
\ just `
\ `
\
Wellington | \ was meeting | onslaught
--------------|-----\------------------------
|

+Explanation+.--_Just_ may be treated as a modifier of the dependent clause. A closer analysis, however would make it a modifier of _as_. _Just as_=_just at the time at which_. _Just_ here modifies _at the time_. _At the time_ is represented in the diagram by the first element of the _as_ line.

The +adverb clause+ may express +place+.

7. Where the snow falls, there is freedom. 8. Pope skimmed the cream of good sense and expression wherever he could find it. 9. The wind bloweth where it listeth.

The +adverb clause+ may express +degree+.

10. Washington was as good as he was great.

+Explanation+.--The adverb clause _as he was great_ modifies the first _as_, which is an adverb modifying _good_. The first _as_, modified by the adverb clause, answers the question, Good to what extent or degree? The second _as_ modifies _great_ and performs the office of a conjunction, and is therefore a conjunctive adverb. Transposing, and expanding _as ... as_ into two phrases, we have, Washington was good _in the degree in which_ he was great. See diagram of (3) and of (20).

11. The wiser he grew, the humbler he became. [Footnote: _The_, here, is
not the ordinary adjective _the_. It is the Anglo-Saxon demonstrative
pronoun used in an instrumental sense. It is here an adverb. The first
_the_ = _by how much_, and modifies _wiser_; the second _the_ = _by so
much_, and modifies _humbler_.]

+Explanation+.--The words _the ... the_ are similar in office to _as ... as_--He became humbler _in that degree in which_ he became wiser.

12. Gold is heavier than iron.

Gold | is \ heavier
=======|==============
| \
` than
`
iron | x \ \ x
-------|---------------

+Explanation+.--_Heavier_ = _heavy beyond the degree_, and _than_ = _in which_. The sentence = _Gold is heavy beyond the degree in which iron is heavy_. _Is_ and _heavy_ are omitted. Frequently words are omitted after _than_ and _as_. _Than_ modifies _heavy_ (understood) and connects the clause expressing degree to _heavier_, and is therefore a conjunctive adverb.

13. To be right is better than to be president.

+Explanation+.--To be right is better (good in a greater degree) than to be president (would be good).

14. It was so cold that the mercury froze. [Footnote: In this sentence,
also in (15) and (17), the dependent clause is sometimes termed a
clause of Result or Consequence. Clauses of Result express different
logical relations, and cannot always be classed under Degree.]

+Explanation+.--The degree of the cold is here shown by the effect it produced. The adverb _so_, modified by the adverb clause _that the mercury froze_, answers the question, Cold to what degree? The sentence = It was cold _to that degree in which_ the mercury froze. _That_, as you see, modifies _froze_ and connects the clauses; it is therefore a conjunctive adverb.

15. It was so cold as to freeze the mercury.

+Explanation+.--It was so cold as to freeze the mercury (would indicate or require).

16. Dying for a principle is a higher degree of virtue than scolding for it. 17. He called so loud that all the hollow deep of hell resounded. 18. To preach is easier than to practice. 19. One's breeding shows itself nowhere more than in his religion. [Footnote: For the use of _he_ instead of the indefinite pronoun _one_ repeated, see Lesson 124.] 20. The oftener I see it, the better I like it.

I | like | it
=====|===========
| \
\----\ better
\the \
...\
` \
`
I | ` see | it
----|--`--------------
` \
`The \
`.....\oftener
\

* * * * *

LESSON 64.

ADVERB CLAUSE-CONTINUED.

+Introductory Hints+.--_He lived as the fool lives_. The adverb clause, introduced by _as_, is a clause of +Manner+, and is equivalent to the adverb _foolishly_ or to the phrase _in a foolish manner_.

_The ground is wet because it has rained_. The adverb clause, introduced by _because_, assigns the +Real Cause+ of the ground's being wet.

_It has rained, for the ground is wet_. The adverb clause, introduced by _for_, does not assign the cause of the raining, but the cause of our believing that it has rained; it gives the +Evidence+ of what is asserted. [Footnote: Evidence should be carefully distinguished from Cause. Cause produces an effect; Evidence produces knowledge of an effect.

Clauses of Evidence are sometimes treated as independent.]

Analysis.

The +adverb clause+ may express +manner+.

1. He died as he lived.

+Explanation+.--He died _in the manner in which_ he lived. For diagram, see (1), Lesson 63.

2. The upright man speaks as he thinks. 3. As the upright man thinks so he speaks.

(For diagram of _as_ ... _so_, see _when_ ... _then_ (3), Lesson 63.)

4. As is the boy so will be the man. 5. The waves of conversation roll and shape our thoughts as the surf rolls and shapes the pebbles on the shore.

The +adverb clause+ may express +real cause+.

6. The ground is wet because it has rained.

ground | is \ wet
==========|=============
\The | `
`
` because
`
it | ` has rained
----|---------------

+Explanation+.--_Because_, being a mere conjunction, stands on a line wholly dotted.

7. Slang is always vulgar, as it is an affected way of talking. 8. We keep the pores of the skin open, for through them the blood throws off its impurities. 9. Since the breath contains poisonous carbonic acid, wise people ventilate their sleeping rooms. 10. Sea-bathing is the most healthful kind of washing, as it combines fresh air and vigorous exercise with its other benefits. 11. Wheat is the most valuable of grains because bread is made from its flour.

The +adverb clause+ may express +evidence+.

12. God was angry with the children of Israel, for he overthrew them in the wilderness. 13. Tobacco and the potato are American products, since Raleigh found them here. 14. It rained last night, because the ground is wet this morning. 15. We Americans must all be cuckoos, for we build our homes in the nests of other birds.

* * * * *

LESSON 65.

ADVERB CLAUSE-CONTINUED.

+Introductory Hints+.--_If it rains, the ground will be wet_. The adverb clause, introduced by _if_, assigns what, if it occurs, will be the cause of the ground's being wet, but, as here expressed, is only a +Condition+ ready to become a cause.

_He takes exercise that he may get well_. The adverb clause, introduced by _that_, assigns the cause or the motive or the +Purpose+ of his exercising.

_The ground is dry, although it has rained_. The adverb clause, introduced by _although_, expresses a +Concession+. It is conceded that a cause for the ground's not being dry exists; but, in spite of this opposing cause, it is asserted that the ground is dry.

All these dependent clauses of real cause, evidence, condition, purpose, and concession come, as you see, under the general head of +Cause+, although only the first kind assigns the cause proper.

Analysis.

The +adverb clause+ may express +condition+.

1. If the air is quickly compressed, enough heat is evolved to produce
combustion.
2. Unless your thought packs easily and neatly in verse, always use prose.
(_Unless_ = _if not_.)
3. If ever you saw a crow with a king-bird after him, you have an image of
a dull speaker and a lively listener.
4. Were it not for the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, the harbors and the
rivers of Britain would be blocked up with ice for a great part of the
year.

+Explanation+.--The relative position of the subject and the verb renders the _if_ unnecessary. This omission of _if_ is a common idiom.

5. Should the calls of hunger be neglected, the fat of the body is thrown
into the grate to keep the furnace in play.

The +adverb clause+ may express +purpose+.

6. Language was given us that we might say pleasant things to each other.

+Explanation+.--_That_, introducing a clause of purpose, is a mere conjunction.

7. Spiders have many eyes in order that they may see in many directions at
one time.

+Explanation+.--The phrases _in order that_, _so that_ = _that_.

8. The ship-canal across the Isthmus of Suez was dug so that European
vessels need not sail around the Cape of Good Hope to reach the Orient.
9. The air draws up vapors from the sea and the land, and retains them
dissolved in itself or suspended in cisterns of clouds, that it may drop
them as rain or dew upon the thirsty earth.

The +adverb clause+ may express +concession+.

10. Although the brain is only one-fortieth of the body, about one-sixth of
the blood is sent to it.
11. Though the atmosphere presses on us with a load of fifteen pounds on
every square inch of surface, still we do not feel its weight.
12. Though thou shouldst bray a fool in a mortar, yet will not his
foolishness depart from him.
13. If the War of the Roses did not utterly destroy English freedom, it
arrested its progress for a hundred years.

+Explanation+.--_If_ here = _even if_ = _though_.

14. Though many rivers flow into the Mediterranean, they are not sufficient
to make up the loss caused by evaporation.

* * * * *

LESSON 66.

COMPOSITION-ADVERB CLAUSES.

+COMMA--RULE.--An _Adverb Clause_ is set off by the comma unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies+.

+Explanation+.--I met him in Paris, _when I was last abroad_. I will not call him villain, _because it would be unparliamentary_. Paper was invented in China, _if the Chinese tell the truth_. In these sentences the adverb clauses are not restrictive, but are supplementary, and are added almost as afterthoughts.

Glass bends easily _when it is red-hot_. Leaves do not turn red _because the frost colors them_. It will break _if you touch it_. Here the adverb clauses are restrictive; each is very closely related in thought to the independent clause, and may almost be said to be the essential part of the sentence.

When the adverb clause precedes, it is set off.

+Direction+.---_Tell why the adverb clauses are or are not set off in Lessons_ 63 _and_ 64.

+Direction+.---_Write, after these independent clauses, adverb clauses of time, place, degree, etc. (for connectives, see Lesson _100_), and punctuate according to the Rule_:--

1. The leaves of the water-maple turn red--_time_. 2. Our eyes cannot bear the light--_time_. 3. Millions of soldiers sleep--_place_. 4. The Bunker Hill Monument stands--_place_. 5. Every spire of grass was so edged and tipped with dew--_degree_. 6. Vesuvius threw its lava so far--_degree_. 7. The tree is inclined--_manner_. 8. The lion springs upon his prey--_manner_. 9. Many persons died in the Black Hole of Calcutta--_cause_. 10. Dew does not form in a cloudy night--_cause_. 11. That thunderbolt fell a mile away--_evidence_. 12. We dream in our sleep--_evidence_. 13. Peter the Great worked in Holland in disguise--_purpose_. 14. We put salt into butter and upon meat--_purpose_. 15. Iron bends and molds easily--_condition_. 16. Apples would not fall to the ground--_condition_. 17. Europe conquered Napoleon at last--_concession_. 18. Punishment follows every violation of nature's laws--_concession_.

* * * * *

LESSON 67.

+COMPOSITION-ADVERB CLASSES+.

ARRANGEMENT.

The adverb clause may stand before the independent clause, between the parts of it, or after it.

+Direction+.---_Think, if you can, of another adverb clause to follow each independent clause in the preceding Lesson, and by means of a caret (^) indicate where this adverb clause may properly stand in the sentence. Note its force in its several positions, and attend to the punctuation. Some of these adverb clauses can stand only at the end_.

* * * * *

LESSON 68.

COMPOSITION--ADVERB CLAUSES.

An adverb clause may be contracted into a participle or a participle phrase.

+Example+.--_When he saw me_, he stopped = _Seeing me_, he stopped.

+Direction+.--_Contract these complex sentences to simple ones_:--

1. Coral animals, when they die, form vast islands with their bodies. 2. The water will freeze, for it has cooled to 32 deg. 3. Truth, though she may be crushed to earth, will rise again. 4. Error, if he is wounded, writhes with pain, and dies among his worshipers. 5. Black clothes are too warm in summer, because they absorb heat.

An adverb clause may be contracted to an absolute phrase.

+Example+.--_When night came_ on, we gave up the chase = _Night coming_ on, we gave up the chase.

+Direction+.--_Contract these complex sentences to simple ones_:--

1. When oxygen and carbon unite in the minute blood-vessels, heat is produced. 2. It will rain to-morrow, for "Probabilities" predicts it. 3. Washington retreated from Long Island because his army was outnumbered. 4. If Chaucer is called the father of our later English poetry, Wycliffe should be called the father of our later English prose.

An adverb clause may be contracted to a prepositional phrase having for its principal word (1) a participle, (2) an infinitive, or (3) a noun.

+Direction+.--_Contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositional phrase having a participle for its principal word_:--

+Model+.--They will call _before they leave_ the city = They will call _before leaving_ the city.

1. The Gulf Stream reaches Newfoundland before it crosses the Atlantic. 2. If we use household words, we shall be better understood. 3. He grew rich because he attended to his business. 4. Though they persecuted the Christians, they did not exterminate them.

+Direction+.--_Contract each of these adverb clauses to an infinitive phrase_:--

+Model+.--She stoops _that she may conquer_ = She stoops _to conquer_.

1. The pine tree is so tall that it overlooks all its neighbors. 2. Philip II. built the Armada that he might conquer England. 3. He is foolish, because he leaves school so early in life. 4. What would I not give if I could see you happy! 5. We are pained when we hear God's name used irreverently.

+Direction+.--_Contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositional phrase having a noun for its principal word_:--

+Model+.--He fought _that he might obtain glory_ = He fought _for glory_.

1. Luther died where he was born. 2. A fish breathes, though it has no lungs. 3. The general marched as he was ordered. 4. Criminals are punished that society may be safe. 5. If you are free from vices, you may expect a happy old age.

An adverb clause may be contracted by simply omitting such words as may easily be supplied.

+Example+.--_When you are right_, go ahead = _When right_, go ahead.

+Direction+.--_Contract these adverb clauses_:--

1. Chevalier Bayard was killed while he was fighting for Francis I. 2. Error must yield, however strongly it may be defended.

+Explanation+.--_However_ modifies _strongly_, and connects a concessive clause.

3. Much wealth is corpulence, if it is not disease. 4. No other English author has uttered so many pithy sayings as Shakespeare has uttered.

(Frequently, clauses introduced by _as_ and _than_ are contracted.)

5. The sun is many times larger than the earth is large.

(Sentences like this never appear in the full form.)

6. This is a prose era rather than it is a poetic era.

An adverb clause may sometimes be changed to an adjective clause or phrase.

+Example+.--This man is to be pitied, _because he has no friends_ = This man, _who has no friends_, is to be pitied = This man, _having no friends_, is to be pitied = This man, _without friends_, is to be pitied.

+Direction+.--_Change each of the following adverb clauses first to an adjective clause and then to an adjective phrase_:--

1. A man is to be pitied if he does not care for music. 2. When a man lacks health, wealth, and friends, he lacks three good things.

* * * * *

LESSON 69.

ANALYSIS.

+Direction.+--_Tell the kind of adverb clause in each of the sentences in Lesson 68, and note the different positions in which these clauses stand.

Select two sentences containing time clauses; one, a place clause; two, degree; one, manner; two, real cause; two, evidence; two, purpose; two, condition; and two, concession, and analyze them_.

* * * * *

LESSON 70.

REVIEW.

+Direction.+--_Compose sentences illustrating the different kinds of adverb clauses named in Lessons 63, 64, 65, and explain fully the office of each. For connectives, see Lesson 100. Tell why the adverb clauses in Lesson 68 are or are not set off by the comma. Compose sentences illustrating the different ways of contracting adverb clauses_.

+Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.+

(SEE PAGES 165-168.)

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30, 150.

* * * * *

LESSON 71.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE-NOUN CLAUSE.

+Introductory Hints.+--In Lessons 40 and 41 you learned that an infinitive phrase may perform many of the offices of a noun. You are now to learn that a clause may do the same.

_Obedience_ is better than sacrifice = _To obey_ is better than sacrifice = _That men should obey_ is better than sacrifice. The dependent clause _that men should obey_ is equivalent to a noun, and is the +Subject+ of _is_.

_Many people believe that the beech tree is never struck by lightning_. The dependent clause, introduced by _that_, is equivalent to a noun, and is the +Object Complement+ of _believe_.

_The fact that mold, mildew, and yeast are plants is wonderful_. The clause introduced by _that_ is equivalent to a noun, and is +Explanatory+ of _fact_.

_A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed words_. The clause introduced by _that_ is equivalent to a noun, and is an +Attribute Complement+ relating to _peculiarity_.

_Your future depends very much on who your companions are_. The clause _who your companions are_ is equivalent to a noun, and is the +Principal Term+ of a +Phrase+ introduced by the preposition _on_.

A clause that does the work of a noun is a +Noun Clause+.

Analysis.

The +noun clause+ may be used as +subject+.

1. That the earth is round has been proved.

That
--------
'
earth | is ' \ round
-------|--------------
\the | |
|
/ \ | has been proved
=============|=================
|

+Explanation+.--The clause _that the earth is round_ is used like a noun as the subject of _has been proved_. The conjunction _that_ [Footnote: "_That_ was originally the neuter demonstrative pronoun, used to point to the fact stated in an independent sentence; as, It was good; he saw _that_. By an inversion of the order this became, He saw _that_ (namely) it was good, and so passed into the form _He saw that it was good_, where _that_ has been transferred to the accessory clause, and has become a mere sign of grammatical subordination."--_C. P. Mason._] introduces the noun clause.

This is a peculiar kind of complex sentence. Strictly speaking, there is here no principal clause, for the whole sentence cannot be called a clause, _i.e._, a part of a sentence. We may say that it is a complex sentence in which the whole sentence takes the place of a principal clause.

2. That the same word is used for the soul of man and for a glass of gin is singular. 3. "What have I done?" is asked by the knave and the thief. 4. Who was the discoverer of America is not yet fully determined by historians.

+Explanation+.--The subject clause is here an indirect question. See Lesson 74.

5. When letters were first used is not certainly known. 6. "Where is Abel, thy brother?" smote the ears of the guilty Cain. 7. When to quit business and enjoy their wealth is a problem never solved by some.

+Explanation+.--_When to quit business and enjoy their wealth_ is an indirect question. _When to quit business = When they are to quit business_, or _When they ought to quit business_. Such constructions may be expanded into clauses, or they may be treated as phrases equivalent to clauses.

The +noun clause+ may be used as +object complement+.

8. Galileo taught that the earth moves.

that
-------
'
earth | ' moves
------|-------
\the |
|
Galileo | taught | / \
=========|==============
|

+Explanation+.--Here the clause introduced by _that_ is used like a noun as the object complement of _taught_.

9. The Esquimau feels intuitively that bear's grease and blubber are the dishes for his table. 10. The world will not anxiously inquire who you are. 11. It will ask of you, "What can you do?" 12. The peacock struts about, saying, "What a fine tail I have!" 13. He does not know which to choose.

(See explanation of (7), above.)

14. No one can tell how or when or where he will die. 15. Philosophers are still debating whether the will has any control over the current of thought in our dreams.

* * * * *

LESSON 72.

NOUN CLAUSE--CONTINUED.

Analysis.

The +noun clause+ may be used as +attribute complement+.

1. A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed words. 2. Tweed's defiant question was, "What are you going to do about it?" 3. The question ever asked and never answered is, "Where and how am I to exist in the Hereafter?" 4. Hamlet's exclamation was, "What a piece of work is man!" 5. The myth concerning Achilles is, that he was invulnerable in every part except the heel.

The +noun clause+ may be used as +explanatory modifier+.

6. It has been proved that the earth is round.

that
-------
'
earth | is ' \ round
------|--------------
\the |
|
It (/ \) | has been proved
==========|==================
|

+Explanation+.--The grammatical subject _it_ has no meaning till explained by the noun clause.

7. It is believed that sleep is caused by a diminution in the supply of blood to the brain. 8. The fact that mold, mildew, and yeast are plants is wonderful. 9. Napoleon turned his Simplon road aside in order that he might save a tree mentioned by Caesar.

+Explanation+.--Unless _in order that_ is taken as a conjunction connecting an adverb clause of purpose (see (7), Lesson 65), the clause introduced by _that_ is a noun clause explanatory of _order_. [Footnote: A similar explanation may be made of _on condition that, in case that_, introducing adverb clauses expressing condition.]

10. Shakespeare's metaphor, "Night's candles are burnt out," is one of the
finest in literature.
11. The advice that St. Ambrose gave St. Augustine in regard to conformity
to local custom was in substance this: "When in Rome, do as the Romans
do."
12. This we know, that our future depends on our present.

The +noun clause+ may be used as +principal term+ of a +prepositional phrase+.

13. Have birds any sense of why they sing?

birds | Have | sense
=======|================ they | sing
| \any \ -----|------
\ of | \why
\ / \
\-------------

+Explanation+.--_Why they sing_ is an indirect question, here used as the principal term of a prepositional phrase.

14. There has been some dispute about who wrote "Shakespeare's Plays." 15. We are not certain that an open sea surrounds the Pole.

+Explanation+.--By supposing _of_ to stand before _that_, the noun clause may be treated as the principal term of a prepositional phrase modifying the adjective _certain_. By supplying _of the fact_, the noun clause will become explanatory.

16. We are all anxious that the future shall bring us success and triumph. 17. The Sandwich Islander is confident that the strength and valor of his slain enemy pass into himself.

* * * * *

LESSON 73.

COMPOSITION--NOUN CLAUSE.

+COMMA--RULE.--The _Noun Clause_ used as attribute complement is generally set off by the comma.+

+Remarks+.--Present usage seems to favor the omission of the comma with the clause used as subject or as object complement, except where the comma would contribute to clearness.

The punctuation of the explanatory clause is like that of other explanatory modifiers. See Lesson 34. But the real subject made explanatory of _it_ is seldom set off. See next Lesson for the punctuation of noun clauses that are questions or quotations.

+Direction+.--_Give the reasons for the use or the omission of the comma with the noun clauses in the preceding Lesson_.

By using _it_ as a substitute for the subject clause, this clause may be placed last.

+Example+.--_That the story of William Tell is a myth_ is now believed = _It_ is now believed _that the story of William Tell is a myth_.

+Direction+.--_By the aid of the expletive it, transpose five subject clauses in Lesson 71_.

Often the clause used as object complement may be placed first.

+Direction+.--_Transpose such of the clauses used as object complements, in the preceding Lessons, as admit transposition. Punctuate them if they need punctuation_.

The noun clause may be made prominent by separating it and inserting the independent clause between its parts,

+Example+.--The story of William Tell, _it is now believed_, is a myth. (Notice that the principal clause, used parenthetically, is set off by the comma.)

+Direction+.--_Write the following sentences, using the independent clauses parenthetically_:--

1. We believe that the first printing-press in America was set up in Mexico
in 1536.
2. I am aware that refinement of mind and clearness of thinking usually
result from grammatical studies.
3. It is true that the glorious sun pours down his golden flood as cheerily
on the poor man's cottage as on the rich man's palace.

+Direction+.--_Vary the following sentence so as to illustrate five different kinds of noun clauses_:--

+Model+.--
1. _That stars are suns_ is the belief of astronomers.
2. Astronomers believe _that stars are suns_.
3. The belief of astronomers is, _that stars are suns_.
4. The belief _that stars are suns_ is held by astronomers.
5. Astronomers are confident _that stars are suns_.

1. Our conclusion is, that different forms of government suit different
stages of civilization.

The noun clause may be contracted by changing the predicate to a participle, and the subject to a possessive.

+Example+.--_That he was brave_ cannot be doubted = _His being brave_ cannot be doubted.

+Direction+.--_Make the following complex sentences simple by changing the noun clauses to phrases_:--

1. That the caterpillar changes to a butterfly is a curious fact. 2. Everybody admits that Cromwell was a great leader. 3. A man's chief objection to a woman is, that she has no respect for the newspaper. 4. The thought that we are spinning around the sun at the rate of twenty miles a second makes us dizzy. 5. She was aware that I appreciated her situation.

The noun clause may be contracted by making the predicate, when changed to an infinitive phrase, the objective complement, and the subject the object complement.

+Direction+.--_Make the following complex sentences simple by changing the predicates of the noun clauses to objective complements, and the subjects to object complements_:--

+Model+.--King Ahasuerus commanded that _Haman should be hanged_ = King Ahasuerus commanded _Haman to be hanged_.

1. I believe that he is a foreigner. 2. The Governor ordered that the prisoner should be set free. 3. Many people believe that Webster was the greatest of American statesmen. 4. How wide do you think that the Atlantic ocean is? 5. They hold that taxation without representation is unjust.

+Direction+.--_Expand into complex sentences such of the sentences in Lesson_ 41 _as contain an objective complement and an object complement that together are equivalent to a clause_.

A noun clause may be contracted to an infinitive phrase.

+Example+.--_That he should vote_ is the duty of every American citizen = _To vote_ is the duty of every American citizen.

+Direction+.--_Contract these noun clauses to infinitive phrases_:--

1. That we guard our liberty with vigilance is a sacred duty. 2. Every one desires that he may live long and happily. 3. The effect of looking upon the sun is, that the eye is blinded. 4. Caesar Augustus issued a decree that all the world should be taxed. 5. We are all anxious that we may make a good impression. 6. He does not know whom he should send. 7. He cannot find out how he is to go there.

* * * * *

LESSON 74.

COMPOSITION--NOUN CLAUSE--CONTINUED.

+QUOTATION MARKS--RULE.--Quotation marks ("") inclose a copied word or passage+.

+Remarks+.--Single marks (' ') inclose a quotation within a quotation. If, within the quotation having single marks, still another quotation is made, the double marks are again used; as, "The incorrectness of the dispatches led Bismarck to declare, 'It will soon come to be said, "He lies like the telegraph."'" This introduction of a third quotation should generally be avoided, especially where the three marks come at the end, as above.

When a quotation is divided by a parenthetical expression, each part of the quotation is inclosed; as, "I would rather be right," said Clay, "than be president."

In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within the quotation marks; as, He asked, "What are you living for?" but, when a question contains a quotation, this order is reversed; as, May we not find "sermons in stones"? So also with the exclamation point.

+CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--The first word of a direct quotation making complete sense or of a direct question introduced into a sentence should begin with a capital letter+.

+Remarks+.--A +direct quotation+ is one whose exact words, as well as thought, are copied; as, Nathan said to David, "_Thou art the man_." An +indirect quotation+ is one whose thought, but not whose exact words, is copied; as, Nathan told David _that he was the man_. The reference here of the pronoun _he_ is somewhat ambiguous. Guard against this, especially in indirect quotations.

The direct quotation is set off by the comma, begins with a capital letter, and is inclosed within quotation marks--though these may be omitted. The indirect quotation is not generally set off by the comma, does not necessarily begin with a capital letter, and is not inclosed within quotation marks.