Chapter VII: Part 7

+Introductory Hints+.--You learned in Lesson 28 that in saying _Washington captured_ we do not fully express the act performed. Adding _Cornwallis_, we complete the predicate by naming the one that receives the act that passes over from the doer. _Transitive_ means _passing over_, and so all verbs that represent an act as passing over from a doer to a receiver are called +Transitive Verbs+. If we say _Cornwallis was captured by Washington_, the verb is still transitive; but the object, _Cornwallis_, which names the receiver, is here the subject of the sentence, and not, as before, the object complement. You see that the object, the word that names the receiver of the act, may be the subject, or it may be the object complement.

All verbs that, like _fall_ in _Leaves fall_, do not represent the act as passing over to a receiver, and all that express mere being or state of being are called +Intransitive Verbs+.

A verb transitive in one sentence; as, He _writes_ good English, may be intransitive in another; as, He _writes_ well--meaning simply He _is_ a good _writer_. A verb is transitive only when an object is expressed or obviously understood.

_Washington captured Cornwallis_. Here _captured_ represents the act as having taken place in past time. _Tense_ means _time_, and hence this verb is in the past tense. _Cornwallis captured, the war speedily closed_. Here _captured_ is, as you have learned, a participle; and, representing the act as past at the time indicated by _closed_, it is a past participle. Notice that _ed_ is added to _capture_ (final _e_ is always dropped when _ed_ is added) to form its past tense and its past participle. All verbs that form the past tense and the past participle by adding _ed_ to the present are called +Regular Verbs+.

All verbs that do not form the past tense and the past participle by adding _ed_ to the present; as, _fall, fell, fallen; go, went, gone_, are called +Irregular Verbs+.

_Early, hereafter, now, often, soon, presently_, etc., used to modify any verb--as, _will go_ in, I _will go soon_--by expressing time, are called +Adverbs of Time+.

_Away, back, elsewhere, hence, out, within_, etc., used to modify any verb--as, _will go_ in, I _will go away_--by expressing direction or place, are called +Adverbs of Place+.

_Exceedingly, hardly, quite, sufficiently, too, very_, etc., used to modify a word--as the adjective _hot_ in, The tea is _very hot_--by expressing degree, are called +Adverbs of Degree+.

_Plainly, so, thus, well, not_, [Footnote: It may be worth remarking that while there are many negative nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and conjunctions in oar language, negation is more frequently expressed in English by the adverb than by any other part of speech--than by all other parts of speech. A very large per cent of these adverbs modify the verb. That is to say, it is largely through the adverb that what the predicate expresses is declared not to be true of the thing named by the subject. It is very suggestive that much of what is said consists of denial--is taken up in telling not what is true of things but what is not true of them.

"The negative particle in our language is simply the consonant +n+. In Saxon it existed as a word +ne+; but we have lost that word, and it is now a letter only, which, enters into many words, as into _no, not, nought, none, neither, nor, never_."--_Earle_.

_No_ and _yes_ (_nay_ and _yea_), when used to answer Questions, show how the thought presented is regarded, and may therefore be classed with adverbs of manner. They are sometimes called _independent adverbs_. They seem to modify words omitted in the answer but contained in the question; as, Did you see him? _No_ = I did _no_ (_not_) see him; Will you go? _Yes_. The force of _yes_ may be illustrated by substituting _certainly_--Will you go? _Certainly_. _Certainly_ I will go, or I will _certainly_ go. As _no_ and _yes_ represent or suggest complete answers, they may be called +sentence-words+.] etc., used to modify a word--as, _spoke_ in, He _spoke plainly_--by expressing manner, are called +Adverbs of Manner+.

_Hence, therefore, why_, etc., used in making an inference or in expressing cause--as, It is dark, _hence_, or _therefore_, the sun is down; _Why_ is it dark?--are called +Adverbs of Cause+.

Some adverbs fall into more than one class; as, _so_ and _as_.

Some adverbs, as you have learned, connect clauses, and are therefore called +Conjunctive Adverbs+.

DEFINITIONS.

+A _Verb_ is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being+.

CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO MEANING.

+A _Transitive Verb_ is one that requires an object+. [Footnote: The +object+ of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of the action, may be the +object complement+, or it may be the +subject+; as, Brutus stabbed _Caesar_; _Caesar_ was stabbed by Brutus. See page 187.]

+An _Intransitive Verb_ is one that does not require an object+.

CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO FORM.

+A _Regular Verb_ is one that forms its past tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present+.

+An _Irregular Verb_ is one that does not form its past tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present+.

+An _Adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. [Footnote: Adverbs have several exceptional uses. They may be used independently; as, _Now, there_ must be an error here. They may modify a phrase or a preposition; as, He came _just_ in time; It went _far_ beyond the mark. They may modify a clause or a sentence; as, He let go _simply_ because he was exhausted; _Certainly_ you may go.

It may also be noted here that adverbs are used interrogatively; as, _How, when_, and _where_ is this to be done? and that they may add to the office of the adverb that of the conjunction; as, I go _where_ I am sent.]

CLASSES OF ADVERBS.

+_Adverbs of Time_ are those that generally answer the question+, _When?_

+_Adverbs of Place_ are those that generally answer the question+, _Where?_

+_Adverbs of Degree_ are those that generally answer the question+, _To what extent?_

+_Adverbs of Manner_ are those that generally answer the question+, _In what way?_

+_Adverbs of Cause_ are those that generally answer the question+, _Why?_

+Direction+.--_Point out the transitive and the intransitive, the regular and the irregular verbs in Lesson_ 14, _and classify the adverbs_.

* * * * *

LESSON 93.

CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS.

+Caution+.--Choose apt adverbs, but do not use them needlessly or instead of other forms of expression; avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it.

+Examples+.--I could _ill_ (not _illy_) afford the time. Do _as_ (not _like_) I do. A diphthong is _the union of_ two vowels (not _where_ or _when_ two vowels unite) in the same syllable. _This_ (not _this here_ or _this 'ere_) sentence is correct. He wrote _that_ (not _how that_) he had been sick. The belief in immortality is _universally_ held (not _universally_ held _everywhere_). His nose was _very_ (not _terribly_ or _frightfully_) red,

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_.--

1. I returned back here yesterday. 2. He had not hardly a minute to spare. 3. The affair was settled amicably, peaceably, and peacefully. 4. It was awfully amusing. 5. This 'ere knife is dull. 6. That 'ere horse has the heaves. 7. A direct quotation is when the exact words of another are copied. 8. I do not like too much sugar in my tea. 9. He seldom or ever went home sober. 10. The belief in immortality is universally held by all. 11. I am dreadfully glad to hear that. 12. This is a fearfully long lesson. 13. He said how that he would go.

+Caution+.--So place adverbs that there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also. They seldom stand between _to_ and the infinitive. [Footnote: Instances of the "cleft, or split, infinitive"--the infinitive separated from its _to_ by an intervening adverb--are found in Early English and in English all the way down, Fitzedward Hall and others have shown this.

But there can be no question that usage is overwhelmingly against an adverb's standing between _to_ and the infinitive. Few writers ever place an adverb there at all; and these few, only an occasional adverb, and that adverb only occasionally.

Whether the adverb should be placed before the _to_ or after the infinitive is often a nice question, sometimes to be determined by the ear alone. It should never stand, however, where it would leave the meaning ambiguous or in any way obscure.]

+Examples+.--_I only_ rowed across the river = _I only_ (= _alone_, an adjective), and no one else, rowed etc., or = I _only rowed_ etc., +but+ did not _swim_ or _wade_. I rowed _only across_ the river = _across_, not _up_ or _down_ etc. I rowed across the _river only_ = the _river only_, not the _bay_ etc. _Merely to see_ (not _to merely see_) her was sufficient. _Not every collegian_ is a scholar (not _Every collegian_ is _not_ a scholar).

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:--

1. I have thought of marrying often. 2. We only eat three meals a day. 3. He hopes to rapidly recruit. 4. All is not gold that glitters. 5. He tries to distinctly speak. 6. He tries distinctly to speak. 7. All that glitters is not gold. 8. His sagacity almost appears miraculous.

+Caution+.--Unless you wish to affirm, do not use two negative words so that they shall contradict each other. [Footnote: _Not in_frequently we use two negatives to make an affirmation; as, He is _not un_just; _No_ man can do _nothing_.]

+Examples+.--No one _has_ (not _hasn't_) yet reached the North Pole. _No un_pleasant circumstance happened (proper, because it is intended to affirm).

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:--

1. No other reason can never be given. 2. He doesn't do nothing. 3. He isn't improving much, I don't think. 4. There must be something wrong when children do not love neither father nor mother. 5. He isn't no sneak. 6. Charlie Ross can't nowhere be found.

+Caution+.--Do not use adverbs for adjectives or adjectives for adverbs.

+Examples+.--The moon looks _calm_ and _peaceful_ (not _calmly_ and _peacefully_, as the words are intended to describe the moon). The moon looks down _calmly_ and _peacefully_ on the battlefield (not _calm_ and _peaceful_, as the words are intended to tell how she performs the act). I slept _soundly_ (not _good_ or _sound_).

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:--

1. It was a softly blue sky. 2. The river runs rapid. 3. You must read more distinct. 4. It was an uncommon good harvest. 5. She is most sixteen. 6. The discussion waxed warmly. 7. The prima donna sings sweet. 8. She is miserable poor. 9. My head feels badly. 10. He spoke up prompt. 11. He went most there. 12. He behaved very bad. 13. This is a mighty cold day.

+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these four Cautions_.

* * * * *

LESSON 94.

CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS-CONTINUED.

Miscellaneous Errors.

+Direction+.--_Give the Cautions which these sentences violate, and correct the errors_:--

1. Begin it over again. 2. This can be done easier. 3. The house is extra warm. 4. Most every one goes there. 5. I have a pencil that long. 6. He hasn't his lesson, I don't believe. 7. A circle can't in no way be squared. 8. This is a remarkable cold winter. 9. The one is as equally deserving as the other. 10. Feathers feel softly. 11. It is pretty near finished. 12. Verbosity is when too many words are used. 13. It is a wonderful fine day. 14. He is some better just now. 15. Generally every morning we went to the spring. 16. I wish to simply state this point. 17. He tried to not only injure but to also ruin the man. 18. The lesson was prodigiously long. 19. The cars will not stop at this station only when the bell rings. 20. He can do it as good as any one can. 21. Most everybody talks so. 22. He hasn't yet gone, I don't believe. 23. He behaved thoughtlessly, recklessly, and carelessly. 24. That 'ere book is readable. 25. I will not go but once. 26. I can't find out neither where the lesson begins nor where it ends. 27. They were nearly dressed alike. 28. The tortured man begged that they would kill him again and again. 29. The fortune was lavishly, profusely, and prodigally spent. 30. I am real glad to see you. 31. We publish all the information, official and otherwise.

LESSON 95.

PREPOSITIONS.

+DEFINITION.--A _Preposition_ is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified.+

Composition.

+Direction+.--_We give below a list of the prepositions in common use. Make short sentences in which each of these shall be aptly used. Use two or three of them in a single sentence if you wish_:--

Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid, amidst, among, amongst, around, at, athwart, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixt, beyond, but, by, down, ere, for, from, in, into, of, on, over, past, round, since, through, throughout, till, to, toward, towards, under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon, with, within, without.

+Remarks+.--_Bating_, _concerning_, _during_, _excepting_, _notwithstanding_, _pending_, _regarding_, _respecting_, _saving_, and _touching_ are still participles in form and sometimes are such in use. But in most cases the participial meaning has faded out of them, and they express mere relations.

_But_, _except_, and _save_, in such a sentence as, All _but_ or _except_ or _save him_ were lost, are usually classed with prepositions.

The phrases _aboard of_, _according to_, _along with_, _as to_, _because of_ (by cause of), _from among_, _from between_, _from under_, _instead of_ (in stead of), _out of_, _over against_, and _round about_ may be called compound prepositions. But _from_ in these compounds; as, He crawled _from under the ruins_, really introduces a phrase, the principal term of which is the phrase that follows _from_.

Many prepositions become adverbs when the noun which ordinarily follows them is omitted; as, He rode _past_; He stands _above_.

* * * * *

LESSON 96.

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS.

+To the Teacher+.--Most prepositions express relations so diverse, and so delicate in their shades of distinction that a definition of them based upon etymology would mislead. A happy and discriminating use of prepositions can be acquired only by an extended study of good authors. We do below all that we think it prudent or profitable to do with them. He should he a man of wide and careful reading who assumes to teach pupils that such prepositions, and such only, should be used with certain words. Nowhere in grammar is dogmatism more dangerous than here. That grammarian exceeds his commission who marks out for the pupils' feet a path narrower than the highway which the usage of the best writers and speakers has cast up. [Footnote: Take a single illustration. Grammarians, in general, teach that _between_ and _betwixt_ "refer to two," are used "only when two things or sets of things are referred to." Ordinarily, and while clinging to their derivation, they are so used, but are they always, and must they be? "There was a hunting match agreed upon betwixt a lion, an ass, and a fox."-- _L'Estrange_. "A Triple Alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden."-- _J. B. Green_. "In the vacant space between Persia, Syria, Egypt, and Ethiopia."--_Gibbon_. "His flight between the several worlds."--_Addison_. "The identity of form between the nominative, accusative, and vocative cases in the neuter." --_G. P. Marsh_. "The distinction between these three orders has been well expressed by Prof. Max Mueller."--_W. D. Whitney_. "Between such dictionaries as Worcester's, The Imperial, and Webster's."-- _B. G. White_. "Betwixt the slender boughs came glimpses of her ivory neck."--_Bryant_. With what clumsy circumlocutions would our speech be filled if prepositions could never slip the leash of their etymology! What simple and graceful substitute could be found for the last phrase in this sentence, for instance: There were forty desks in the room with ample space _between them_?

"We observe that _between_ is not restricted to two."--_Imperial Dictionary_. "In all senses _between_ has been, from its earliest appearance, extended to more than two. It is still the only word available to express the relation of a thing to many surrounding things severally and individually--_among_ expressing a relation to them collectively and vaguely: we should not say, 'The choice lies among the three candidates,' or 'to insert a needle among the closed petals of a flower.'"--_The New English Dictionary_.

We have collected hundreds of instances of _between_ used by good writers with three or more.

Guard against such expressions as _between each_ page; a choice _between one_ of several.]

+Direction+.--_We give below a few words with the prepositions which usually accompany them. Form short sentences containing these words combined with each of the prepositions which follow them, and note carefully the different relations expressed by the different prepositions_:--

(Consult the dictionary for both the preposition and the accompanying word.)

Abide _at, by, with_; accommodate _to, with_; advantage _of, over_; agree _to, with_; angry _at, with_; anxious _about, for_; argue _against, with_; arrive _at, in_; attend _on_ or _upon, to_; careless _about, in, of_; communicate _to, with_; compare _to, with_; consists _in, of_; defend _against, from_; die _by, for, of_; different _from_; disappointed _in, of_; distinguish _by, from_; familiar _to, with_; impatient _for, of_; indulge _in, with_; influence _on, over, with_; insensible _of, to_; sat _beside_; many _besides_.

* * * * *

LESSON 97.

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED.

+Direction+.--_Do with the following words as with those above_:--

Inquire _after, for, into, of_; intrude _into, upon_; joined _to, with_; liberal _of, to_; live _at, in, on_; look _after, for, on_; need _of_; obliged _for, to_; part _from, with_; placed _in, on_; reconcile _to, with_; regard _for, to_; remonstrate _against, with_; sank _beneath, in, into_; share _in, of, with_; sit _in, on_ or _upon_; smile _at, on_; solicitous _about, for_; strive _for, with, against_; taste _for, of_; touch _at, on_ or _upon_; useful _for, in, to_; weary _of, in, with_; yearn _for, towards_.

* * * * *

LESSON 98.

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED.

+Caution+.--Great care must be used in the choice of prepositions.

+Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:--

1. This book is different to that. 2. He stays to home. 3. They two quarreled among each other. 4. He is in want for money. 5. I was followed with a crowd. 6. He fell from the bridge in the water. [Footnote: _In_ denotes motion or rest in a condition or place; _into_, change from one condition or place into another. "When one is outside of a place, he may be able to get _into_ it; but he cannot do anything _in_ it until he has got _into_ it."] 7. He fought into the Revolution. [See previous footnote] 8. He bears a close resemblance of his father. 9. He entered in the plot. 10. He lives at London. 11. He lives in the turn of the road. 12. I have need for a vacation. 13. The child died with the croup. 14. He took a walk, but was disappointed of it. 15. He did not take a walk; he was disappointed in it. 16. He was accused with felony. 17. School keeps upon Monday. 18. Place a mark between each leaf. 19. He is angry at his father. 20. He placed a letter into my hands. 21. She is angry with your conduct. 22. What is the matter of him? 23. I saw him over to the house. 24. These plants differ with each other. 25. He boards to the hotel. 26. I board in the hotel. 27. She stays at the North. 28. I have other reasons beside these. [Footnote: Beside = _by the side of_; besides = _in addition to_.] 29. You make no use with your talents. 30. He threw himself onto the bed. 31. The boys are hard to work. 32. He distributed the apples between his four brothers. 33. He went in the park. 34. You can confide on him. 35. He arrived to Toronto. 36. I agree with that plan. 37. The evening was spent by reading. 38. Can you accommodate me in one of those? 39. What a change a century has produced upon our country! 40. He stays to school late. 41. The year of the Restoration plunged Milton in bitter poverty. 42. The Colonies declared themselves independent from England. 43. I spent my Saturdays by going in the country, and enjoying myself by fishing.

* * * * *

LESSON 99.

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED.[Footnote: "A preposition is a feeble word to end a sentence _with_," we are told. Sentences (10) and (13), Lesson 59, (2), Lesson 60, and many in succeeding Lessons violate the rule so carelessly expressed.

Of this rule, laid down without regard to usage and thoughtlessly repeated, Prof. Austin Phelps says, "A preposition as such is by no means a feeble word;" and he quotes a burst of feeling from Rufus Choate which ends thus: "Never, so long as there is left of Plymouth Rock a piece large enough to make a gunflint _of_!" "This," Professor Phelps says, "is purest idiomatic English." He adds, "The old Scotch interrogative, 'What _for_?' is as pure English in written as in colloquial speech."

Sentences containing two prepositions before a noun are exceedingly common in English--"The language itself is inseparable _from_, or essentially a part _of_, the _thoughts_." Such sentences have been condemned, but the worst that can be urged against them is, that they lack smoothness. But smoothness is not always desirable.

Sentences containing a transitive verb and a preposition before a noun are very common--"Powerless to _affect_, or to be affected _by_, the _times_."]

CAUTION.--Do not use prepositions needlessly.

DIRECTION.--_Correct these errors_:--

1. I went there at about noon. 2. In what latitude is Boston in? 3. He came in for to have a talk. 4. I started a week ago from last Saturday. 5. He was born August 15, in 1834. 6. A good place to see a play is at Wallack's. 7. He went to home. 8. I was leading of a horse about. 9. By what states is Kentucky bounded by? 10. His servants ye are to whom ye obey. 11. Where are you going to? 12. They admitted of the fact. 13. Raise your book off of the table. 14. He took the poker from out of the fire. 15. Of what is the air composed of? 16. You can tell by trying of it. 17. Where have you been to? 18. The boy is like to his father. 19. They offered to him a chair. 20. This is the subject of which I intend to write about. 21. Butter brings twenty cents for a pound. 22. Give to me a knife. 23. I have a brother of five years old. 24. To what may Italy be likened to? 25. In about April the farmer puts in his seed. 26. Jack's favorite sport was in robbing orchards. 27. Before answering of you, I must think. 28. He lives near to the river. 29. Keep off of the grass.

+Caution+.--Do not omit prepositions when they are needed.

+Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:--

1. There is no use going there. 2. He is worthy our help. 3. I was prevented going. 4. He was banished the country. 5. He is unworthy our charity. 6. What use is this to him? 7. He was born on the 15th August, 1834. 8. Adam and Eve were expelled the garden. 9. It was the size of a pea. 10. Egypt is the west side of the Red Sea. 11. His efforts were not for the great, but the lowly. 12. He received dispatches from England and Russia.

+Direction+.--_Point out the prepositions in Lessons_ 80 _and_ 81, _and name the words between which, in sense, they show the relation_.

* * * * *

LESSON 100.

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS AND OTHER CONNECTIVES.

+Introductory Hints+.--The stars look down upon the roofs of the living _and_ upon the graves of the dead, _but neither_ the living _nor_ the dead are conscious of their gaze. Here _and_, _but_, _neither_, and _nor_ connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, or order, and so are called +Co-ordinate Conjunctions+. Both clauses may be independent, or both dependent but of equal rank.

At the burning of Moscow, it seemed _as_ [it would seem] _if_ the heavens were lighted up _that_ the nations might behold the scene. Here _as_, _if_, and _that_ connect each a lower, or subordinate, clause to a clause of higher rank, and hence are called +Subordinate Conjunctions+. One clause may be independent and the other dependent, or both dependent but of unequal rank.

+DEFINITIONS.+

+A _Conjunction_ is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses+. [Footnote: Some of the co-ordinate conjunctions, as _and_ and _but_, connect, in thought, sentences separated by the period, and even connect paragraphs. In analysis and parsing, we regard only the individual sentence and treat such connectives as introductory.]

+_Co-ordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect words, phrases, or clauses of the same rank+.

+_Subordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect clauses of different rank+.

+Remark+.--Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper; some are relative pronouns; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, which, in addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the conjunction, take its office upon themselves and connect the clauses.

To THE TEACHER.--We do not advise the memorizing of these lists. The pupils should he able to name the different groups, and some of the most common connectives of each group.

+Co-ordinate Connectives.+ [Footnote: +Copulative+ conjunctions join parts in the same line of thought; +Adversative+ conjunctions join parts contrasted or opposed in meaning; +Alternative+ conjunctions join parts so as to offer a choice or a denial. See Lesson 76.]

+Copulative+.--_And_, _both_ ... _and_, _as well as_ [Footnote: The _as well as_ in, _He, as well as I, went_; and not that in, _He is as well as I am_.] are conjunctions proper. _Accordingly_, _also_, _besides_, _consequently_, _furthermore_, _hence_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _now_, _so_, _then_, and _therefore_ are conjunctive adverbs.

+Adversative+.--_But_ and _whereas_ are conjunctions proper. _However_, _nevertheless_, _notwithstanding_, _on the contrary_, _on the other hand_, _still_, and _yet_ are conjunctive adverbs.

+Alternative+.--_Neither_, _nor_, _or_, _either_ ... _or_, and _neither_ ... _nor_ are conjunctions proper. _Else_ and _otherwise_ are conjunctive adverbs.

+Subordinate Connectives.+

CONNECTIVES OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.

_That_, _what_, _whatever_, _which_, _whichever_, _who_, and _whoever_ are relative pronouns. _When_, _where_, _whereby_, _wherein_, and _why_ are conjunctive adverbs.

CONNECTIVES OF ADVERB CLAUSES.

_Time_.--_After_, _as_, _before_, _ere_, _since_, _till_, _until_, _when_, _whenever_, _while_, and _whilst_ are conjunctive adverbs.

_Place_.--_Whence_, _where_, and _wherever _are conjunctive adverbs.

_Degree_.--_As_, _than_, _that_, and _the_ are conjunctive adverbs, correlative with adjectives or adverbs.

_Manner_.--_As_ is a conjunctive adverb, correlative, often, with an adjective or an adverb.

_Real Cause_.--_As_, _because_, _for_, _since_, and _whereas_ are conjunctions proper.

_Evidence_.--_Because_, _for_, and _since_ are conjunctions proper.

_Purpose_.--_In order that_, _lest_ (= _that not_), _that_, and _so that_ are conjunctions proper.

Condition.--Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, provided that, and unless are conjunctions proper.

_Concession_.--_Although_, _if_ (= _even if_), _notwithstanding_, _though_, and _whether_ are conjunctions proper. _However_ is a conjunctive adverb. _Whatever_, _whichever_, and _whoever_ are relative pronouns used indefinitely.

CONNECTIVES OF NOUN CLAUSES.

_If_, _lest_, _that_, and _whether_ [Footnote: Etymologically, _whether_ is restricted to two; but it has burst the bonds of its etymology and is very freely used with three or more.

The repetition of _whether_, like the use of it with three or more things, has been condemned, but usage allows us to repeat it.

_Whether or no_ is also allowed.] are conjunctions proper. _What_, _which_, and _who_ are pronouns introducing questions; and _how_, _when_, _whence_, _where_, and _why_ are conjunctive adverbs introducing questions.

+Direction+.--_Study the lists above_, _and point out all the connectives in Lessons_ 80 and 81, _telling which are relative pronouns_, _which are conjunctions proper_, _and which are conjunctive adverbs_.

+TO THE TEACHER+.--If the pupils lack maturity, or if it is found necessary to abridge this work in order to conform to a prescribed course of study, the six following Lessons may be omitted. The authors consider these exercises very profitable, but their omission will occasion no break in the course.

* * * * *

LESSON 101.

COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES.

+Direction+.--_Write twenty compound sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives named in the three subdivisions of co-ordinate connectives_.

* * * * *

LESSON 102.

COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED.

+Direction+.--_Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives of adjective clauses, and by connectives of adverb clauses of time, place, degree, and manner_.

* * * * *

LESSON 103.

COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED.

+Direction+.--_Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives of adverb clauses of real cause, evidence, purpose, condition, and concession, and by connectives of noun clauses_.

* * * * *

LESSON 104.

CONNECTIVES.

Analysis.

+Direction+.--_Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives below, and what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze the sentences_:--

+As+ may connect a clause expressing +manner+, +time+, +degree+, +cause+, or +evidence+.

1. Mount Marcy is not so high as Mount Washington. 2. As I passed by, I found an altar with this inscription. 3. It must be raining, as men are carrying umbrellas. 4. Ice floats, as water expands in freezing. 5. Half-learned lessons slip from the memory, as an icicle from the hand.

+If+ may connect a clause expressing +condition+, +time+, or +concession+, or it may introduce a +noun+ clause.

6. If a slave's lungs breathe our air, that moment he is free. 7. If wishes were horses, all beggars might ride.

8. Who knows if one of the Pleiads is really missing? [Footnote: Many
grammarians say that _if_ here is improperly used for _whether_. But
this use of _if_ is common with good authors in early and in modern
English.]

9. If the flights of Dryden are higher, Pope continues longer on the wing.

+Lest+ may connect a clause expressing +purpose+, or it may introduce a +noun+ clause.

10. England fears lest Russia may endanger British rule in India. 11. Watch and pray lest ye enter into temptation.

+Since+ may connect a clause expressing +time+, +cause+, or +evidence+.

12. It must be raining, since men are carrying umbrellas. 13. Many thousand years have gone by since the Pyramids were built. 14. Since the Puritans could not be convinced, they were persecuted.

* * * * *

LESSON 105.

CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED.

Analysis.

+Direction+.--_Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives below, and what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze the sentences_:--

+That+ may connect a +noun+ clause, an +adjective+ clause, or a clause expressing +degree+, +cause+, or +purpose+.

1. The Pharisee thanked God that he was not like other men. 2. Vesuvius threw its lava so far that Herculaneum and Pompeii were buried. 3. The smith plunges his red-hot iron into water that he may harden the metal. 4. Socrates said that he who might be better employed was idle. 5. We never tell our secrets to people that pump for them.

+When+ may connect a clause expressing +time+, +cause+, or +condition+, an +adjective+ clause or a +noun+ clause, or it may connect +co-ordinate+ clauses.

6. The Aztecs were astonished when they saw the Spanish horses. 7. November is the month when the deer sheds its horns. 8. When the future is uncertain, make the most of the present. 9. When the five great European races left Asia is a question. 10. When judges accept bribes, what may we expect from common people? 11. The dial instituted a formal inquiry, when hands, wheels, and weights protested their innocence.

+Where+ may connect a clause expressing +place+, an +adjective+ clause, or a +noun+ clause.

12. No one knows the place where Moses was buried. 13. Where Moses was buried is still a question. 14. No one has been where Moses was buried.

+While+ may connect a clause expressing +time+ or +concession+, or it may connect +co-ordinate+ clauses.

15. Napoleon was a genius, while Wellington was a man of talents. 16. While we sleep, the body is rebuilt. 17. While Charles I. had many excellent traits, he was a bad king.

* * * * *

LESSON 106.

CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED.

Analysis.

+Direction+.--_Use the appropriate connectives, and change these compound sentences to complex without changing the meaning, and then analyze them_:--

(Let one dependent clause be an adjective clause; let three express cause; five, condition; and two, concession.)

1. Caesar put the proffered crown aside, but he would fain have had it. 2. Take away honor and imagination and poetry from war, and it becomes carnage. 3. His crime has been discovered, and he must flee. 4. You must eat, or you will die. 5. Wisdom is the principal thing, therefore get wisdom. 6. Let but the commons hear this testament, and they would go and kiss dead Caesar's wounds. 7. Men are carrying umbrellas; it is raining. 8. Have ye brave sons? look in the next fierce brawl to see them die. 9. The Senate knows this, the Consul sees it, and yet the traitor lives. 10. Take away the grandeur of his cause, and Washington is a rebel instead of the purest of patriots. 11. The diamond is a sparkling gem, and it is pure carbon.

+Direction+.--_Two of the dependent clauses below express condition, and three express concession. Place an appropriate conjunction before each, and then analyze the sentences_:--

12. Should we fail, it can be no worse for us. 13. Had the Plantagenets succeeded in France, there would never have been an England. 14. Were he my brother, I could do no more for him. 15. Were I so disposed, I could not gratify the reader. 16. Were I [Admiral Nelson] to die this moment, _more frigates_ would be found written on my heart.

* * * * *

LESSON 107.

CONSTRUCTION OF CONNECTIVES.

+Caution+.--Some conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs may stand in correlation with other words. _And_ may be accompanied by _both_; _as_, by _as_, by _so_, or by _such_; _but_ (_but also_ and _but likewise_), by _not only_; _if_, by _then_; _nor_, by _neither_; _or_, by _either_ or by _whether_; _that_, by _so_; _the_, by _the_; _though_, by _yet_; _when_, by _then_; and _where_, by _there_.

Be careful that the right words stand in correlation, and stand where they belong.

+Examples+.--Give me neither riches _nor_ (not _or_) poverty. I cannot find either my book _or_ (not _nor_) my hat. Dogs not only bark (not _not only dogs_ bark) but also bite. _Not only dogs_ (not _dogs not only_) bark but wolves also. He _was neither_ (not _neither was_) rich nor poor.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. He not only gave me advice but also money. 2. A theatrical part may either imply some peculiarity of gesture or a dissimulation of my real sentiments. 3. She not only dressed richly but tastefully. 4. Neither Massachusetts or Pennsylvania has the population of New York. 5. Thales was not only famous for his knowledge of nature but also for his moral wisdom. 6. Not only he is successful but he deserves to succeed. 7. There was nothing either strange nor interesting.

+Caution+.--Choose apt connectives, but do not use them needlessly or instead of other parts of speech.

+Examples+.--Seldom, _if_ (not _or_) ever, should an adverb stand between _to_ and the infinitive. I will try _to_ (not _and_) do better next time. No one can deny _that_ (not _but_) he has money. [Footnote: See foot-note, page 176.] A harrow is drawn over the ground, _which_ (not _and which_) covers the seed. Who doubts _that_ (not _but that_ or _but what_) Napoleon lived [Footnote: See foot-note, page 176.] The doctor had scarcely left _when_ (not _but_) a patient called. He has no love for his father _or_ (not _nor_) for his mother (the negative _no_ is felt throughout the sentence, and need not be repeated by _nor_). He was not well, _nor_ (not _or_) was he sick (_not_ is expended in the first clause; _nor_ is needed to make the second clause negative).

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:--

1. The excellence of Virgil, and which he possesses beyond other poets, is tenderness. 2. Try and recite the lesson perfectly to-morrow. 3. Who can doubt but that there is a God? 4. No one can eat nor drink while he is talking. 5. He seldom or ever went to church. 6. No one can deny but that the summer is the hottest season. 7. I do not know as I shall like it. 8. He said that, after he had asked the advice of all his friends, that he was more puzzled than before.

+Caution+.--_Else_, _other_, _otherwise_, _rather_, and adjectives and adverbs expressing a comparison are usually followed by _than_. But _else_, _other_, and _more_, implying something additional, but not different in kind, may be followed by _but_ or _besides_.

+Examples+.--A diamond is nothing _else than_ carbon. Junius was no _other than_ Sir Philip Francis. The cripple cannot walk _otherwise than_ on crutches. Americans would _rather_ travel _than_ stay at home. I rose _earlier than_ I intended. He can converse on _other_ topics _besides_ politics.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:--

1. Battles are fought with other weapons besides pop-guns. 2. The moon is something else but green cheese. 3. Cornwallis could not do otherwise but surrender. 4. It was no other but the President. 5. He no sooner saw the enemy but he turned and ran.

+Caution+.--Two or more connected words or phrases referring to another word or phrase should each make good sense with it.

+Examples+.--I have always (add _said_) and still do say that labor is honorable. Shakespeare was greater than any other poet that has (add _lived_) or is now alive. The boy is stronger than his sister, but not so tall (not The boy is _stronger_, but not _so tall, as_ his sister).

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:--

1. Gold is heavier, but not so useful, as iron. 2. Gold is not so useful, but heavier, than iron. 3. This is as valuable, if not more so, than that. 4. Faithful boys have always and always will learn their lessons. 5. Bread is more nutritious, but not so cheap, as potatoes. 6. This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or may be published.

* * * * *

LESSON 108.

MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS.

+Direction+.--_Correct these errors, telling what Caution each violates_:--

1. Carthage and Rome were rival powers: this city in Africa, and that in Europe; the one on the northern coast of the Mediterranean, the other on the southern. 2. The right and left lung were diseased. 3. The right and the left lungs were diseased. 4. My friend has sailed for Europe, who was here yesterday. 5. There are some men which are always young. 6. I cannot think but what God is good. 7. Thimbles, that are worn on the finger, are used in pushing the needle. 8. A told B that he was his best friend. 9. Them scissors are very dull. 10. Ethan Allen, being a rash man, he tried to capture Canada. 11. The lady that was thrown from the carriage, and who was picked up insensible, died. 12. The eye and ear have different offices. 13. I only laugh when I feel like it. 14. This is the same man who called yesterday. 15. He was an humble man. 16. He was thrown forward onto his face. 17. A knows more, but does not talk so well, as B. 18. The book cost a dollar, and which is a great price. 19. At what wharf does the boat stop at? 20. The music sounded harshly. 21. He would neither go himself or send anybody. 22. It isn't but a short distance. 23. The butter is splendid. 24. The boy was graceful and tall. 25. He hasn't, I don't suppose, laid by much. 26. One would rather have few friends than a few friends. 27. He is outrageously proud. 28. Not only the boy skated but he enjoyed it. 29. He has gone way out West. 30. Who doubts but what two and two are four? 31. Some people never have and never will bathe in salt water. 32. The problem was difficult to exactly understand. 33. It was the length of your finger. 34. He bought a condensed can of milk. 35. The fish breathes with other organs besides lungs. 36. The death is inevitable. 37. She wore a peculiar kind of a dress. 38. When shall we meet together? 39. He talks like you do. [Footnote: The use of the verb _do_ as a substitute for a preceding verb is one of the most remarkable idioms in the language. In its several forms it stands for the finite forms and for the infinitive and the participle of verbs, transitive and intransitive, regular and irregular. It prevents repetition, and hence is euphonic; it abbreviates expression, and therefore is energetic.] 40. This word has a different source than that. 41. No sooner did I arrive when he called.

* * * * *

LESSON 109.

VARIOUS USES OF WHAT, THAT, AND BUT.

+What+ may be used as a +relative pronoun+, an +interrogative pronoun+, a +definitive adjective+, an +adverb+, and an +interjection+.

+Examples+.--He did _what_ was right. _What_ did he say? _What_ man is happy with the toothache? _What_ with confinement and _what_ with bad diet, the prisoner found himself reduced to a skeleton (here _what_ = _partly_, and modifies the phrase following it). _What_! you a lion?

+That+ may be used as a +relative pronoun+, an +adjective+ +pronoun+, a +definitive adjective+, a +conjunction+, and a +conjunctive adverb+.

+Examples+.--He _that_ does a good deed is instantly ennobled. _That_ is heroism. _That_ man is a hero. We eat _that_ we may live. It was so cold _that_ the mercury froze.

+But+ may be used as a +conjunction+, an +adverb+, an +adjective+, and a +preposition+.

+Examples+.--The ostrich is a bird, _but_ (adversative conjunction) it cannot fly. Not a sparrow falls _but_ (= unless--subordinate conjunction) God wills it. He was all _but_ (conjunction or preposition) dead = He was all dead, _but_ he was not dead, or He was all (anything in that line) _except_ (the climax) dead. No man is so wicked _but_ (conjunctive adverb) he loves virtue = No man is wicked _to that degree in which_ he loves _not_ virtue (_so_ = _to that degree_, _but_ = _in which not_). We meet _but_ (adverb = _only_) to part. Life is _but_ (adjective = _only_) a dream. All _but_ (preposition = _except_) him had fled. The tears of love were hopeless _but_ (preposition = _except_) for thee. I cannot _but_ remember = I cannot do anything _but_ (preposition = _except_) remember. There is no fireside _but_ (preposition) has one vacant chair (_except the one which_ has); or, regarding _but_ as a negative relative = _that not_, the sentence = There is no fireside _that_ has _not_ one vacant chair.

+Direction+.--_Study the examples given above, point out the exact use of what, that, and but in these sentences, and then analyze the sentences_:--

1. He did nothing but laugh. 2. It was once supposed that crystal is ice frozen so hard that it cannot be thawed. 3. What love equals a mother's? 4. There is nobody here but me. 5. The fine arts were all but proscribed. 6. There's not a breeze but whispers of thy name. 7. The longest life is but a day. 8. What if the bee love not these barren boughs? 9. That life is long which answers life's great end. 10. What! I the weaker vessel? 11. Whom should I obey but thee? 12 What by industry and what by economy, he had amassed a fortune. 13. I long ago found that out. 14. One should not always eat what he likes. 15. There's not a white hair on your face but should have its effect of gravity. 16. It was a look that, but for its quiet, would have seemed disdain. 17. He came but to return.

* * * * *

LESSON 110.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

_Lesson_ 85.--Define a noun. What is the distinction between a common and a proper noun? Why is _music_ a common noun? What is a collective noun? An abstract noun? Define a pronoun. What are the classes of pronouns? Define them. What is an antecedent?

_Lesson_ 86.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting _he_, _it_, and _they_; the needless use of pronouns; the two styles of the pronoun; the use of _them_ for _those_, and of _what_ for _that_; and the use of _who_, _which_, _that_, and _what_.

_Lesson_ 87.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting connected relative clauses; the relative in clauses not restrictive; the use of _that_ instead of _who_ or _which_; the position of the relative clause; and the use of _this_ and _that_, _the one_ and _the other_.

_Lesson_ 89.--Define an adjective. What two classes are there? Define them. What adjectives do not limit? Illustrate.

_Lesson_ 90.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the use of the adjectives _an_, _a_, and _the_; and the use of _a few_ and _few_, _a little_ and _little_.

_Lesson_ 91.--Give and illustrate the Cautious respecting the choice and the position of adjectives.

Lesson_ 93.--Define a verb. What are transitive verbs? Intransitive? _Illustrate. What distinction is made between the object and the object complement? What are regular verbs? Irregular? Illustrate. What are the several classes of adverbs? Define them. What is a conjunctive adverb?

_Lesson_ 93.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the choice and the position of adverbs, the use of double negatives, and the use of adverbs for adjectives and of adjectives for adverbs.

* * * * *

LESSON 111.

REVIEW QUESTIONS--CONTINUED.

_Lesson_ 95.--Define a preposition. Name some of the common prepositions. What is said of some prepositions ending in _ing_? Of _but_, _except_, and _save_? Of certain compound prepositions? When do prepositions become adverbs?

_Lesson_ 98.--Give and illustrate the Caution as to the choice of prepositions. What, in general, is the difference between _in_ and _into_?

_Lesson_ 99.--Give and illustrate the two Cautions relating to the use of prepositions.

_Lesson_ 100.--Define a conjunction. What are the two great classes of conjunctions, and what is their difference? What other parts of speech besides conjunctions connect? What are adverbs that connect called? Into what three classes are co-ordinate connectives subdivided? Give some of the conjunctions and the conjunctive adverbs of each class. What three kinds of clauses are connected by subordinate connectives? The connectives of adverb clauses are subdivided into what classes? Give a leading connective of each class.

_Lessons_ 104, 105.--Illustrate two or more offices of each of the connectives _as_, _if_, _lest_, _since_, _that_, _when_, _where_, and _while_.

_Lesson_ 107.--Give and illustrate the four Cautions relating to the construction of connectives.

_Lesson_ 109.--Illustrate the offices of _what_, _that_, and _but_.

* * * * *

GENERAL REVIEW.

Schemes for the Conjunction, Preposition, and Interjection.

(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.)

| Co-Ordinate. |
THE CONJUNCTION. +Classes+. + Subordinate + 106-107.
| |

THE PREPOSITION. No Classes (95, 98, 99).

THE INTERJECTION. No Classes (20, 21).

MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

* * * * *

LESSON 112.

+Introductory Hints+.--You have learned that two words may express a thought, and that the thought may be varied by adding modifying words. You are now to learn that the meaning or use of a word may be changed by simply changing its form. The English language has lost most of its inflections, or forms, so that many of the changes in the meaning and the use of words are not now marked by changes in form. These changes in the form, the meaning, and the use of the parts of speech we call their +Modifications+. [Footnote: Those grammarians that attempt to restrict number, case, mode, etc.--what we here call _Modifications_--to form, find themselves within bounds which they continually overleap. They define number, for instance, as a form, or inflection, and yet speak of nouns "plural in form but singular in sense," or "singular in form but plural in sense;" that is, if you construe them rigorously, plural or singular in form but singular or plural form in sense. They tell you that case is a form, and yet insist that nouns have three cases, though only two forms; and speak of the nominative and the objective case of the noun, "although in fact the two cases are always the same in form"--the two forms always the same in form!

On the other hand, those that make what we call _Modifications_ denote only relations or conditions of words cannot cling to these abstract terms. For instance, they ask the pupil to "pronounce and write the possessive of nouns," hardly expecting, we suppose, that the "condition" of a noun will be sounded or written; and they speak of "a noun in the singular with a plural application," in which expression _singular_ must be taken to mean _singular form_ to save it from sheer nonsense.

We know no way to steer clear of Scylla and keep out of Charybdis but to do what by the common use of the word we are allowed; viz., to take _Modifications_ with such breadth of signification that it will apply to meaning and to use, as well as to form. Primarily, of course, it meant inflections, used to mark changes in the meaning and use of words. But we shall use _Modifications_ to indicate changes in meaning and use when the form in the particular instance is wanting, nowhere, however, recognizing that as a modification which is not somewhere marked by form.]

Modifications of Nouns and Pronouns.

NUMBER.

_The boy shouts_. _The boys shout_. The form of the subject _boy_ is changed by adding an _s_ to it. The meaning has changed. _Boy_ denotes one lad; boys, two or more lads. This change in the form and the meaning of nouns is called +Number+; the word _boy_, denoting one thing, is in the +Singular Number+; and _boys_, denoting more than one thing, is in the +Plural Number+. Number expresses only the distinction of one from more than one; to express more precisely how many, we use adjectives, and say _two boys_, _four boys_, _many_ or _several boys_.

+DEFINITIONS+.

+_Modifications of the Parts of Speech_ are changes in their form, meaning, and use+.

+_Number_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thing or more than one.+

+The _Singular Number_ denotes one thing+.

+The _Plural Number_ denotes more than one thing+.

NUMBER FORMS.

+RULE.--The _plural_ of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ to the singular+.

To this rule there are some exceptions.

When the singular ends in a sound that cannot unite with that of _s_, _es_ is added and forms another syllable.[Footnote: In Anglo-Saxon, _as_ was the plural termination for a certain class of nouns. In later English, _as_ was changed to _es_, which became the regular plural ending; as, _bird-es_, _cloud-es_. In modern English, _e_ is dropped, and _s_ is joined to the singular without increase of syllables. But, when the singular ends in an _s_-sound, the original syllable _es_ is retained, as two hissing sounds will not unite.]

+Remark+.--Such words as _horse_, _niche_, and _cage_ drop the final _e_ when _es_ is added. See Rule 1, Lesson 137.

+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns, and note what letters represent sounds that cannot unite with the sound of +s+_:--

Ax _or_ axe, arch, adz _or_ adze, box, brush, cage, chaise, cross, ditch, face, gas, glass, hedge, horse, lash, lens, niche, prize, race, topaz.

The following nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant add _es_ without increase of syllables.

+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--

Buffalo, calico, cargo, echo, embargo, grotto, hero, innuendo, motto, mosquito, mulatto, negro, portico (_oes_ or _os_), potato, tornado, torpedo, veto, volcano.

The following nouns in _o_ preceded by a consonant add _s_ only.

+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--

Canto, domino (_os_ or _oes_), duodecimo, halo, junto, lasso, memento, octavo, piano, proviso, quarto, salvo, solo, two, tyro, zero (_os_ or _oes_).

Nouns in _o_ preceded by a vowel add _s_.

Bamboo, cameo, cuckoo, embryo, folio, portfolio, seraglio, trio.

Common nouns [Footnote: See Rule 2, Lesson 127. In old English, such words as _lady_ and _fancy_ were spelled _ladie_, _fancie_. The modern plural simply retains the old spelling and adds _s_,] in _y_ after a consonant change _y_ into _i_ and add _es_ without increase of syllables. Nouns in _y_ after a vowel add _s_.

+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--

Alley, ally, attorney, chimney, city, colloquy, [Footnote: _U_ after _q_ is a consonant] daisy, essay, fairy, fancy, kidney, lady, lily, money, monkey, mystery, soliloquy, turkey, valley, vanity.

The following nouns change _f_ or _fe_ into _ves_.

+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--

Beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, staff, [Footnote: _Staff_ (a stick or support), _staves_ or _staffs_; _staff_ (a body of officers), _staffs_. The compounds of _staff_ are regular; as, _flagstaffs_.] thief, wharf, [Footnote: In England, generally _wharfs_.] wife, wolf.

The following nouns in _f_ and _fe_ are regular.

+Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--