Chapter VI: Part 6

1. The plumbers had occasion to make me several visits. 2. Sometimes they would find, upon arrival, that they had forgotten some indispensable tool; and one would go back to the shop, a mile and a half, after it; and his comrade would await his return with the most exemplary patience, and sit down and talk--always by the hour. 3. I do not know but it is a habit to have something wanted at the shop. 4. They seemed to me very good workmen, and always willing to stop, and talk about the job or anything else, when I went near them. 5. Nor had they any of that impetuous hurry that is said to be the bane of our American civilization. 6. To their credit be it said that I never observed anything of it in them. 7. They can afford to wait. 8. Two of them will sometimes wait nearly half a day, while a comrade goes for a tool. 9. They are patient and philosophical. 10. It is a great pleasure to meet such men. 11. One only wishes there was some work he could do for them by the hour.

+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--How can you make the last part of 1 express more directly the cause of becoming disabled? Would you use a semicolon to separate the sentences thus joined, or would you use a comma? Give a reason for the comma after _days_, Find in 2 an adverb phrase that expresses purpose. Use an equivalent adjective in place of _a couple of_. Explain the use of _there_ in 3. What adjective may be used in place of _good_ in _a good deal_? What long complex phrase modifies _deal_? Put _what_ after the preposition _about_ and find a group of words that takes the place of a noun. Find in this group a subject and a predicate. Find in 4 an objective complement. Find a compound infinitive phrase and tell what it modifies. Notice that the dash helps to show the break made by repeating _talk_. When 5 is divided into two sentences, what word is dropped? This, then, must be the word that connected the two sentences. Notice that the two main parts of 5 are separated by a semicolon. This enables the writer to show that the two main divisions of 5 are more widely separated in meaning than are the parts of the second division where the comma is used. Give the three leading predicate verbs in 5 and their complements. _If they had been made by the job_ is joined like an adverb to what verb? What is the predicate of this modifying group?

The infinitive phrase in 1, paragraph 2, modifies what? Is _me_, or _visits_, the object complement of _make_? Put _what_ after _would find_ in 2 and get the object complement. Can you make a sentence of this group? What are its principal parts? Does the writer make an unexpected turn after _talk_? How is this shown to the eye? Put _what_ after _do know_ in 3 and find the object complement. Can you make a sentence of this object complement? What phrase can you put in place of the pronoun _it_ without changing the sense? By using the word _it_, a better arrangement can be made. What group of words in 5 is used like an adjective to modify _hurry_? Change the pronoun _that_ to _hurry_ and make a separate sentence of this group. What word, then, must have made an adjective of this sentence and joined it to _hurry_? What is the object complement of _can afford_ in 7? Supply a preposition after _will wait_ in 8, and then find two groups of words that tell the time of waiting. Find a subject and a predicate in the second group. What explains _it_ in 10? Find the object complement of _wishes_ in 11. What is the subject of _was_? The office of _there_? After _work_ supply the pronoun _that_ and tell the office of the group it introduces. What is the object complement of _could do_? What connects this group to _work_?

+The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs+.--There are two distinct sets of sentences in this selection--distinct because developing two distinct sub-topics. Accordingly, there are two paragraphs. Let us take for the general topic _The Visits of the Plumbers_. Let us see whether all the sentences of the first paragraph will not come under the sub-topic _First Visit_, and those of the second under the sub-topic _Subsequent Visits_. The sentences of each paragraph should be closely related to one another and to the sub-topic. They should stand in their proper order. Do the paragraphs above stand such tests? If they do, they possess the prime quality of +Unity+.

+The Author's Style+.--This selection we may call +Narrative+, though there are descriptive touches in it. It is a story of what? Is the story clearly told throughout? If not, where is it obscure? Is it made interesting and entertaining? Is Mr. Warner here giving us a bit of his own experience? Or do you think he is drawing upon his imagination? Would you call the style plain, or does it abound with metaphors, similes, or other figures of speech? Are the sentences generally long, or generally short? What are the faults or foibles of these real or fancied plumbers? Does the author speak of them in a genial and lenient way? or is he hostile, and does he hold up their foibles to scorn and derision? Does he make us laugh with, or does he make us laugh at, the plumbers? If the former, the style is humorous; if the latter, the style is satirical or sarcastic. Would you call Mr. Warner's quality of style +Humor+? or that +form of wit+ known as +Satire+? Is our author's use of it delicate and refined? or is it gross and coarse? Does it stop short of making its object grotesque, or not? Can you name any writers whose humor or satire is coarse?

SUGGESTIONS FOB COMPOSITION WORK.

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, pages 159, 160.

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

FROM BEECHER'S "LECTURES TO YOUNG MEN."

1. Indolence inclines a man to rely upon others and not upon himself, to eat their bread and not his own. 2. His carelessness is somebody's loss; his neglect is somebody's downfall. 3. If he borrows, the article remains borrowed; if he begs and gets, it is as the letting out of waters--no one knows where it will stop. 4. He spoils your work, disappoints your expectations, exhausts your patience, eats up your substance, abuses your confidence, and hangs a dead weight upon all your plans; and the very best thing an honest man can do with a lazy man is to get rid of him.

1. Indolence promises without redeeming the pledge; a mist of forgetfulness rises up and obscures the memory of vows and oaths. 2. The negligence of laziness breeds more falsehoods than the cunning of the sharper. 3. As poverty waits upon the steps of indolence, so upon such poverty brood equivocations, subterfuges, lying denials. 4. Falsehood becomes the instrument of every plan. 5. Negligence of truth, next occasional falsehood, then wanton mendacity--these three strides traverse the whole road of lies.

1. Indolence as surely runs to dishonesty as to lying. 2. Indeed, they are but different parts of the same road, and not far apart. 3. In directing the conduct of the Ephesian converts, Paul says, "Let him that stole steal no more; but rather let him labor, working with his hands the thing which is good." 4. The men who were thieves were those who had ceased to work. 5. Industry was the road back to honesty. 6. When stores are broken open, the idle are first suspected.

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+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--Find in 1 two compound infinitive phrases and tell their use. Supply the words omitted from the last part of each compound. What shows that the parts of 2 are not closely connected? Would a conjunction bring them more closely together? If a conjunction is used, would you change the punctuation? A sentence that unites with another to make one greater sentence we call a _clause_. Read the first part of 2 and change _somebody's_ first to a phrase and then to a clause used like an adjective. What distinction can you make between the use of the semicolon and the use of the comma in 3? The clause _if he borrows_ is joined like an adverb to what verb? _If he begs and gets_? What pronoun more indefinite than _your_ might take its place in 4? What noun? Explain the use of the semicolon and the comma in 4. Supply _that_ after _thing_ and tell what clause is here used like an adjective. Find the office of _that_ by placing it after _do_. Find in 4 an infinitive phrase used as attribute complement.

Change the phrase in 1, paragraph 2, to a clause. Find in 2 the omitted predicate of the clause introduced by _than_. Find a compound subject in 3. Are _negligence_, _falsehood_, and _mendacity_, in 5, used as subjects? Explain their use and punctuation. (See Remark, Lesson 45.)

In 3, paragraph 3, how are the words borrowed from Paul marked? Change the quotation from Paul so as to give his thought but not his exact words. Are the quotation marks now needed? In 3 and 4 find clauses introduced by _that_, _which_, and _who_, and used like adjectives.

+The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs+.--You can easily learn the sub-topic, or thought, each of these paragraphs develops. See whether you can find it in the first sentence of each. Give the three sub-topics. Put together the three thoughts established in these paragraphs and tell what they prove. What they prove is that for which Mr. Beecher is contending; it may be written at the head of the extract as the general topic. What merits of the paragraph, already treated, are admirably illustrated in this extract?

+The Style of the Author+.--This selection is neither descriptive nor narrative; it is +Argumentative+. Mr. Beecher is trying to establish a certain proposition, and in the three paragraphs is giving three reasons, or arguments, to prove its truth. But the argument is not all thought, is not purely intellectual. It is suffused with feeling, is impassioned. Mr. Beecher's heart is in his work. This feeling warms and colors his style, and stimulates his fancy. As a consequence, figures of speech abound.

Notice that in 1, paragraph 1, the thought is repeated by means of the infinitive phrases. Read the words _Indolence inclines a man_ with each of the four infinitive phrases that follow. You will see that the thought is repeated. It is first expressed in a general way; by the aid of the second phrase we see the same thought from the negative side; the third phrase makes the statement more specific; the fourth puts the specific statement negatively. The needless repetition of the same thought in different words is one of the worst faults in writing. But Mr. Beecher's repetition is not needless. By every repetition here, Mr. Beecher makes his thought clearer and stronger. Examine the other sentences of this paragraph and see whether they enforce the leading thought by illustration, example, or consequence.

In what sentence is the style made +energetic+ by the aid of short predicates? How does the alternation of short sentences with long throughout the extract affect you? The alternation of plain with figurative sentences? Can you show that the author's style has +Variety+? Pick out the metaphors in 1, 2, 3, and 5, paragraph 2; and in 1 and 2, paragraph 3. Pick out the comparisons, or similes, in 3, paragraph 1, and in 3, paragraph 2. Figures of speech should add clearness and force. If you think these do, tell how. _Indolence_ in 1 and 3, paragraph 2, and _laziness_ in 2, introduce us to another figure. Something belonging to the men, a quality, is made to represent the men themselves. Such a figure is called +Metonymy+.

SUGGESTIONS FOB COMPOSITION WORK.

TO THE TEACHER.--Exercises in argumentative writing may be continued by making selections from the discussion of easy topics.

For original work we suggest debates on current topics. Compositions should be short.

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

EXTRACT FROM DANIEL WEBSTER.

1. The assassin enters, through the window already prepared, into an unoccupied apartment. 2. With noiseless foot he paces the lonely hall, half lighted by the moon; he winds up the ascent of the stairs and reaches the door of the chamber. 3. Of this he moves the lock, by soft and continued pressure, till it turns on its hinges without noise; and he enters, and beholds his victim before him.

1. The face of the innocent sleeper is turned from the murderer, and the beams of the moon, resting on the gray locks of his aged temple, show him where to strike. 2. The fatal blow is given! and the victim passes, without a struggle or a motion, from the repose of sleep to the repose of death. 3. It is the assassin's purpose to make sure work; and he plies the dagger, though it is obvious that life has been destroyed by the blow of the bludgeon. 4. He even raises the aged arm that he may not fail in his aim at the heart, and places it again over the wounds of the poniard. 5. To finish the picture, he explores the wrist for the pulse. 6. He feels for it, and ascertains that it beats no longer. 7. It is accomplished. 8. The deed is done.

1. He retreats, retraces his steps to the window, passes out through it as he came in, and escapes. 2. He has done the murder. No eye has seen him, no ear has heard him. 3. The secret is his own, and it is safe.

1. Ah! gentlemen, that was a dreadful mistake. 2. Such a secret can be safe nowhere. 3. The whole creation of God has neither nook nor corner where the guilty can bestow it, and say it is safe. 4. Not to speak of that eye which pierces through all disguises and beholds everything as in the splendor of noon, such secrets of guilt are never safe from detection even by men. 5. True it is, generally speaking, that "Murder will out." 6. True it is that Providence hath so ordained, and doth so govern things, that those who break the great law of heaven by shedding man's blood seldom succeed in avoiding discovery.

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+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--Do the phrases in 1, paragraph 1, stand in their usual order, or are they transposed? In what different places may they stand? Does either phrase need to be transposed for emphasis or for clearness? Explain the punctuation. Begin 2 with _the lonely hall_, and notice that the sentence is thrown out of harmony with the other sentences, and that the assassin is for the moment lost sight of. Can you tell why? Notice that in the latter part of 2 the door is mentioned, and that 3 begins with _of this_, referring to the door. Can you find any other arrangement by which 3 will follow 2 so naturally? Can you change 3 so as to make the reference of _it_ clearer? What is the office of the _till_ clause? Does the clause following the semicolon modify anything? Would you call such a clause _dependent_, or would you call it _independent_? Explain the punctuation of 3.

Give the effect of changing _resting_ in 1, paragraph 2, to the assertive form. Find in 1 a pronoun used adverbially and a phrase used as object complement. Expand the phrase into a clause. Give the modifiers of _passes_ in 2. Read the first part of 3 and put the explanatory phrase in place of _it_. What is the office of the _though_ clause? Find in this a clause doing the work of a noun and tell its office. In 4 would _his_ in place of _the_ before _aged_ and before _heart_ be ambiguous? If so, why? Find in this paragraph an infinitive phrase used independently. Find the object complement of _ascertains_ in 6. Are 7 and 8 identical in meaning?

Give the modifiers of _passes_ in paragraph 3. Explain the _as_ clause. What does _that_ in 1, paragraph 4, stand for? What kind of clause is introduced by _where_ in 3? By _which_ in 4? Expand the _as_ clause in 4 and tell its office. Find in 4 and 5 an infinitive phrase and a participle phrase used independently. Tell the office of the _that_ clauses in 5 and 6, and of the _who_ clause in 6.

+The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs+.--Look (1) at the order of the sentences in each paragraph, and (2) at the order of the paragraphs themselves. Neither order could be changed without making the stream of events run up hill, for each order is the order in which the events happened. Look (3) at the unity of each paragraph, and (4) at the larger unity of the four paragraphs--that of each paragraph determined by the relation of each sentence to the sub-topic of the paragraph, and that of the four paragraphs determined by their relation to the general topic of the extract. We add that the obvious reference of the repeated _he_ to the same person, and of _that_ and _secret_ in paragraph 4 demonstrates both unities. Look (5), and lastly, at the fact that the sub-topic of each paragraph is found in the first line of each paragraph. Could Webster have done more to make his thought seen and felt?

+The Style of the Author.+--This selection is largely +Narrative.+ Its leading facts were doubtless supplied by the testimony given in the case; but much of the matter must have come from the imagination of Mr. Webster. Everything is so skillfully and vividly put that the story, touched with description, has all the effect of an argument. One quality of it is its clearness, its perspicuity. It is noticeable also that very little imagery is used, that the language is plain language. But it is impossible to read these paragraphs without being most profoundly impressed with their energy, their force.

The style is forcible because (1) the +subject-matter+ is +easily grasped+; (2) because +simple words+ are +used+, words understood even by children; because (3) these +words+ are +specific+ and +individual+, not generic; because (4) of the grateful +variety of sentences+; (5) because of the +prevalence of short sentences+; because (6) of the +repetition of the thought+ in successive sentences; because (7), though the murder took place some time before, Webster speaks as if it were +now taking place+ in our very sight. Find proof of what we have just said--proof of (2), in paragraphs 1 and 3; proof of (3), in sentences 3, 4, and 5, paragraph 2; proof of (4), throughout; of (5) and (6), in paragraphs 3 and 4; and of (7), in the first three paragraphs.

In paragraph 3, a remarkable sameness prevails. The sentences here are framed largely on one plan. They are mostly of the same length. The order of the words in them is the same; often the words are the same; and, even when they are not, those in one clause or sentence seem to suggest those in the next. This sameness is not accidental. The more real the murderer's fancied security is made in this paragraph to appear, the more startling in the next paragraph will be the revelation of his mistake. Hence no novelty in the words or in their arrangement is allowed to distract our attention from the dominant thought. The sentences are made to look and sound alike and to be alike that their effect may be cumulative. The principle of +Parallel Construction+, the principle that sentences similar in thought should be similar in form, is here allowed free play.

TO THE TEACHER.--Do not be discouraged should your pupils fail to grasp at first all that is here taught. They probably will not fully comprehend it till they have returned to it several times. It will, however, be impossible for them to study it without profit. The meaning will grow upon them. In studying our questions and suggestions the pupils should have the "Extract" before them, and should try to verify in it all that is taught concerning it.

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PARTS OF SPEECH SUBDIVIDED

LESSON 85.

CLASSES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

+Introductory Hints+.--You have now reached a point where it becomes necessary to divide the eight great classes of words into subclasses.

You have learned that nouns are the names of things; as, _girl_, _Sarah_. The name _girl_ is held in common by all girls, and hence does not distinguish one girl from another. The name _Sarah_ is not thus held in common; it does distinguish one girl from other girls. Any name which belongs in common to all things of a class we call a +Common Noun+; and any particular name of an individual, distinguishing this individual from others of its class, we call a +Proper Noun+. The "proper, or individual, names" which in Rule 1, Lesson 8, you were told to begin with capital letters are proper nouns.

Such a word as _wheat_, _music_, or _architecture_ does not distinguish one thing from others of its class; there is but one thing in the class denoted by each, each thing forms a class by itself; and so we call these words common nouns.

In Lesson 8 you learned that pronouns are not names, but words used instead of names. Any one speaking of himself may use _I_, _my_, etc., instead of his own name; speaking to one, he may use _you_, _thou_, _your_, _thy_, etc., instead of that person's name; speaking of one, he may use _he_, _she_, _it_, _him_, _her_, etc., instead of that one's name. These little words that by their form denote the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of are called +Personal Pronouns+.

By adding _self_ to _my_, _thy_, _your_, _him_, _her_, and _it_, and _selves_ to _our_, _your_, and _them_, we form what are called +Compound Personal Pronouns+, used either for emphasis or to reflect the action of the verb back upon the actor; as, _Xerxes himself_ was the last to cross the Hellespont; The _mind_ cannot see _itself_.

If a noun, or some word or words used like a noun, is to be modified by a clause, the clause is introduced by _who_, _which_, _what_, or _that_; as, I know the man _that_ did that. These words, relating to words in another clause, and binding the clauses together, are called +Relative Pronouns+. By adding _ever_ and _soever_ to _who_, _which_, and _what_, we form what are called the +Compound Relative Pronouns+ _whoever_, _whosoever_, _whichever_, _whatever_, etc., used in a general way, and without any word expressed to which they relate.

If the speaker is ignorant of the name of a person or a thing and asks for it, he uses _who_, _which_, or _what_; as, _Who_ did that? These pronouns, used in asking questions, are called +Interrogative Pronouns+.

Instead of naming things a speaker may indicate them by words pointing them out as near or remote; as, Is _that_ a man? What is _this_? or by words telling something of their number, order, or quantity; as, _None_ are perfect; The _latter_ will do; _Much_ has been done. Such words we call +Adjective Pronouns+.

DEFINITIONS.

+A _Noun_ is the name of anything+. [Footnote: Most common nouns are derived from roots that denote qualities. The root does not necessarily denote the most essential quality of the thing, only its most obtrusive quality. The sky, a shower, and scum, for instance, have this most noticeable feature; they are a cover, they hide, conceal. This the root +sku+ signifies, and _sku_ is the main element in the words _sky_, _shower_ (Saxon _scu:r_), and _scum_ that name these objects, and in the adjective _obscure_.

A noun denoting at first only a single quality of its object comes gradually, by the association of this quality with the rest, to denote them all.

Herein proper nouns differ from common. However derived, as _Smith_ is from the man's office of smoothing, or _White_ from his color, the name soon ceases to denote quality, and becomes really meaningless.]

+A _Common Noun_ is a name which belongs to all things of a class+.

+A _Proper Noun_ is the particular name of an individual+.

+Remark+.--It may be well to note two classes of common nouns--_collective_ and _abstract_. A +Collective Noun+ is the name of a number of things taken together; as, _army_, _flock_, _mob_, _jury_. An +Abstract Noun+ is the name of a quality, an action, a being, or a state; as, _whiteness_, _beauty_, _wisdom_, (the) _singing_, _existence_, (the) _sleep_.

+A _Pronoun_ is a word used for a noun+. [Footnote: In our definition and general treatment of the pronoun, we have conformed to the traditional views of grammarians; but it may be well for the student to note that pronouns are something more than mere substitutes for nouns, and that their primary function is not to prevent the repetition of nouns.

1. Pronouns are not the names of things. They do not, like nouns, lay hold of qualities and name things by them. They seize upon relations that objects sustain to each other and denote the objects by these relations. _I_, _you_, and _he_ denote their objects by the relations these objects sustain to the act of speaking; _I_ denotes the speaker; _you_, the one spoken to; and _he_ or _she_ or _it_, the one spoken of. _This_ and _that_ denote their objects by the relative distance of these from the speaker; _some_ and _few_ and _others_ indicate parts separated from the rest. Gestures could express all that many pronouns express.

2. It follows that pronouns are more general than nouns. Any person, or even an animal or a thing personified, may use _I_ when referring to himself, _you_ when referring to the one addressed, and _he_, _she_, _it_, and _they_ when referring to the person or persons, the thing or things, spoken of--and all creatures and things, except the speaker and the one spoken to, fall into the last list. Some pronouns are so general, and hence so vague, in their denotement that they show the speaker's complete ignorance of the objects they denote. In, _Who_ did it? _Which_ of them did you see? the questioner is trying to find out the one for whom _Who_ stands, and the person or thing that _Which_ denotes. To what does _it_ refer in, _it_ rains; How is _it_ with you?

3. Some pronouns stand for a phrase, a clause, or a sentence, going before or coming after. _To be_ or _not to be_--_that_ is the question. _It_ is doubtful _whether the North Pole will ever be reached_. _The sails turned, the corn was ground_, after _which_ the wind ceased. _Ought you to go_? I cannot answer _that_. In the first of these sentences, _that_ stands for a phrase; in the last, for a sentence. _It_ and _which_ in the second and third sentences stand for clauses.

4. _Which_, retaining its office as connective, may as an adjective accompany its noun; as, I craved his forbearance a little longer, _which forbearance_ he allowed me.]

+A _Personal Pronoun_ is a pronoun that by its form denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of+.

+A _Relative Pronoun_ is one that relates to some preceding word or words and connects clauses+.

+An _Interrogative Pronoun_ is one with which a question is asked+.

+An _Adjective Pronoun_ is one that performs the offices of both an adjective and a noun+.

The simple personal pronouns are:--_I, thou, you, he, she, and it_.

The compound personal pronouns are:--_Myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself, and itself_.

The simple relative pronouns are:--_Who, which, that_, and _what_. [Footnote: _As_, in such sentences as this: Give such things _as_ you can spare, may be treated as a relative pronoun. But by expanding the sentence _as_ is seen to be a conjunctive adverb--Give such things _as those are which_ you can spare.

_But_ used after a negative is sometimes called a "negative relative" = _that not_; as, There is not a man here _but_ would die for such a cause. When the sentence is expanded, _but_ is found to be a preposition--There is not a man here _but_ (= _except_) the one who would die, etc.]

The compound relative pronouns are:--

_Whoever or whosoever, whichever_ or _whichsoever_, _whatever_ or _whatsoever_.

The interrogative pronouns are:--

_Who, which_, and _what_.

Some of the more common adjective pronouns are:--

All, another, any, both, each, either, enough, few, former, latter, little, many, much, neither, none, one, other, same, several, such, that, these, this, those, whole, etc. [Footnote: The adjective pronouns _this, that, these_, and _those_ are called +Demonstrative+ pronouns. _All, any, both, each, either, many, one, other_, etc. are called +Indefinite+ pronouns because they do not point out and particularize like the demonstratives. _Each, either_, and _neither_ are also called +Distributives+.

But for the fact that such words as _brave, good_, etc. in the phrases _the brave_, _the good_, etc. describe--which pronouns never do--we might call them adjective pronouns. They may be treated as nouns, or as adjectives modifying nouns to be supplied.

Some adjectives preceded by _the_ are abstract nouns; as, the _grand_, the _sublime_, the _beautiful_.]

The word, phrase, or clause in the place of which a pronoun is used is called an +Antecedent+.

+Direction+.--_Point out the pronouns and their antecedents in these sentences_:--

Jack was rude to Tom, and always knocked off his hat when he met him. To lie is cowardly, and every boy should know it. Daniel and his companions were fed on pulse, which was to their advantage. To lie is to be a coward, which one should scorn to be. To sleep soundly, which is a blessing, is to repair and renew the body.

+Remark+.--When the interrogatives _who_, _which_, and what introduce indirect questions, it is not always easy to distinguish them from relatives whose antecedents are omitted. For example--I found _who_ called and _what_ he wanted; I saw _what_ was done. The first sentence does not mean, I found the _person who_ called and the _thing that_ he wanted. "_Who_ called" and "_what_ he wanted" here suggest questions--questions referred to but not directly asked. I saw _what_ was done = I saw the _thing that_ was done. No question is suggested.

It should be remembered that _which_ and _what_ may also be interrogative adjectives; as, _Which_ side won? _What_ news have you?

+Direction+.--_Analyze these sentences, and parse all the pronouns_:--

1. Who steals my purse steals trash. 2. I myself know who stole my purse. 3. They knew whose house was robbed. 4. He heard what was said. 5. You have guessed which belongs to me. 6. Whom the gods would destroy they first make mad. 7. What was said, and who said it? 8. It is not known to whom the honor belongs. 9. She saw one of them, but she cannot positively tell which. 10. Whatever is done must be done quickly.

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LESSON 86.

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS.

TO THE TEACHER.--In the recitation of all Lessons containing errors for correction, the pupils' books should be closed, and the examples should be read by you. To insure care in preparation, and close attention in the class, read some of the examples in their correct form. Require specific reasons.

+Caution+.--Avoid _he_, _it_, _they_, or any other pronoun when its reference to an antecedent would not be clear. Repeat the noun instead, quote the speaker's exact words, or recast the sentence.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and relieve these sentences of their ambiguity_:--

+Model+.--The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave _him_, _he_ would die = The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave _his father, his father_ would die. Lysias promised his father never to abandon _his_ friends = Lysias gave his father this promise: "I will never abandon _your_ (or _my_) friends."

1. Dr. Prideaux says that, when he took his commentary to the bookseller,
he told him it was a dry subject.
2. He said to his friend that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought
he had better go home.

(This sentence may have four meanings. Give them all, using what you may suppose were the speaker's words.)

3. A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not because he was so short. 4. Charles's duplicity was fully made known to Cromwell by a letter of his to his wife, which he intercepted. 5. The farmer told the lawyer that his bull had gored his ox, and that it was but fair that he should pay him for his loss.

+Caution+.--Do not use pronouns needlessly.

+Direction+.--_Write, these sentences, omitting needless pronouns_:--

1. It isn't true what he said. 2. The father he died, the mother she followed, and the children they were taken sick. 3. The cat it mewed, and the dogs they barked, and the man he shouted. 4. Let every one turn from his or her evil ways. 5. Napoleon, Waterloo having been lost, he gave himself up to the English.

+Caution+.--In addressing a person, do not, in the same sentence, use the two styles of the pronoun.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. Thou art sad, have you heard bad news? 2. You cannot always have thy way. 3. Bestow thou upon us your blessing. 4. Love thyself last, and others will love you.

+Caution+.--The pronoun _them_ should not be used for the adjective _those_, nor the pronoun _what_ for the conjunction _that_. [Footnote: _What_ properly introduces a noun clause expressing a direct or an indirect question, but a declarative noun clause is introduced by the conjunction _that_. _But_ may be placed before this conjunction to give a negative force to the noun clause.

This use of _but_ requires careful discrimination. For example--"I have no fear _that_ he will do it"; "I have no fear _but that_ he will do it." The former indicates certainty that he will not do it, and the latter certainty that he will do it. "No one doubts but that he will do it" is incorrect, for it contains three negatives--_no_, _doubts_, and _but_. Two negatives may be used to affirm, but not three. The intended meaning is, "_No_ one _doubts_ that he will do it," or "_No_ one believes _but_ that he will do it," or "Every one _believes_ that he will do it."

_But what_, for _but that_ or _but_, is also incorrectly used to connect an adverb clause; as, "He is not so bad _but what_ he might be worse." For this office of _but_ or _but that_ in an adverb clause, see Lesson 109, fourth "Example" of the uses of _but_.]

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. Hand me them things. 2. Who knows but what we may fail? 3. I cannot believe but what I shall see them men again. 4. We ought to have a great regard for them that are wise and good.

+Caution+.--The relative _who_ should always represent persons; _which_, brute animals and inanimate things; _that_, persons, animals, and things; and _what_, things. The antecedent of _what_ should not be expressed.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. Those which say so are mistaken. 2. He has some friends which I know. 3. He told that what he knew. 4. The dog who was called Fido went mad. 5. The lion whom they were exhibiting broke loose. 6. All what he saw he described. 7. The horse whom Alexander rode was named Bucephalus.

+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these five Cautions_.

LESSON 87.

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS--CONTINUED.

+Caution+.--Several connected relative clauses relating to the same antecedent require the same relative pronoun.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. It was Joseph that was sold into Egypt, who became governor of the land, and which saved his father and brothers from famine. 2. He who lives, that moves, and who has his being in God should not forget him. 3. This is the horse which started first, and that reached the stand last. 4. The man that fell overboard, and who was drowned was the first mate.

+Caution+.--When the relative clause is not restrictive, [Footnote: See Lesson 61.] _who_ or _which_, and not _that_, is generally used.

+Example+.--Water, _which_ is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, covers three-fourths of the earth's surface.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air, that is a compound of oxygen. and nitrogen. 2. Longfellow, that is the most popular American poet, has written beautiful prose. 3. Time, that is a precious gift, should not be wasted. 4. Man, that is born of woman, is of few days and full of trouble.

+Caution+.--The relative _that_ [Footnote: _That_ is almost always restrictive. However desirable it may seem to confine _who_ and _which_ to unrestrictive clauses, they are not confined to them in actual practice.

The wide use of _who_ and _which_ in restrictive clauses is not accounted for by saying that they occur after _this_, _these_, _those_, and _that_, and hence are used to avoid disagreeable repetitions of sounds. This may frequently be the reason for employing _who_ and _which_ in restrictive clauses; but usage authorizes us to affirm (1) that _who_ and _which_ stand in such clauses oftener without, than with, _this_, _these_, _those_, or _that_ preceding them, and (2) that they so stand oftener than _that_ itself does. Especially may this be said of _which_.] should be used instead of _who_ or _which_ (1) when the antecedent names both persons and things; (2) when _that_ would prevent ambiguity; and (3) when it would sound better than _who_ or _which_, _e. g._, after _that_, _same_, _very_, _all_, the interrogative _who_, the indefinite _it_, and adjectives expressing quality in the highest degree.

+Example+.--He lived near a _pond that_ was a nuisance. (_That_ relates to _pond_--the pond was a nuisance. _Which_ might have, for its antecedent, _pond_, or the whole clause _He lived near a pond_; and so its use here would be ambiguous.)

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. The wisest men who ever lived made mistakes. 2. The chief material which is used now in building is brick. 3. Who who saw him did not pity him? 4. He is the very man whom we want. 5. He is the same who he has ever been. 6. He sent his boy to a school which did him good. 7. All who knew him respected him. 8. It was not I who did it. 9. That man that you just met is my friend.

+Caution+.--The relative clause should be placed as near as possible to the word which it modifies.

+Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:--

1. The pupil will receive a reward from his teacher who is diligent. 2. Her hair hung in ringlets, which was dark and glossy. 3. A dog was found in the street that wore a brass collar. 4. A purse was picked up by a boy that was made of leather. 5. Claudius was canonized among the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of man. 6. He should not keep a horse that cannot ride.

+Caution+.--When _this_ and _that_, _these_ and _those_, _the one_ and _the other_ refer to things previously mentioned, _this_ and _these_ refer to the last mentioned, and _that_ and _those_ to the first mentioned; _the one_ refers to the first mentioned, and _the other_ to the last mentioned. When there is danger of obscurity, repeat the nouns.

+Examples+.--_High_ and _tall_ are synonyms: _this_ may be used in speaking of what grows--a tree; _that_, in speaking of what does not grow--a mountain. Homer was a genius; Virgil, an artist: in _the one_ we most admire the man; in _the other_, the work.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. Talent speaks learnedly at the bar; tact, triumphantly: this is
complimented by the bench; that gets the fees.
2. Charles XII. and Peter the Great were sovereigns: the one was loved by
his people; the other was hated.
3. The selfish and the benevolent are found in every community; these are
shunned, while those are sought after.

+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these five Cautions_.

* * * * *

LESSON 88.

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS--CONTINUED.

Miscellaneous Errors.

+Direction+.--_Give the Cautions which these sentences violate, and correct the errors_:--

1. He who does all which he can does enough. 2. John's father died before he was born. 3. Whales are the largest animals which swim. 4. Boys who study hard, and that study wisely make progress. 5. There are miners that live below ground, and who seldom see the light. 6. He did that what was right. 7. General Lee, that served under Washington, had been a British officer. 8. A man should sit down and count the cost who is about to build a house. 9. They need no spectacles that are blind. 10. They buy no books who are not able to read. 11. Cotton, that is a plant, is woven into cloth. 12. Do you know that gentleman that is speaking? 13. There is no book which, when we look through it sharply, we cannot find mistakes in it. 14. The reporter which said that was deceived. 15. The diamond, that is pure carbon, is a brilliant gem. 16. The brakemen and the cattle which were on the train were killed. 17. _Reputation_ and _character_ do not mean the same thing: the one denotes what we are; the other, what we are thought to be. 18. Kosciusko having come to this country, he aided us in our Revolutionary struggle. 19. What pleased me much, and which was spoken of by others, was the general appearance of the class. 20. There are many boys whose fathers and mothers died when they were infants. 21. Witness said that his wife's father came to his house, and he ordered him out, but he refused to go. 22. Shall you be able to sell them boots? 23. I don't know but what I may. 24. Beer and wine are favorite drinks abroad: the one is made from grapes; the other, from barley. 25. There is one marked difference between shiners and trout; these have scales, and those have not. 26. They know little of men, who reason thus. 27. Help thyself, and Heaven will help you.

* * * * *

LESSON 89.

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES.

+Introductory Hints+.--You learned in Lesson 12 that, in the sentences _Ripe apples are healthful, Unripe apples are hurtful_, the adjectives _ripe_ and _unripe_ limit, or narrow, the application of _apples_ by describing, or by expressing certain qualities of the fruit. You learned also that _the_, _this_, _an_, _no_, _some_, and _many_ limit, or narrow, the application of any noun which they modify, as _apple_ or _apples_, by pointing out the particular fruit, by numbering it, or by denoting the quantity of it.

Adjectives which limit by expressing quality are called +Descriptive Adjectives+; and those which limit by pointing out, numbering, or denoting quantity are called +Definitive Adjectives+.

Adjectives modifying a noun do not limit, or narrow, its application (1) when they denote qualities that always belong to the thing named; as, _yellow_ gold, the _good_ God, the _blue_ sky; or (2) when they are attribute complements, denoting qualities asserted by the verb; as, The fields were _green_; The ground was _dry_ and _hard_.

+DEFINITIONS+.

+An _Adjective_ is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun+.[Footnote: Pronouns, like nouns, are often modified by an "appositive" adjective, that is, an adjective joined loosely without restricting: thus--_Faint_ and _weary_, _he_ struggled on or, _He_, _faint_ and _weary_, struggled on. Adjectives that complete the predicate belong as freely to pronouns as to nouns.]

+A _Descriptive Adjective_ is one that modifies by expressing quality+.

+A _Definitive Adjective_ is one that modifies by pointing out, numbering, or denoting quantity+.[Footnote: The definitive adjectives _one_, _two_, _three_, etc.; _first_, _second_, _third_, etc. are called +Numeral+ adjectives. _One_, _two_, _three_, etc. are called +Cardinal+ numerals; and _first_, _second_, _third_--etc. are called +Ordinal+ numerals]

The definitive adjectives _an_ or _a_ and _the_ are commonly called +Articles+. _An_ or _a_ is called the _Indefinite Article_, and _the_ is called the _Definite Article_.

A noun may take the place of an adjective.

+Examples+.--_London_ journals, the _New York_ press, _silver_ spoons, _diamond_ pin, _state_ papers, _gold_ bracelet.

+Direction+.--_Point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives below, and name such as do not limit_:--

Able statesmen, much rain, ten mice, brass kettle, small grains, Mansard roof, some feeling, all men, hundredth anniversary, the Pitt diamond, the patient Hannibal, little thread, crushing argument, moving spectacle, the martyr president, tin pans, few people, less trouble, this toy, any book, brave Washington, Washington market, three cats, slender cord, that libel, happy children, the broad Atlantic, The huge clouds were dark and threatening, Eyes are bright, What name was given? Which book is wanted?

+Direction+.--_Point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives in Lessons 80 and 81, and tell whether they denote color, motion, shape, position, size, moral qualities, or whether they modify in some other way_.

* * * * *

LESSON 90.

CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES.

+Caution+.--_An_ and _a_ are different forms of _one_. _An_ is used before vowel sounds. For the sake of euphony, _an_ drops _n_ and becomes _a_ before consonant sounds.[Footnote: Some writers still use _an_ before words beginning with unaccented _h_; as, _an historian_.]

+Examples+.--_An_ inkstand, _a_ bag, _a_ historian, _a_ humble petition, _an_ hour (_h_ is silent), _a_ unit (_unit_ begins with the consonant sound of _y_), such _a_ one (_one_ begins with the consonant sound of _w_). +Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

A heir, a inheritance, an hook, an ewer, an usurper, a account, an uniform, an hundred, a umpire, an hard apple, an hero.

+Caution.+--_An_ or _a_ is used to limit a noun to one thing of a class--to any one. _The_ is used to distinguish (1) one thing or several things from others, and (2) one class of things from other classes.

+Explanation.+--We can say _a horse_, meaning _any one horse_; but we cannot say, _A gold_ is heavy, This is a poor kind of a _gas_, William Pitt received the title of _an earl_ because _gold, gas,_ and _earl_ are here meant to denote each the whole of a class, and a limits its noun to one thing of a class.

_The horse_ or _the horses_ must be turned into _the lot_. Here _the_ before _horse_ distinguishes a certain animal, and the before horses distinguishes certain animals, from others of the same class; and _the_ before _lot_ distinguishes the field from the yard or the stable--things in other classes. _The horse_ is a noble animal. Here _the_ distinguishes _this class_ of animals from other classes. But we cannot say, _The man_ (meaning the race) is mortal, _The anger_ is a short madness, _The truth_ is eternal, _The poetry_ and _the painting_ are fine arts, because _man, anger, truth, poetry,_ and _painting_ are used in their widest sense, and name things that are sufficiently distinguished without _the_.

+Direction.+--_Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors_:--

1. This is another kind of a sentence. 2. Churchill received the title of a duke. 3. A _hill_ is from the same root as _column_. 4. Dog is a quadruped. 5. I expected some such an offer. 6. The woman is the equal of man. 7. The sculpture is a fine art. 8. Unicorn is kind of a rhinoceros. 9. Oak is harder than the maple.

+Caution.+--Use _an_, _a_, or _the_ before _each_ of two or more connected adjectives, when these adjectives modify different nouns, expressed or understood; but, when they modify the same noun, the article should not be repeated.

+Explanation+.--_A cotton and a silk umbrella_ means two umbrellas--one cotton and the other silk; the word umbrella is understood after _cotton_. _A cotton and silk umbrella_ means one umbrella partly cotton and partly silk; _cotton_ and _silk_ modify the same noun--_umbrella_. _The wise and the good_ means two classes; _the wise and good_ means one class.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors_:--

1. The Northern and Southern Hemisphere. 2. The Northern and the Southern Hemispheres. 3. The right and left hand. 4. A Pullman and Wagner sleeping-coach. 5. The fourth and the fifth verses. 6. The fourth and fifth verse. 7. A Webster's and Worcester's dictionary.

+Caution+.--Use _an_, _a_, or _the_ before each of two or more connected nouns denoting things that are to be distinguished from each other or emphasized.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. There is a difference between the sin and sinner. 2. We criticise not the dress but address of the speaker. 3. A noun and pronoun are alike in office. 4. Distinguish carefully between an adjective and adverb. 5. The lion, as well as tiger, belongs to the cat tribe. 6. Neither the North Pole nor South Pole has yet been reached. 7. The secretary and treasurer were both absent.

(_The secretary and treasurer was absent_--referring to one person--is correct.)

+Caution+.--_A few_ and _a little_ mean _some_ as opposed to _none_; _few_ means _not many_, and _little_ means _not much_.

+Examples+.--He saved _a few_ things and _a little_ money from the wreck. _Few_ shall part where many meet. _Little_ was said or done about it.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. There are a few pleasant days in March, because it is a stormy month. 2. He saved a little from the fire, as it broke out in the night. 3. Few men live to be & hundred years old, but not many. 4. Little can be done, but not much.

+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these Cautions_.

* * * * *

LESSON 91.

CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES--CONTINUED.

+Caution+.--Choose apt adjectives, but do not use them needlessly; avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it.

+Remark+.--The following adjectives are obviously needless: _Good_ virtues, _verdant_ green, _painful_ toothache, _umbrageous_ shade.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution carefully, and correct these errors_:--

1. It was splendid fun. 2. It was a tremendous dew. 3. He used less words than the other speaker. 4. The lad was neither docile nor teachable. 5. The belief in immortality is common and universal. 6. It was a gorgeous apple. 7. The arm-chair was roomy and capacious. 8. It was a lovely bun, but I paid a frightful price for it.

+Caution+.--So place adjectives that there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. If those forming a series are of different rank, place nearest the noun the one most closely modifying it. If they are of the same rank, place them where they will sound best--generally in the order of length, the shortest first.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. A new bottle of wine. 2. The house was comfortable and large. 3. A salt barrel of pork. 4. It was a blue soft beautiful sky. 5. A fried dish of bacon. 6. We saw in the distance a precipitous, barren, towering mountain. 7. Two gray fiery little eyes. 8. A docile and mild pupil. 9. A pupil, docile and mild.

+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these two Cautions_.

Miscellaneous Errors.

+Direction+.--_Give the Cautions which these expressions violate, and correct the errors_:--

1. I can bear the heat of summer, but not cold of winter. 2. The North and South Pole. 3. The eldest son of a duke is called _a marquis_. 4. He had deceived me, and so I had a little faith in him. 5. An old and young man. 6. A prodigious snowball hit my cheek. 7. The evil is intolerable and not to be borne. 8. The fat, two lazy men. 9. His penmanship is fearful. 10. A white and red flag were flying. 11. His unusual, unexpected, and extraordinary success surprised him. 12. He wanted a apple, an hard apple. 13. A dried box of herrings. 14. He received a honor. 15. Such an use! 16. The day was delightful and warm. 17. Samuel Adams's habits were unostentatious, frugal, and simple. 18. The victory was complete, though a few of the enemy were killed or captured. 19. The truth is mighty and will prevail. 20. The scepter, the miter, and coronet seem to me poor things for great men to contend for. 21. A few can swim across the Straits of Dover, for the width is great and the current strong. 22. I have a contemptible opinion of you. 23. She has less friends than I.

LESSON 92.

CLASSES OF VERBS AND ADVERBS.