Chapter V: Part 5

A +direct question+ introduced into a sentence is one in which the exact words and their order in an interrogative sentence (see Lesson 55) are preserved, and which is followed by an interrogation point; as, Cain asked, "_Am I my brother's keeper_?" An +indirect question+ is one which is referred to as a question, but not directly asked or quoted as such, and which is not followed by an interrogation point; as, Cain asked _whether he was his brother's keeper_.

The direct question introduced into a sentence is set off by the comma (but no comma is used after the interrogation point), begins with a capital letter, and is inclosed within quotation marks--though these may be omitted. An indirect question is not generally set off by a comma, does not necessarily begin with a capital letter, and is not inclosed within quotation marks.

If the direct quotation, whether a question or not, is formally introduced (see Lesson 147), it is preceded by the colon; as, Nathan's words to David were these: "_Thou art the man_." He put the question thus: "_Can you do it_?"

+Direction+.--_Point out the direct and the indirect quotations and questions in the sentences of Lesson_ 71, _tell why they do or do not begin with capital letters, and justify the use or the omission of the comma, the interrogation point, and the quotation marks_.

+Direction+.--_Rewrite these same sentences, changing the direct quotations and questions to indirect, and the indirect to direct_.

+Direction+.--_Write five sentences containing direct quotations, some of which shall be formally introduced, and some of which shall be questions occurring at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence. Change these to the indirect form, and look carefully to the punctuation and the capitalization._

+Direction+.--_Write sentences illustrating the last paragraph of the Remarks under the Rule for Quotation Marks_.

* * * * *

LESSON 75.

ANALYSIS.

+Direction+.--_Analyze the sentences given for arrangement and contraction in Lesson_ 73.

* * * * *

LESSON 76.

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.

+Introductory Hints+.--_Cromwell made one revolution, and Monk made another_. The two clauses are independent of each other. The second clause, added by the conjunction _and_ to the first, continues the line of thought begun by the first.

_Man has his will, but woman has her way_. Here the conjunction connects independent clauses whose thoughts stand in contrast with each other.

_The Tudors were despotic, or history belies them_. The independent clauses, connected by _or_, present thoughts between which you may choose, but either, accepted, excludes the other.

_The ground is wet, therefore it has rained_. Here the inferred fact, the raining, really stands to the other fact, the wetness of the ground, as cause to effect--the raining made the ground wet. _It has rained_, _hence the ground is wet_. Here the inferred fact, the wetness of the ground, really stands to the other fact, the raining, as effect to cause--the ground is made wet by the raining. But this the real, or logical relation between the facts in either sentence is expressed in a sentence of the compound form--an _and_ may be placed before _therefore_ and _hence_. Unless the connecting word expresses the dependence of one of the clauses, the grammarian regards them both as independent.

_Temperance promotes health, intemperance destroys it_. Here the independent clauses are joined to each other by their very position in the sentence--connected without any conjunction. This kind of connection is common.

Sentences made up of independent clauses we call +Compound Sentences.

+DEFINITION.--A _Clause_ is a part of a sentence containing' a subject and its predicate.+

+DEFINITION.--A _Dependent Clause_ is one used as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.+

+DEFINITION.--An _Independent Clause_ is one not dependent on another clause.+

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO FORM.

+DEFINITION.--A _Simple Sentence_ is a sentence that contains but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound.+

+DEFINITION.--A _Complex Sentence_ is a sentence composed of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.+

+DEFINITION.--A _Compound Sentence_ is a sentence composed of two or more independent clauses.+

Analysis.

+Independent Clauses+ in the +same line+ of thought.

1. Light has spread, and bayonets think.

Light | has spread
=======|=============
| '
'
' and
.......
'
'
bayonets | ' think
===========|==========
|

+Explanation+.--The clauses are of equal rank, and so the lines on which they stand are shaded alike, and the line connecting them is not slanting. As one entire clause is connected with the other, the connecting line is drawn between the predicates merely for convenience.

+Oral Analysis+.--This is a compound sentence because it is made up of independent clauses.

2. Hamilton smote the rock of the national resources, and abundant streams
of revenue gushed forth.
3. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness
thrust upon them.

+Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts in +contrast.+

4. The man dies, but his memory lives. 5. Put not your trust in money, but put your money in trust. 6. Ready writing makes not good writing, but good writing brings on ready writing.

+Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts in +alternation+.

7. Be temperate in youth, or you will have to be abstinent in old age. 8. Places near the sea are not extremely cold in winter, nor are they extremely warm in summer.

(Here a choice is denied.)

9. Either Hamlet was mad, or he feigned madness admirably.

(See (16), Lesson 20.)

+Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts one of which is an +inference+ from the other.

10. People in the streets are carrying umbrellas, hence it must be raining. 11. I have seen, therefore I believe.

I | have seen
===|===========
| '
'
I | ' believe
===|='=========
|\'
\therefore

+Explanation+.--In such constructions _and_ may be supplied, or the adverb may be regarded as the connective. The diagram illustrates _therefore_ as connective.

+Independent Clauses+ joined in the sentence +without a conjunction+.

12. The camel is the ship of the ocean of sand; the reindeer is the camel of the desert of snow. 13. Of thy unspoken word thou art master; thy spoken word is master of thee. 14. The ship leaps, as it were, from billow to billow.

+Explanation+.--_As it were_ is an independent clause used parenthetically. _As_ simply introduces it.

15. Religion--who can doubt it?--is the noblest of themes for the exercise
of intellect.
16. What grave (these are the words of Wellesley, speaking of the two
Pitts) contains such a father and such a son!

* * * * *

LESSON 77.

COMPOSITION--COMPOUND SENTENCE.

+COMMA and SEMICOLON--RULE.--_Independent Clauses_, when short and closely connected, are separated by the+ +comma; but, when the clauses are slightly connected, or when they are themselves divided into parts by the comma, the semi-colon is used+.

+Remark+.--A parenthetical clause may be set oil by the comma or by the dash, or it may be inclosed within marks of parenthesis--the marks of parenthesis showing the least degree of connection in sense. See the last three sentences in the preceding Lesson.

+Examples+.--
1. We must conquer our passions, or our passions will conquer us.
2. The prodigal robs his heirs; the miser robs himself.
3. There is a fierce conflict between good and evil; but good is in the
ascendant, and must triumph at last.

(The rule above is another example.)

+Direction+.--_Punctuate the following sentences, and give your reasons_:--

1. The wind and the rain are over the clouds are divided in heaven over the
green hill flies the inconstant sun.
2. The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero tragedy represents a
disastrous event comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind
pastoral poetry describes rural life and elegy displays the tender
emotions of the heart.
3. Wealth may seek us but wisdom must be sought.
4. The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong.
5. Occidental manhood springs from self-respect Oriental manhood finds its
greatest satisfaction in self-abasement. [Footnote: In this sentence we
have a figure of speech called +Antithesis+, in which things unlike in
some particular are set over against each other. Each part shines with
its own light and with the light reflected from the other part.
Antithesis gives great force to the thought expressed by it. Sentences
containing it furnish us our best examples of +Balanced Sentences+. You
will find other antitheses in this Lesson and in the preceding.]
6. The more discussion the better if passion and personality be avoided and
discussion even if stormy often winnows truth from error.

+Direction+.--_Assign reasons for the punctuation of the independent clauses in the preceding Lesson_.

+Direction+.--_Using the copulative and, the adversative but, and the alternative or or nor, form compound sentences out of the following simple sentences, and give the reasons for your choice of connectives_:--

Read not that you may find material for argument and conversation. The rain descended. Read that you may weigh and consider the thoughts of others. Can the Ethiopian change his skin? Righteousness exalteth a nation. The floods came. Great was the fall of it. Language is not the dress of thought. Can the leopard change his spots? The winds blew and beat upon that house. Sin is a reproach to any people. It is not simply its vehicle. It fell.

Compound sentences may be contracted by using but once the parts common to all the clauses, and compounding the remaining parts.

+Example+.--_Time_ waits for no man, and _tide waits for no man_ = _Time_ and _tide wait for no man_.

+Direction+.--_Contract these compound sentences, attending carefully to the punctuation_:--

1. Lafayette fought for American independence, and Baron Steuben fought for
American independence.
2. The sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn open the mind to
benevolence, and the sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn dispose
the mind for contemplation.
3. The spirit of the Almighty is within us, the spirit of the Almighty is
around us, and the spirit of the Almighty is above us.

A compound sentence may be contracted by simply omitting from one clause such words as may readily be supplied from the other.

_Example_.--He is witty, _but he is vulgar_ = He is witty _but vulgar_.

+Direction+.--_Contract these sentences_:--

1. Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, but it should not be the web. 2. It is called so, but it is improperly called so. 3. Was Cabot the discoverer of America, or was he not the discoverer of America? 4. William the Silent has been likened to Washington, and he has justly been likened to him. 5. It was his address that pleased me, and it was not his dress that pleased me.

A compound sentence may sometimes be changed to a complex sentence without materially changing the sense.

+Example+.--_Take care of the minutes_, and the hours will take care of themselves = _If you take care of the minutes_, the hours will take care of themselves. (Notice that the imperative form adds force.)

+Direction+.--_Change these compound sentences to complex sentences_:--

1. Resist the devil, and he will flee from you. 2. Govern your passions, or they will govern you. 3. I heard that you wished to see me, and I lost no time in coming. 4. He converses, and at the same time he plays a difficult piece of music. 5. He was faithful, and he was rewarded.

+Direction+.--_Change one of the independent clauses in each of these sentences to a dependent clause, and then change the dependent clause to a participle phrase_:--

+Model+.--The house was built upon a rock, _and therefore_ it did not fall = The house did not fall, _because_ it was built upon a rock = The house, _being built_ upon a rock, did not fall.

1. He found that he could not escape, and so he surrendered. 2. Our friends heard of our coming, and they hastened to meet us.

+Direction+.--_Using and, but, and or as connectives, compose three compound sentences, each containing three independent clauses_.

* * * * *

LESSON 78.

COMPLEX AND COMPOUND CLAUSES.

+Introductory Hints+.--_Sun and moon and stars_ obey. Peter the Great went _to Holland, to England_, and _to France_. _I came, I saw, I conquered_. Here we have co-ordinate words, co-ordinate phrases, and co-ordinate clauses, that is, words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, or order.

Leaves fall _so very quietly_. They ate _of the fruit from the tree in the garden_. Regulus would have paused _if he had been the man that he was before captivity had unstrung his sinews_. Here just as the word modifier _quietly_ is itself modified by _very_, and _very_ by _so_; and just as _fruit_, the principal word in a modifying phrase, is modified by another phrase, and the principal word of that by another: so _man_, in the adverb clause which modifies _would have paused_, is itself modified by the adjective clause _that he was_, and _was_ by the adverb clause _before captivity had unstrung his sinews_. These three dependent clauses in the complex clause modifier, like the three words and the three phrases in the complex word modifier and the complex phrase modifier, are not co-ordinate, or of equal rank.

_Mary married Philip; but Elizabeth would not marry, although Parliament frequently urged it, and the peace of England demanded it_. This is a compound sentence, composed of the simple clause which precedes _but_ and the complex clause which follows it--the complex clause being composed of an independent clause and two dependent clauses, one co-ordinate with the other, and the two connected by _and_.

Analysis.

The +clauses+ of +complex+ and +compound+ sentences may themselves be +complex+ or +compound+.

insects
----------
` ` `
` ` `which | are admired
` ` `=====|=============
` ` | '
` ` ' x
` ` .....
` ` '
` `which | are decorated
` ======|===============
` | '
` 'and
` ........
` '
` which | soar '
`======|=======
|

hour | had passed
=========|=============
\The |` '
` ' and
` .......
` '
opportunity | ` had escaped
============|==`============
\the | ` \
` '
` '
`'
`
`while
`
he | ` tarried
----|-------------
|
that
-----
'
earth | ' is \ round
=========|======'========
| '
that ' and
----- ......
' '
it | ' revolves '
===|='============'=
|
He | proved | / \
====|=============
|

+Explanation+.--The first diagram illustrates the analysis of the compound adjective clause in (3) below. Each adjective clause is connected to _insects_ by _which_. _And_ connects the co-ordinate clauses. The second diagram shows that the clause _while he tarried_ modifies both predicates of the independent clauses. _While_ modifies _had passed, had escaped_, and _tarried_, as illustrated by the short lines under the first two verbs and the line over _tarried_. The office of _while_ as connective is shown by the dotted lines. The third diagram illustrates the analysis of a complex sentence containing a compound noun clause.

1. Sin has a great many tools, but a lie is a handle which fits them all.
2. Some one has said that the milkman's favorite song should be, "Shall we
gather at the river?"
3. Some of the insects which are most admired, which are decorated with the
most brilliant colors, and which soar on the most ethereal wings, have
passed the greater portion of their lives in the bowels of the earth.
4. Still the wonder grew, that one small head could carry all he knew.
5. When a man becomes overheated by working, running, rowing, or making
furious speeches, the six or seven millions of perspiration tubes pour
out their fluid, and the whole body is bathed and cooled.
6. Milton said that he did not educate his daughters in the languages,
because one tongue was enough for a woman. [Footnote: In _tongue_, as
here used, we have a +Pun+--a witty expression in which a word agreeing
in sound with another word, but differing in meaning from it, is used in
place of that other.]
7. Glaciers, flowing down mountain gorges, obey the law of rivers; the
upper surface flows faster than the lower, and the center faster than
the adjacent sides.
8. Not to wear one's best things every day is a maxim of New England
thrift, which is as little disputed as any verse in the catechism.
9. In Holland the stork is protected by law, because it eats the frogs and
worms that would injure the dikes.
10. It is one of the most marvelous facts in the natural world that, though
hydrogen is highly inflammable, and oxygen is a supporter of
combustion, both, combined, form an element, water, which is
destructive to fire.
11. In your war of 1812, when your arms on shore were covered by disaster,
when Winchester had been defeated, when the Army of the Northwest had
surrendered, and when the gloom of despondency hung, like a cloud, over
the land, who first relit the fires of national glory, and made the
welkin ring with the shouts of victory? [Footnote: The _when_ clauses
in (11), as the _which_ clauses in (3), are formed on the same plan,
have their words in the same order. This principle of +Parallel
Construction+, requiring like ideas to be expressed alike, holds also
in phrases, as in (10) and (14), Lesson 28, and in (14) and (15),
Lesson 46, and holds supremely with sentences in the paragraph, as is
explained on page 168. Parallel construction contributes to the
clearness, and consequently to the force, of expression.]

* * * * *

LESSON 79.

EXPANSION.

+Participles+ may be expanded into different kinds of +clauses+.

+Direction+.--_Expand the participles in these sentences into the clauses indicated_:--

1. Simon Peter, having a sword, drew it. (Adjective clause.) 2. Desiring to live long, no one would be old. (Concession.) 3. They went to the temple, suing for pardon. (Purpose.) 4. White garments, reflecting the rays of the sun, are cool in summer. (Cause.) 5. Loved by all, he must have a genial disposition. (Evidence.) 6. Writing carefully, you will learn to write well. (Condition.) 7. Sitting there, I heard the cry of "Fire!" (Time.) 8. She regrets not having read it. (Noun clause.) 9. The icebergs floated down, cooling the air for miles around, (Independent clause.)

+Absolute phrases+ may be expanded into different kinds of +clauses+.

+Direction+.--_Expand these absolute phrases into the clauses indicated_:--

1. Troy being taken by the Greeks, Aeneas came into Italy. (Time.) 2. The bridges having been swept away, we returned. (Cause.) 3. A cause not preceding, no effect is produced. (Condition.) 4. All things else being destroyed, virtue could sustain itself. (Concession.) 5. There being no dew this morning, it must have been cloudy or windy last night. (Evidence.) 6. The infantry advanced, the cavalry remaining in the rear. (Independent clause.)

+Infinitive+ phrases may be expanded into different kinds of +clauses+.

+Direction+.--_Expand these infinitive phrases into the clauses indicated_:--

1. They have nothing to wear. (Adjective clause.) 2. The weather is so warm as to dissolve the snow. (Degree.) 3. Herod will seek the young child to destroy it. (Purpose.) 4. The adversative sentence faces, so to speak, half way about on _but_. (Condition.) 5. He is a fool to waste his time so. (Cause.) 6. I shall be happy to hear of your safe arrival. (Time.) 7. He does not know where to go. (Noun clause.)

+Direction+.--_Complete these elliptical expressions_:--

1. And so shall Regulus, though dead, fight as he never fought before. 2. Oh, that I might have one more day! 3. He is braver than wise. 4. What if he is poor? 5. He handles it as if it were glass. 6. I regard him more as a historian than as a poet. 7. He is not an Englishman, but a Frenchman. 8. Much as he loved his wealth, he loved his children better. 9. I will go whether you go or not. 10. It happens with books as with mere acquaintances. 11. No examples, however awful, sink into the heart.

* * * * *

LESSON 80.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.

Analysis.

1. Whenever the wandering demon of Drunkenness finds a ship adrift, he
steps on board, takes the helm, and steers straight for the
Maelstrom.--_Holmes_.
2. The energy which drives our locomotives and forces our steamships
through the waves comes from the sun.--_Cooke_.
3. No scene is continually loved but one rich by joyful human labor, smooth
in field, fair in garden, full in orchard.--_Ruskin_.
4. What is bolder than a miller's neck-cloth, which takes a thief by the
throat every morning?--_German Proverb_.
5. The setting sun stretched his celestial rods of light across the level
landscape, and smote the rivers and the brooks and the ponds, and they
became as blood.--_Longfellow_.
6. Were the happiness of the next world as closely apprehended as the
felicities of this, it were a martyrdom to live.--_Sir T. Browne_.
7. There is a good deal of oratory in me, but I don't do as well as I can,
in any one place, out of respect to the memory of Patrick
Henry.--_Nasby_.
8. Van Twiller's full-fed cheeks, which seemed to have taken toll of
everything that went into his mouth, were curiously mottled and streaked
with dusky red, like a spitzenburg apple.--_Irving_.
9. The evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is, that it is
robbing the human race.--_Mill_.
10. There is no getting along with Johnson; if his pistol misses fire, he
knocks you down with the butt of it.--_Goldsmith_.
11. We think in words; and, when we lack fit words, we lack fit
thoughts.--_White_.
12. To speak perfectly well one must feel that he has got to the bottom of
his subject.--_Whately_.
13. Office confers no honor upon a man who is worthy of it, and it will
disgrace every man who is not.--_Holland_.
14. The men whom men respect, the women whom women approve, are the men and
women who bless their species.--_Parton_.

* * * * *

LESSON 81.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.

Analysis.

1. A ruler who appoints any man to an office when there is in his dominions
another man better qualified for it sins against God and against the
state.--_Koran_.
2. We wondered whether the saltness of the Dead Sea was not Lot's wife in
solution.--_Curtis_.
3. There is a class among us so conservative that they are afraid the roof
will come down if you sweep off the cobwebs.--_Phillips_.
4. Kind hearts are more than coronets; and simple faith, than Norman
blood.--_Tennyson_.
5. All those things for which men plow, build, or sail obey
virtue.--_Sallust_.
6. The sea licks your feet, its huge flanks purr very pleasantly for you;
but it will crack your bones and eat you for all that.--_Holmes_.
7. Of all sad words of tongue or pen the saddest are these: "It might have
been."--_Whittier_.
8. I fear three newspapers more than a hundred thousand bayonets.
--_Napoleon_.
9. He that allows himself to be a worm must not complain if he is trodden
on.--_Kant_.
10. It is better to write one word upon the rock than a thousand on the
water or the sand.--_Gladstone_.
11. A breath of New England's air is better than a sup of Old England's
ale.--_Higginson_.
12. We are as near to heaven by sea as by land.--_Sir H. Gilbert_.
13. No language that cannot suck up the feeding juices secreted for it in
the rich mother-earth of common folk can bring forth a sound and lusty
book.--_Lowell_.
14. Commend me to the preacher who has learned by experience what are human
ills and what is human wrong.--_Boyd_.
15. He prayeth best who loveth best all things both [Footnote: See Lesson
20.] great and small; for the dear God, who loveth us, he made and
loveth all.--_Coleridge_.

* * * * *

LESSON 82.

REVIEW.

Show that an adjective may be expanded into an equivalent phrase or clause. Give examples of adjective clauses connected by _who, whose, which, what, that, whichever, when, where, why_, and show that each connective performs also the office of a pronoun or that of an adverb. Give and illustrate fully the Rule for punctuating the adjective clause, and the Caution regarding the position of the adjective clause. Show that an adjective clause may be equivalent to an Infinitive phrase or a participle phrase.

Show that an adverb may be expanded into an equivalent phrase or clause. Illustrate the different kinds of adverb clauses, and explain the office of each and the fitness of the name. Give and explain fully the Rule for the punctuation of adverb clauses. Illustrate the different positions of adverb clauses. Illustrate the different ways of contracting adverb clauses.

* * * * *

LESSON 83.

REVIEW.

Illustrate five different offices of a noun clause. Explain the two different ways of treating clauses introduced by _in order that_, etc. Explain the office of the expletive _it_. Illustrate the different positions of a noun clause used as object complement. Show how the noun clause may be made prominent. Illustrate the different ways of contracting noun clauses. Give and illustrate fully the Rule for quotation marks. Illustrate and explain fully the distinction between direct and indirect quotations, and the distinction between direct and indirect questions introduced into a sentence. Tell all about their capitalization and punctuation.

* * * * *

LESSON 84.

REVIEW.

Illustrate and explain the distinction between a dependent and an independent clause. Illustrate and explain the different ways in which independent clauses connected by _and, but, or_, and _hence_ are related in sense. Show how independent clauses may be joined in sense without a connecting word. Define a clause. Define the different kinds of clauses. Define the different classes of sentences with regard to form. Give the Rule for the punctuation of independent clauses, and illustrate fully. Illustrate the different ways of contracting independent clauses. Illustrate and explain the difference between compound and complex word modifiers; between compound and complex phrases; between compound and complex clauses. Give participle phrases, absolute phrases, and infinitive phrases, and expand them into different kinds of clauses. What three parts of speech may connect clauses?

GENERAL REVIEW.

TO THE TEACHER.--This scheme will be found very helpful in a general review. The pupils should be able to reproduce it except the Lesson numbers.

Scheme for the Sentence.

(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.)

+PARTS.+

+Subject.+
Noun or Pronoun (8).
Phrase (38, 40).
Clause (71).

+Predicate.+
Verb (11).

+Complements.+
+Object.+
Noun or Pronoun (28).
Phrase (38, 40).
Clause (71).
+Attribute.+
Adjective (29, 30).
Participle (37).
Noun or Pronoun (29, 30).
Phrase (37, 40).
Clause (72).
+Objective.+
Adjective (31).
Participle (37).
Noun (or Pronoun) (31).
Phrase (37, 41).

+Modifiers.+
Adjectives (12).
Adverbs (14).
Participles (37).
Nouns and Pronouns (33, 35).
Phrases (17, 37, 38, 40, 41).
Clauses (59, 60, 63, 64, 65).

+Connectives.+
Conjunctions (20, 64, 65, 71, 76).
Pronouns (59, 60).
Adverbs (60, 63, 64).

+Independent Parts+ (44).

+Classes.+
+Meaning.+ Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, Exclamatory (46).
+Form.+ Simple, Complex, Compound (76).

Additional Selections.

TO THE TEACHER.--We believe that you will find the preceding pages unusually full and rich in illustrative selections; but, should additional work be needed for reviews or for maturer classes, the following selections will afford profitable study. Let the pupils discuss the thought and the poetic form, as well as the logical construction of these passages. We do not advise putting them in diagram.

Speak clearly, if you speak at all;
Carve every word before you let it fall.--_Holmes_.

The robin and the blue-bird, piping loud,
Filled all the blossoming orchards with their glee;
The sparrows chirped as if they still were proud
Their race in Holy Writ should mentioned be;
And hungry crows, assembled in a crowd,
Clamored their piteous prayer incessantly,
Knowing who hears the ravens cry, and said,
"Give us, O Lord, this day, our daily bread!"
--_Longfellow_,

Better to stem with heart and hand
The roaring tide of life than lie,
Unmindful, on its flowery strand,
Of God's occasions drifting by.
Better with naked nerve to bear
The needles of this goading air
Than, in the lap of sensual ease, forego
The godlike power to do, the godlike aim to know.
--_Whittier_.

Then to side with Truth is noble when we share her wretched crust,
Ere her cause bring fame and profit, and 't is prosperous to be just;
Then it is the brave man chooses, while the coward stands aside,
Doubting in his abject spirit, till his Lord is crucified.--_Lowell_.

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

TO THE TEACHER.--These and similar "Exercises" are entirely outside of the regular lessons. They are offered to those teachers who may not, from lack of time or of material, find it convenient to prepare extra or miscellaneous work better suited to their own needs.

The questions appended to the following sentences are made easy of answer, but in continuing such exercises the teacher will, of course, so frame the questions as more and more to throw responsibility on the pupil.

It will be evident that this work aims not only to enforce instruction given before Lesson 17, but, by an easy and familiar examination of words and groups of words, to prepare the way for what is afterwards presented more formally and scientifically. ADAPTED FROM IRVING'S "SKETCH BOOK."

1. From this piazza the wondering Ichabod entered the hall. 2. This hall formed the center of the mansion and the place of usual residence. 3. Here, rows of resplendent pewter, ranged on a long dresser, dazzled his eyes. 4. In one corner stood a huge bag of wool ready to be spun. 5. In another corner stood a quantity of linsey-woolsey just from the loom. 6. Ears of Indian corn and strings of dried apples and peaches hung in gay festoons along the walls. 7. These were mingled with the gaud of red peppers. 8. A door left ajar gave him a peep into the best parlor. 9. In this parlor claw-footed chairs and dark mahogany tables shone like mirrors. 10. Andirons, with their accompanying shovel and tongs, glistened from their covert of asparagus tops. [Footnote: _Asparagus tops_ were commonly used to ornament the old-fashioned fireplace in summer.] 11. Mock-oranges and conch-shells decorated the mantelpiece. 12. Strings of various-colored birds' eggs were suspended above it. 13. A corner-cupboard, knowingly left open, displayed immense treasures of old silver and well-mended china.

+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--Find the two chief words in each of the first three sentences. As a part of the sentence what is each of these words called? To what class of words, or part of speech, does each belong? Notice that in the fourth and the fifth sentence the subject is put after the predicate. Change the order of words and read these sentences. Read in their regular order the two chief words of each. In the sixth sentence what word says, or asserts, something about both ears and strings? In the ninth sentence put _what_ before the predicate _shone_ and find two nouns that answer the question. In the eleventh sentence what two things does _decorated_ tell something about? In the seventh sentence _these_ stands for what two nouns, or names, found in the preceding sentence? Find the subject and the predicate of each sentence from the sixth to the thirteenth inclusive. To what class of words does each of these chief parts belong? Find in these sentences nouns that are not subjects. Find several compound nouns the parts of which are joined with the hyphen.

_The_ and _wondering_ in the first sentence go with what noun? The group of words _from this piazza_ goes with what word? In the second sentence put _what_ before, and then after, _formed_, and find the names that answer these questions. What does _of the mansion_ go with? What does _of usual residence_ describe? In the third sentence what word tells where the dazzling occurred? Find a group of three words telling what the rows were composed of. What group of words tells the position of the rows? In the fourth sentence what group of words shows where the bag stood? _Of wool ready to be spun_ describes what? _A_ and _huge_ are attached to what?

TO THE TEACHER.--We have here suggested some of the devices by which pupils may be led to see the functions of words and phrases. We recommend that this work be varied and continued through the selection above and through others that may easily be made. Such exercises, together with the more formal and searching work of the regular lessons, will be found of incalculable value to the pupil. They will not only afford the best mental discipline but will aid greatly in getting thought and in expressing thought.

+The Force and the Beauty of the Description above.--+ Can you find any reason why we are invited to see this picture through the eyes of the interested and wondering Ichabod? Do you think the word _wondering_ well chosen and suggestive? Look through this picture carefully and tell what there is that indicates thrift, industry, and prosperity. Find more common expressions for _center of the mansion_ and _place of usual residence_. Notice in the third sentence the effect of _resplendent_ and _dazzled_. How is a similar effect produced in the ninth and the tenth sentence? You see that this great artist in words does not here need to repeat his language. We can easily imagine that he could produce the same effect in a great variety of ways. In the fourth sentence does the expression _ready to be spun_ tell what is actually seen, or what is only suggested? What is gained by this expression and by _just from the loom_ in the next sentence? Do you think an unskillful artist would have used _in gay festoons?_ Read the seventh and make it more common but less quaint. Do you think the picture gains, or loses, by representing the door as "ajar" instead of wide open? Why? Can you see any similar effect from introducing _their covert_ in the tenth sentence? What does the expression _knowingly left open_ suggest to you? This selection from Irving illustrates the +Descriptive+ style of writing.

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION WORK.

In the description above we have taken some liberties with the original, for we have broken it up into single sentences. The parts of this picture as made by Irving were smoothly and delicately blended together.

You may rewrite this description; and, where it can be done to advantage, you may join the sentences neatly together. Perhaps some of these sentences may be changed to become parts of other sentences,

TO THE TEACHER.--It will be found profitable for pupils to break up for themselves into short sentences model selections from classic English, and, after examining the structure and style as suggested above, to note and, so far as possible, explain how these were blended together in the original. A written reproduction of the selection may then be made from memory.

This study of the thought, the structure, and the style of the great masters in language must lead to a discriminating taste for literature; and the effect upon the pupil's own habits of thought and expression will necessarily be to lift him above the insipid, commonplace matter and language that characterize much of the so-called "original" composition work.

In the study of these selections, especially in the work of copying, the rules for punctuation, and other rules, formally stated further on, may easily be anticipated informally.

For composition work more nearly original the class might read together or discuss, descriptions of home scenes; then, drawing from imagination or experience, they might make descriptions of their own. In these descriptions different persons might be introduced, with their attitudes, employments, and acts of hospitality.

For exercises in narration pupils might write about trips to these homes, telling about the preparation, the start, the journey, and the reception. (For studies on narrative style, see pages 157-162.)

To insure thoroughness, all such compositions should he short.

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

ADAPTED FROM IRVING'S "SKETCH BOOK."

1. Every window and crevice of the vast barn seemed bursting forth with the treasures of the farm. 2. The flail was busily resounding within from morning till night. 3. Swallows and martins skimmed twittering about the eaves. 4. Rows of pigeons were enjoying the sunshine on the roof. 5. Some sat with one eye turned up as if watching the weather. 6. Some sat with their heads under their wings or buried in their bosoms. 7. Others were swelling and cooing and bowing about their dames. 8. Sleek, unwieldy porkers were grunting in the repose and abundance of their pens. 9. From these pens sallied forth, now and then, troops of sucking pigs, as if to snuff the air. 10. A stately squadron of snowy geese was riding in an adjoining pond, convoying whole fleets of ducks. 11. Regiments of turkeys were gobbling through the farmyard. 12. Guinea fowls fretted about, like ill-tempered housewives, with their peevish, discontented cry. 13. Before the barn-door strutted the gallant cock, clapping his burnished wings, and crowing in the pride and gladness of his heart--sometimes tearing up the earth with his feet, and then generously calling his ever-hungry family of wives and children to enjoy the rich morsel which he had discovered.

+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--In the first sentence _seemed_ asserts something about what two things? _Every_ goes with what word or words? What word or words does the phrase _of the vast barn_ make more definite in meaning? The two words _window_ and _crevice_ are joined together by what word? The group of words _bursting forth with the treasures of the farm_ describes what? Notice that _bursting_ also helps _seemed_ to say something about window and crevice. _Seemed_ does not make sense, but _seemed bursting_ does. What does _forth_ modify? What does _with the treasures of the farm_ modify? In the third sentence what two nouns form the subject of _skimmed?_ What connects these two nouns? In the fourth what word tells what the rows were enjoying? In the fifth _turned up as if watching the weather_ describes what? _As if watching the weather_ goes with what? The expression introduced by _as if_ is a shortened form. Putting in some of the words omitted, we have _as if they were watching the weather. They were watching the weather_, if standing by itself, would make a complete sentence. You see that one sentence may be made a part of another sentence. What does each of the two phrases _under their wings_ and _buried in their bosoms_ describe? What connects these two phrases? In the seventh sentence _were_ is understood before _cooing_ and before _bowing_. How many predicate verbs do you find, each asserting something about the pigeons represented by _others_? Why are these verbs not separated by commas? What two nouns form the principal part of the phrase in the eighth sentence? What connects these two nouns? Read the ninth sentence and put the subject before the predicate. You may now explain _as if to snuff the air_, remembering that a similar expression in the fifth sentence was explained. In the tenth sentence _convoying whole fleets of ducks_ describes what? Does _convoying_ assert anything about the squadron? Change it into a predicate verb. In the twelfth sentence find one word and two phrases joined to _fretted_. _Clapping, crowing, tearing_, and _calling_, in the thirteenth, all describe what? Notice that all the other words following the subject go with these four. Find the three words that answer the questions made by putting _what_ after _clapping, tearing, calling_. What phrase tells the cause of crowing? The phrase _to enjoy the rich morsel which he had discovered_ tells the purpose of what? _Which he had discovered_ limits the meaning of what? The pronoun _which_ here stands for _morsel_. _Which he had discovered_ = _He had discovered morsel_. Here you will see a sentence has again been made a part of another sentence. Notice that without _which_ there would be no connection.

TO THE TEACHER.--It may be well to let the pupils complete the examination of the structure of the sentences above and point out nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs.

It will be noticed that in the questions above we especially anticipate the regular lessons that follow Lesson 27. This we do in all such "Exercises."

+The Beauty and the Force of the Description above+.--Why may we say that this farmyard scene is surrounded by an atmosphere of plenty, happiness, and content? Which do you prefer, the first sentence above, or this substitute for it: "The large barn was entirely full of the products of the farm"? Give every reason that you can find for your preference. We often speak of a barn or storehouse as "bursting with plenty," or of a table as "groaning with a load of good things," when there is really no bursting nor groaning. Such expressions are called +Figures of Speech+. Examine the second sentence and compare it with the following: "The men were busy all day pounding out the grain with flails." Do the words _busily resounding_ joined to _flail_ bring into our imagination men, grain, pounding, sound, and perhaps other things? A good description mentions such things and uses such words as will help us to see in imagination many things not mentioned. In the third sentence would you prefer _skimmed_ to _flew_? Why? Compare the eighth sentence with this: "Large fat hogs were grunting in their pens and reposing quietly with an abundant supply of food." _Sleek, unwieldy porkers_ would be too high-sounding an expression for you to use ordinarily, but it is in tone with the rest of the description. _In the repose and abundance of their pens_ is much better than the words substituted above. It is shorter and stronger. It uses instead of the verb _reposing_ and the adjective _abundant_ the nouns _repose_ and _abundance_, and makes these the principal words in the phrase. Repose and abundance are thus made the striking features of the pen. Arrange the ninth sentence in as many ways as possible and tell which way you prefer. Is a real squadron referred to in the tenth sentence? and were the geese actually convoying fleets? These are figurative uses of words. What can you say of _regiments_ in the eleventh? In the twelfth Guinea fowls are compared to housewives. Except in this one fancied resemblance the two are wholly unlike. Such comparisons frequently made by _as_ and _like_ are called +Similes+. If we leave out _like_ and say, "Guinea fowls are fretting housewives," we have a figure of speech called +Metaphor+. This figure is used above when flocks are called "squadrons" and "fleets." In the thirteenth sentence notice how well chosen and forceful are the words _strutted, gallant, burnished, generously, ever-hungry, rich morsel_. See whether you can find substitutes for these italicized words. Were the wings actually burnished? What can you say of this use of _burnished_?

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION WORK.

The sentences in the description above, when read together, have a somewhat broken or jerky effect. You may unite smoothly such as should be joined. The fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh can all be put into one. There is danger of making your sentences too long. Young writers find it difficult to make very long sentences perfectly clear in meaning.

TO THE TEACHER.--While the pupils' thoughts and style are somewhat toned up by the preceding exercises, it may he well to let them write similar descriptions drawn from their reading, their observation, or their imagination.

If the compositions contain more than two or three short paragraphs each, it will be almost impossible to secure good work.

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

FROM FRANKLIN'S "AUTOBIOGRAPHY."

1. I was dirty from my journey, my pockets were stuffed out with shirts and stockings, and I knew no soul nor where to look for lodging. 2. I was fatigued with traveling, rowing, and want of rest; I was very hungry; and my whole stock of cash consisted of a Dutch dollar and about a shilling in copper. 3. The latter I gave the people of the boat for my passage, who at first refused it on account of my rowing; but I insisted on their taking it.

1. Then I walked up the street, gazing about, till near the markethouse I met a boy with bread. 2. I had made many a meal on bread, and, inquiring where he got it, I went immediately to the baker's he directed me to, in Second Street, and asked for biscuit, intending such as we had in Boston; but they, it seems, were not made in Philadelphia. 3. Then I asked for a three-penny loaf, and was told they had none such. 4. So not considering or knowing the difference of money, or the greater cheapness and the names of his bread, I bade him give me three-penny worth of any sort. 5. He gave me, accordingly, three great puffy rolls. 6. I was surprised at the quantity, but took it; and, having no room in my pockets, walked off with a roll under each arm, and eating the other.

* * * * *

+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--Break up sentence 1, paragraph 1, into three distinct sentences, and tell what changes this will make in capitals and punctuation. Do the same for 2. Which read more closely together, and are more closely connected, the parts of 2, or of 1? How is this shown to the eye? Analyze the first two sentences you made from 1. Find two object complements of _knew_, one a noun and the other a group of five words. Find in 2 a phrase whose principal part is made up of three nouns. What have you learned about the commas used with these nouns? In making separate sentences of 3 what words do you change or drop? Are these the words that bind the parts of 3 together? What noun is used adverbially after _gave_? Supply a preposition and then tell what phrases modify _gave_. Find the object complement of _gave_. What modifies _refused_ by telling when? What, by telling _why_?

In 1, paragraph 2, who is described as gazing about? What does _gazing about_ modify? Read the group of words that tells how far or how long Franklin walked up the street. Notice that this whole group is used like an adverb. Find in it a subject, a predicate, and an object complement. Drop _till_ and see whether the parts of 1 make separate sentences. What word, then, binds these two sentences into one? Read 2 and make of it three distinct sentences by omitting the first _and_ and the word _but_. The second of these three sentences just made contains several sentences which are not so easily separated, as some are used like single words to make up the main, or principal, sentence. In this second part of 2 find the leading subject and its two predicates. Find a phrase belonging to _I_ and representing Franklin as doing something. Put _what_ after _inquiring_ and find the object complement. What phrase belongs to _went_, telling where? _He directed me to (whom)_ belongs to what? Who is represented as intending? _Intending such as we had in Boston_ belongs to what? _As we had in Boston_ goes with what? Notice that _it seems_ is a sentence thrown in loosely between the parts of another sentence. Such expressions are said to be parenthetical. Notice the punctuation.

Notice that _gazing, inquiring, intending, considering, knowing_, and _having_ are all modifiers of _I_ found in the different sentences of paragraph 2. Put _I_ before any one of these words, and you will see that no assertion is made. These words illustrate one form of the verb (the participle), and _look_ in 1, paragraph 1, illustrates the other form (the infinitive), spoken of in Lesson 11 as not asserting. Change each of these participles to a predicate, or asserting form, and then read the sentences in which these predicates are found. You will notice that giving these words the asserting form makes them more prominent and forcible--brings them up to a level with the other predicate verbs. Participles are very useful in slurring over the less important actions that the more important may have prominence. Show that they are so used in Franklin's narrative.

Examine the phrase _with a roll under each arm, and eating the other_, and see if you do not find an illustration of the fact that even great men sometimes make slips. Does _other_ properly mean one of three things? Try to improve this expression.

+The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs+.--The sentences above, as you see, stand in two groups. Those of each group are more closely related to one another than they are to the sentences of the other group. Do you see how? In studying this short selection you may find the general topic, or heading, to be something like this: _My First Experiences in Philadelphia_. Now examine the first group of sentences and see whether its topic might not be put thus: _My Condition on Reaching Philadelphia_. Then examine the sentences of the second group and see whether all will not come under this heading: _How I Found Something to Eat_. You see that even a short composition like this has a general topic with topics under it. As _sub_ means _under_, we will call these under topics _sub-topics_. There are two groups of sentences in this selection because there are two distinct sub-topics developed. The sentences of each group stand together because they jointly develop one sub-topic.

A group of sentences related and held together by a common thought we call a +Paragraph+. How is the paragraph indicated to the eye? What help is it to the reader to have a composition paragraphed? What, to the writer to know that he must write in paragraphs?

+The Style of the Author+.--This selection is mainly +Narrative+. The matter is somewhat tame, and the expression is commonplace. The words are ordinary, and they stand in their usual place. Figures of speech are not used. Yet the piece has a charm. The thoughts are homely; the expression is in perfect keeping; the style is clear, simple, direct, and natural. The closing sentence is slightly humorous. Benjamin Franklin trudging along the street, hugging a great roll of bread under each arm, and eating a third roll, must have been a laughable sight.

Have you ever known boys and girls in writing school compositions, or reporters in writing for the newspapers, to use large words for small ideas, and long, high-sounding phrases and sentences for plain, simple thoughts? Have you ever seen what could be neatly said in three or four lines "padded out" to fill a page of composition paper or a column in a newspaper?

When Franklin said. "My pockets were stuffed out with shirts and stockings," he said a homely thing in a homely way; that is, he fitted the language to the thought. To fit the expression to the thought on every occasion is the perfection of style. If Franklin had been a weak, foolish writer, his sentence might have taken this form:--

"Not having been previously provided with a satchel or other receptacle for my personal effects, my pockets, which were employed as a substitute, were protruding conspicuously with extra underclothing."

Compare this sentence with Franklin's and point out the faults you see in the substitute. Can you find anything in the meaning of _provided_ that makes previously unnecessary? Do you now understand what Lowell meant when, in praise of Dryden, he said, "His phrase is always a short cut to his sense"?

TO THE TEACHER.--What is here taught of the paragraph and of style will probably not be mastered at one reading. It will be found necessary to return to it occasionally, and to refer pupils to it for aid in their composition work.

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION WORK.

TO THE TEACHER.--We suggest that the pupils reproduce from memory the extract above, and that other selections of narrative be found in the Readers or elsewhere and studied as above.

The pupils may be able to note to what extent the narrative follows the order of time and to what extent it is topical. They may also note the amount of description it contains. They should, so far as possible, find the topic for each paragraph, thus making an outline for a composition to be completed from reproduction.

It will now require little effort to write simple original narratives of real or imagined experiences.

* * * * *

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

FROM C. D. WARNER'S "MY SUMMER IN A GARDEN."

1. In the driest days, my fountain became disabled; the pipe was stopped up. 2. A couple of plumbers, with the implements of their craft, came out to view the situation. 3. There was a good deal of difference of opinion about where the stoppage was. 4. I found the plumbers perfectly willing to sit down and talk about it--talk by the hour. 5. Some of their guesses and remarks were exceedingly ingenious; and their general observations on other subjects were excellent in their way, and could hardly have been better if they had been made by the job. 6. The work dragged a little--as it is apt to do by the hour.