Chapter X: Book XIV: The Augsburg Confession. 1530 (1)

I. The Reformation was accomplished in the name of a spiritual principle. It had proclaimed for its teacher the Word of God; for salvation, Faith; for king, Jesus Christ; for arms, the Holy Ghost; and had by these very means rejected all worldly elements. Rome had been established by _the law of a carnal commandment_; the Reformation, by _the power of an endless life_.[309]

[309] Hebrews vii. 16.

If there is any doctrine that distinguishes Christianity from every other religion, it is its spirituality. A heavenly life brought down to man--such is its work; thus the opposition of the spirit of the Gospel to the spirit of the world was the great fact which signalized the entrance of Christianity among the nations. But what its Founder had separated, had soon come together again; the Church had fallen into the arms of the world; and this criminal Union had reduced it to the deplorable condition in which it was found at the era of the Reformation.

Thus one of the greatest tasks of the sixteenth century was to restore the spiritual element to its rights. The Gospel of the Reformers had nothing to do with the world and with politics. While the Roman hierarchy had become a matter of diplomacy and a court intrigue, the Reformation was destined to exercise no other influence over princes and people than that which proceeds from the Gospel of peace.

[Sidenote: TWO STRIKING LESSONS.]

If the Reformation, having attained a certain point, became untrue to its nature, began to parley and temporize with the world, and ceased thus to follow up the spiritual principle that it had so loudly proclaimed, it was faithless to God and to itself.

Henceforward its decline was at hand.

It is impossible for a society to prosper if it be unfaithful to the principles it lays down. Having abandoned what constituted its life, it can find naught but death.

It was God's will that this great truth should be inscribed on the very threshold of the temple He was then raising in the world; and a striking contrast was to make this truth stand gloriously forth.

One portion of the Reform was to seek the alliance of the world, and in this alliance find a destruction full of desolation.

Another portion, looking up to God, was haughtily to reject the arm of the flesh, and by this very act of faith secure a noble victory.

If three centuries have gone astray, it is because they were unable to comprehend so holy and solemn a lesson.

* * * * *

It was in the beginning of September 1529 that Charles V., the victor by battles or by treaties over the Pope and the King of France, had landed at Genoa. The shouts of the Spaniards had saluted him as he quitted the Iberian peninsula; but the dejected eyes, the bended heads, the silent lips of the Italians given over to his hands, alone welcomed him to the foot of the Apennines. Everything led to the belief that Charles would indemnify himself on them for the apparent generosity with which he had treated the Pope.

[Sidenote: CHARLES THE FIFTH.]

They were deceived. Instead of those barbarous chiefs of the Goths and Huns, or of those proud and fierce emperors, who more than once had crossed the Alps and rushed upon Italy, sword in hand and with cries of vengeance, the Italians saw among them a young and graceful prince, with pale features, a delicate frame, and weak voice, of winning manners, having more the air of a courtier than a warrior, scrupulously performing all the duties of the Romish religion, and leading in his train no terrible cohorts of German barbarians, but a brilliant retinue of Spanish grandees, who complacently paraded the pride of their race and the splendour of their nation. This prince, the victor of Europe, spoke only of peace and amnesty; and even the Duke of Ferrara, who of all the Italian princes had most cause of fear, having at Modena placed the keys of the city in his hands, heard from his friendly lips the most unexpected encouragements.

Whence did this strange conduct proceed? Charles, had shown plainly enough, at the time of the captivity of Francis I., that generosity towards his enemies was not his dominant virtue. It was not long before this mystery was explained.

Almost at the same time with Charles there arrived in Italy, by way of Lyons and Genoa, three German burgesses, whose whole equipage consisted of six horses.[310] These were John Ehinger, burgomaster of Memmingen, who carried his head high, scattered money around him, and did not pride himself on great sobriety; Michael Caden, syndic of Nuremberg, a worthy, pious, and brave man, but detested by the Count of Nassau, the most influential of Charles's ministers; and, lastly, Alexis Frauentraut, secretary to the Margrave of Brandenburg, who, having married a nun, was in very bad esteem among the Roman-catholics. Such were the three men whom the Protestant princes, assembled at Nuremberg, commissioned to bear to the Emperor the famous Protest of Spire. They had purposely chosen these deputies from a middle station, under the impression that they would incur less danger.[311] To carry such a message to Charles V. was, to say the truth, a mission which few persons cared to execute. Accordingly a pension had been secured to the widows of these envoys in case of misfortune.

[310] Legatis attribuerunt equos sex.--(Seckend. ii. p. 134.)

[311] Ut essent tutiores.--(Ibid. p. 133.)

[Sidenote: BOLDNESS OF THE ENVOYS.]

Charles was on his way from Genoa to Bologna, and staying at Piacenza, when the three Protestant deputies overtook him. These plain Germans presented a singular contrast in the midst of that Spanish pomp and Romish fervour by which the young prince was surrounded. Cardinal Gattinara, the Emperor's chancellor, who sincerely desired a reform of the Church, procured them an audience of Charles V. for the 22d of September; but they were recommended to be sparing in their words, for there was nothing the Emperor so much disliked as a Protestant sermon.

The deputies were not checked by these insinuations and after having handed the protest to Charles, Frauentraut began to speak: "It is to the Supreme Judge that each one of us must render an account," said he, "and not to creatures who turn at every wind. It is better to fall into the most cruel necessity, than to incur the anger of God. Our nation will obey no decrees that are based on any other foundation than the Holy Scriptures."[312]

[312] Neque suarum esse virium aut officii, ut eos ad impossibilia et
noxia adigant--(Seckend. ii. p. 134.)

Such was the proud tone held by these German citizens to the Emperor of the West. Charles said not a word--it would have been paying them too much honour; but he charged one of his secretaries to announce an answer at some future time.

There was no hurry to send back these petty ambassadors. In vain did they renew their solicitations daily. Gattinara treated them with kindness, but Nassau sent them away with bitter words. A workman, the armourer to the court, having to visit Augsburg to purchase arms, begged the Count of Nassau to despatch the Protestant deputies. "You may tell them," replied the minister of Charles V., "that we will terminate their business in order that you may have travelling companions." But the armourer having found other company, they were compelled to wait.[313]

[313] Hortleben, von den Ursachen des deutschen Kriegs, p. 50.

[Sidenote: THE LANDGRAVE'S PRESENT.]

These envoys endeavoured at least to make a good use of their time. "Take this book," said the Landgrave to Caden at the very moment of departure, giving him a French work bound in velvet, and richly ornamented, "and deliver it to the Emperor."[314] It was a summary of the Christian Faith which the Landgrave had received from Francis Lambert, and which had probably been written by that doctor. Caden sought an opportunity of presenting this treatise; and did so one day, therefore, as Charles was going publickly to Mass. The Emperor took the book, and passed it immediately to a Spanish bishop. The Spaniard began to read it,[315] and lighted upon that passage of Scripture in which Christ enjoins his apostles _not to exercise lordship_.[316] The author took advantage of it to maintain that the minister, charged with spiritual matters, should not interfere with those which are temporal. The Papist prelate bit his lips, and Charles, who perceived it, having asked, "Well, what is the matter?" the bishop in confusion had recourse to a falsehood.[317] "This treatise," replied he, "takes the sword from the christian magistrate, and grants it only to nations that are strangers to the faith." Immediately there was a great uproar: the Spaniards above all were beside themselves.

[314] Libellum elegantur ornatum.--(Scultet. p. 253.)

[315] Cum obiter legisset--(Ibid.)

[316] Luke xxii. 26.

[317] Falso et maligne relatum esset--(Seckend. ii. p. 133.)

"The wretches that have endeavoured to mislead so young a prince," said they, "deserve to be hung on the first tree by the wayside!" Charles swore, in fact, that the bearer should suffer the penalty of his audacity.

At length, on the 12th October, Alexander Schweiss, imperial secretary, transmitted the Emperor's reply to the deputies. It said that the minority ought to submit to the decrees passed in diet, and that if the Duke of Saxony and his allies refused, means would not be wanting to compel them.[318]

[318] Sibi non defore media quibus ad id compellerentur.--(Seckend. ii
p. 133.)

[Sidenote: THE ENVOYS UNDER ARREST.]

Ehinger and Caden thereupon read aloud the appeal to the Emperor drawn up at Spire, whilst Frauentraut, who had renounced his quality of deputy and assumed that of a notary,[319] took notes of what was passing. When the reading was finished, the deputies advanced towards Schweiss and presented the appeal. The imperial secretary rejected the document with amazement; the deputies insisted; Schweiss continued firm. They then laid the appeal on the table. Schweiss was staggered; he took the paper, and carried it to the Emperor.

[319] Tabellionis sive notarii officium.--(Ibid.)

After dinner, just as one of the deputies (Caden) had gone out, a tumult in the hotel announced some catastrophe. It was the imperial secretary who returned duly accompanied. "The Emperor is exceedingly irritated against you on account of this appeal," said he to the Protestants; "and he forbids you, under pain of confiscation and death, to leave your hotel, to write to Germany, or to send any message whatsoever."[320] Thus Charles put ambassadors under arrest, as he would the officers of his guard, desirous in this manner of publishing his contempt, and of frightening the princes.

[320] Sub capitis pœna, ne pedem a diversario moveant.--(Seckend. ii.
p. 133.)

Caden's servant slipped in alarm out of the hotel, and ran to his master. The latter, still considering himself free, wrote a hasty account of the whole business to the senate of Nuremberg, sent off his letters by express, and returned to share in the arrest of his colleagues.[321]

[321] A famulo certior factus, rem omnem senatui aperuit--(Ibid.)

[Sidenote: MEETING OF CHARLES AND CLEMENT.]

On the 23d of October, the Emperor left Piacenza, carrying the three Germans with him. But on the 30th he released Ehinger and Frauentraut, who, mounting their horses in the middle of the night, rushed at full speed along a route thronged with soldiers and robbers. "As for you," said Granvelle to Caden, "you will stay under pain of death. The Emperor expects that the book you presented to him will be given up to the Pope."[322] Perhaps Charles thought it pleasant to show the Roman Pontiff this prohibition issued against the ministers of God to mingle in the government of nations. But Caden, profiting by the confusion of the court, secretly procured a horse, and fled to Ferrara, thence to Venice, from which place he returned to Nuremberg.[323]

[322] Ut idem scriptum exhibeat quoque Pontifici.--(Scultet. p. 254.)

[323] Silentio conscendit equum.--(Ibid.)

The more Charles appeared irritated against Germany, the greater moderation he showed towards the Italians: heavy pecuniary contributions were all that he required. It was beyond the Alps, in the centre of Christendom, by means of these very religious controversies, that he desired to establish his power. He pressed on, and required only two things: behind him,--peace; with him,--money.

On the 5th of November he entered Bologna. Everything was striking about him: the crowd of nobles, the splendour of the equipages, the haughtiness of the Spanish troops, the four thousand ducats that were scattered by handfuls among the people;[324] but above all, the majesty and magnificence of the young Emperor. The two chiefs of Romish Christendom were about to meet. The Pope quitted his palace with all his court; and Charles, at the head of an army which would have conquered the whole of Italy in a few days, affecting the humility of a child, fell on his knees, and kissed the Pontiff's feet.

[324] In vulgus sparsum aurum quatuor millia ducatorum.--(L. Epp. iii.
p. 565.)

The Emperor and the Pope resided at Bologna in two adjoining palaces, separated by a single wall, through which a doorway had been made, of which each had a key; and the young and politic Emperor was often seen to visit the old and crafty Pontiff, carrying papers in his hand.

Clement obtained Sforza's pardon, who appeared before the Emperor sick and leaning on a staff. Venice also was forgiven: a million of crowns arranged these two matters. But Charles could not obtain from the Pope the pardon of Florence. This illustrious city was sacrificed to the Medici, "considering," it was said, "that it is impossible for Christ's vicar to demand anything that is unjust."

[Sidenote: GATTINARA'S PROPOSITION.]

The most important affair was the Reformation. Some represented to the Emperor that, victor over all his enemies, he should carry matters with a high hand, and constrain the Protestants by force of arms.[325] Charles was more moderate; he preferred weakening the Protestants by the Papists, and then the Papists by the Protestants, and by this means raising his power above them both.

[325] Armis cogandos.--(Seckend. ii. p. 112; Maimbourg, ii. p. 194.)

A wiser course was nevertheless proposed in a solemn conference. "The Church is torn in pieces," said Chancellor Gattinara. "You (Charles) are the head of the empire: you (the Pope) are the head of the Church. It is your duty to provide by common accord against unprecedented wants. Assemble the pious men of all nations, and let a free council deduce from the Word of God a scheme of doctrine such as may be received by every people."[326]

[326] Oratio _de Congressu Bononiensi_, in _Melancthonis Orationum_,
iv. p. 87, and Cælestinus Hist. Concil. 1830, Augustæ, i. p. 10.
Respectable authors, Walsh, Muller, and Beausobre, incorrectly quote
at full length the speeches delivered at this conference. They are
amplifications; but to deny that they have some historical foundation
would be flying to the opposite extreme.

A thunderbolt would not have so greatly startled Clement VII. The offspring of an illegitimate union, and having obtained the Papacy by means far from honourable, and squandered the treasures of the Church in an unjust war, this Pontiff had a thousand personal motives for dreading an assembly of Christendom. "Large congregations," replied he, "serve only to introduce popular opinions. It is not with the decrees of councils, but with the edge of the sword, that we should decide controversies."[327]

[327] Non concilii decretis, sed armis controversias
dirimendas--(Scultet. p. 248; Maimbourg the Jesuit, ii. p. 177.)

[Sidenote: WAR IMMINENT--LUTHER'S OBJECTIONS.]

As Gattinara still persisted: "What!" said the Pope, angrily interrupting him, "you dare to contradict me, and to excite your master against me!" Charles rose up; all the assembly preserved the profoundest silence, and the prince having resumed his seat, seconded his chancellor's request. Clement was satisfied with saying that he would reflect upon it. He then began to work upon the young Emperor in their private conferences, and Charles promised at last to constrain the heretics by violence, while the Pope should summon all other princes to his aid.[328] "To overcome Germany by force, and then erase it from the surface of the earth, is the sole object of the Italians," they wrote from Venice to the Elector.[329]

[328] Pontifex, ut cæteri Christiani principes, ipsos pro viribus
juvent.--(Guicciardini, xix. p. 908.)

[329] Ut Germania vi et armis opprimatur, funditus deleatur et
eradicetur.--(Cælestin. i. p. 42.)

Such was the sinister news which, by spreading alarm among the Protestants, should also have united them. Unfortunately a contrary movement was then taking place. Luther and some of his friends had revised the Marburg articles in a sense exclusively Lutheran, and the ministers of the Elector of Saxony had presented them to the conference at Schwabach. The Reformed deputies from Ulm and Strasburg had immediately withdrawn, and the conference was broken up.

But new conferences had erelong become necessary. The express that Caden had forwarded from Piacenza had reached Nuremberg. Every one in Germany understood that the arrest of the princes' deputies was a declaration of war. The Elector was staggered, and ordered his chancellor to consult the theologians of Wittemberg.

"We cannot on our conscience," replied Luther on the 18th November, "approve of the proposed alliance. We would rather die ten times than see our Gospel cause one drop of blood to be shed.[330] Our part is to be like lambs of the slaughter. The cross of Christ must be borne. Let your highness be without fear. We shall do more by our prayers than all our enemies by their boastings. Only let not your hands be stained with the blood of your brethren! If the Emperor requires us to be given up to his tribunals, we are ready to appear. You cannot defend our faith: each one should believe at his own risk and peril."[331]

[330] Lieber zehn mal todt seyn.--(Epp. iii. p. 526.)

[331] Auf sein eigen Fahr glauben.--(Ibid. p. 527.)

[Sidenote: THE SAVIOUR IS COMING!]

On the 29th November an evangelical congress was opened at Smalkald, and an unexpected event rendered this meeting still more important. Ehinger, Caden, and Frauentraut, who had escaped from the grasp of Charles V., appeared before them.[332] The Landgrave had no further doubts of the success of his plan.

[332] Advenerant et gesta referebant.--(Seckend. ii. p. 140; Sleidan.
i. p. 235.)

He was deceived. No agreement between contrary doctrines, no alliance between politics and religion--were Luther's two principles, and they still prevailed. It was agreed that those who felt disposed to sign the articles of Schwabach, and those only, should meet at Nuremberg on the 6th of January.

[Sidenote: CHARLES' CONCILIATORY LANGUAGE.]

The horizon became hourly more threatening. The Papists of Germany wrote one to another these few but significant words: "The Saviour is coming."[333] "Alas!" exclaimed Luther, "what a pitiless saviour! He will devour them all, as well as us." In effect, two Italian bishops, authorized by Charles V., demanded in the Pope's name all the gold and silver from the churches, and a third part of the ecclesiastical revenues: a proceeding which caused an immense sensation. "Let the Pope go to the devil," replied a canon of Paderborn, a little too freely.[334] "Yes, yes!" archly replied Luther, "this is your saviour that is coming!" The people already began to talk of frightful omens. It was not only the living who were agitated: a child still in its mother's womb had uttered horrible shrieks.[335] "All is accomplished," said Luther; "the Turk has reached the highest degree of his power, the glory of the Papacy is declining, and the world is splitting on every side."[336] The Reformer, dreading lest the end of the world should arrive before he had translated all the Bible, published the prophesies of Daniel separately,--"a work," said he, "for these latter times." "Historians relate," added he, "that Alexander the Great always placed Homer under his pillow: the prophet Daniel is worthy not only that kings and princes should wear him under their heads, but in their hearts; for he will teach them that the government of nations proceeds from the power of God. We are balanced in the hand of the Lord, as a ship upon the sea, or a cloud in the sky."[337]

[333] Invicem scriptillant, dicentes: Salvator venit.--(L. Epp. iii.
p. 540.)

[334] Dat de Duwel dem Bawst int Lieff fare.--(Ibid.)

[335] Infans in utero, audiente tota familia, bis vociferatus
est.--(Ibid.)

[336] Dedication of Daniel to John Frederick.--(L. Epp. iii. p. 555.)

[337] Schwebt in seiner Macht, wie ein Schiff auf dem Meer, ja wie
eine Wolke unter dem Himmel.--(L. Epp. iii. p. 555.)

Yet the frightful phantom that Philip of Hesse had not ceased to point out to his allies, and whose threatening jaws seemed already opening, suddenly vanished, and they discovered in its place the graceful image of the most amiable of princes.

On the 21st January, Charles had summoned all the states of the empire to Augsburg, and had endeavoured to employ the most conciliatory language. "Let us put an end to all discord," he said, "let us renounce our antipathies, let us offer to our Saviour the sacrifice of all our errors, let us make it our business to comprehend and weigh with meekness the opinions of others. Let us annihilate all that has been said or done on both sides contrary to right, and let us seek after christian truth. Let us all fight under one and the same leader, Jesus Christ, and let us strive thus to meet in one communion, one church, and one unity."[338]

[338] Wie wir alle unter einem Christo seyn und
streiten.--(Forstenmanns, Urkundenbuch, i. p. 1.)

[Sidenote: THE EMPEROR'S MOTIVES.]

What language! How was it that this prince, who had hitherto spoken only of the sword, should now speak only of peace? It will be said that the wise Gattinara had had a share in it; that the act of convocation was drawn up under the impression of the terror caused by the Turkish invasion; that the Emperor already saw with how little eagerness the Roman Catholics of Germany seconded his views; that he wished to intimidate the Pope; that this language, so full of graciousness, was but a mask which Charles employed to deceive his enemies; that he wished to manage religion in true imperial fashion, like Theodosius and Constantine, and seek first to unite both parties by the influence of his wisdom and of his favours, reserving to himself, if kindness should fail, to employ force afterwards. It is possible that each of these motives may have exercised a certain influence on Charles, but the latter appears to us nearer the truth, and more conformable to the character of this prince.

If Charles, however, gave way to inclinations of mildness, the fanatical Ferdinand was at hand to bring him back. "I will continue negotiating without coming to any conclusion," wrote he to his brother; "and should I even be reduced to that, do not fear; pretexts will not be wanting to chastise these rebels, and you will find men enough, who will be happy to aid you in your revenge."[339]

[339] Bucholz Geschichte Ferdinands, iii. p. 432.

II. Charles, like Charlemagne in former times and Napoleon in latter days, desired to be crowned by the Pope, and had at first thought of visiting Rome for that purpose; but Ferdinand's pressing letters compelled him to choose Bologna.[340] He appointed the 22d February for receiving the iron crown as King of Lombardy, and resolved to assume the golden crown as Emperor of the Romans on the 24th of the same month--his birthday and the anniversary of the battle of Pavia, and which he thought was always fortunate to him.[341]

[340] Sopravennero lettere di Germania che lo sollicittavano à
transferirsi in quella provincia.--(Guicciardini, L. xx.)

[341] Natali suo quem semper felicem habuit.--(Seckend. ii. p. 150.)

[Sidenote: THE CORONATION.]

The offices of honour that belonged to the Electors of the Empire were given to strangers: in the coronation of the Emperor of Germany all was Spanish or Italian. The sceptre was carried by the Marquis of Montferrat, the sword by the Duke of Urbino, and the golden crown by the Duke of Savoy. One single German prince of little importance, the Count-palatine Philip, was present: he carried the orb. After these lords came the Emperor himself between two cardinals; then the members of his council. All this procession defiled across a magnificent temporary bridge erected between the palace and the church. At the very moment the Emperor drew near the church of San Petronio, where the coronation was to take place, the scaffolding cracked behind him and gave way, so that many of his train were wounded, and the multitude fled in alarm. Charles calmly turned back and smiled, not doubting that his lucky star had saved him.

At length Charles V. arrived in front of the throne on which Clement VII. was seated. But before being made Emperor, it was necessary that he should be promoted to the sacred orders. The Pope presented to him the surplice and the amice to make him a canon of St. Peter's and of St. John Lateranus, and immediately the canons of these two churches stripped him of his royal ornaments, and robed him with these sacred garments. The Pope went to the altar and began Mass; and the new canon drew near to wait upon him. After the offertory, the imperial deacon presented the water to the pontiff. He then knelt down between two cardinals, and communicated from the Pope's hand. The Emperor now returned near his throne, where the princes robed him with the imperial mantle brought from Constantinople, all sparkling with diamonds, and Charles humbly bent the knee before Clement VII.

The pontiff, having anointed him with oil and given him the sceptre, presented him with a naked sword, saying: "Make use of it in defence of the Church against the enemies of the faith!" Next taking the golden orb, studded with jewels, which the Count-palatine held, he said: "Govern the world with piety and firmness!" Last came the Duke of Savoy, who carried the golden crown enriched with diamonds. The Prince bent down, and Clement put the diadem on his head, saying: "Charles, Emperor invincible, receive this crown which we place on your head, as a sign to all the earth of the authority that is conferred upon you."

The Emperor then kissed the white cross embroidered on the Pope's red slipper and exclaimed: "I swear ever to employ all my strength to defend the Pontifical dignity, and the Church of Rome."[342]

[342] Omnibus viribus, ingenio, et facultatibus suis Pontificiæ
dignitatis et Romanæ Ecclesiæ perpetuum fore defensorem.--(Cœlestin.
Hist. Comit. Aug. 16.)

The two princes now took their seats under the same canopy, but on thrones of unequal height, the Emperor's being half a foot lower than the pontiff's, and the cardinal deacon proclaimed to the people "The invincible Emperor, Defender of the Faith." For the next half-hour nothing was heard but the noise of musketry, trumpets, drums, and fifes, all the bells of the city, and the shouts of the multitude. Thus was proclaimed anew the close union of politics with religion. The mighty Emperor, transformed to a Roman deacon, and humbly serving mass, like a canon of St. Peter's, had typified and declared the indissoluble union of the Romish Church with the State. This is one of the essential doctrines of Popery, and one of the most striking characteristics that distinguish it from the Evangelical and Christian Church.

Nevertheless, during all this ceremony the Pope seemed ill at ease, and sighed as soon as men's eyes ceased to be turned on him. Accordingly, the French ambassador wrote to his court that these four months which the Emperor and Pope had spent together at Bologna, would bear fruit of which the King of France would assuredly have no cause to complain.[343]

[343] Letter to M. L'Admiral, 25th February.--(Legrand, Histoire du
Divorce, iii. p. 386.)

[Sidenote: ALARM OF THE PROTESTANTS.]

Scarcely had Charles V. risen from before the altar of San Petronio, than he turned his face towards Germany, and appeared on the Alps as the anointed of the Papacy. The letter of convocation, so indulgent and benign, seemed forgotten: all things were made new since the Pope's blessings: there was but one thought in the imperial caravan, the necessity of rigorous measures; and the legate Campeggio ceased not to insinuate irritating words into Charles's ear. "At the first rumour of the storm that threatens them," said Granvelle, "we shall see the Protestants flying on every side, like timid doves upon which the Alpine eagle pounces."[344]

[344] Tanquam columbæ, adveniente aquila, dispergentur.--(Rommel
Anmerkungen, p. 236.)

Great indeed was the alarm throughout the Empire; already even the affrighted people, apprehensive of the greatest disasters, repeated everywhere that Luther and Melancthon were dead. "Alas!" said Melancthon, consumed by sorrow, when he heard these reports, "the rumour is but too true, for I die daily."[345] But Luther, on the contrary, boldly raising the eye of faith towards heaven, exclaimed: "Our enemies triumph, but erelong to perish." In truth the councils of the Elector displayed an unheard-of boldness. "Let us collect our troops," said they; "let us march on the Tyrol, and close the passage of the Alps against the Emperor."[346] Philip of Hesse uttered a cry of joy when he heard of this. The sword of Charles has aroused his indolent allies at last. Immediately fresh courtiers from Ferdinand were sent to hasten the arrival of Charles, and all Germany was in expectation.

[345] Ego famam de qua scribis intelligo nimis veram esse, morior enim
quotidie.--(Corp. Ref. ii. p. 122.)

[346] Cum copiis quas habitant per Tyrolensem ditionem incedenti
occurrere et Alpium transitum impedire.--(Seckend. ii. p. 150.)

Before carrying out this gigantic design, the Elector desired to consult Luther once more. The Emperor in the midst of the Electors was only the first among his equals; and independent princes were allowed to resist another prince, even if he were of higher rank than themselves. But Luther, dreading above all things the intervention of the secular arm in church affairs, was led to reply on the 6th March in this extraordinary manner: "Our princes' subjects are also the Emperor's subjects, and even more so than princes are. To protect by arms the Emperor's subjects against the Emperor, would be as if the Burgomaster of Torgau wished to protect by force his citizens against the Elector."

[Sidenote: BRUCK'S NOBLE ADVICE.]

"What must be done then?--Attend," replied Luther. "If the Emperor desires to march against us, let no prince undertake our defence. God is faithful: he will not abandon us." All preparations for war were immediately suspended, the Landgrave received a polite refusal, and the confederation was dissolved. It was the will of God that his cause should appear before the Emperor without league and without soldiers, having faith alone for its shield.

Never perhaps has such boldness been witnessed in feeble and unarmed men; but never, although under an appearance of blindness, was there so much wisdom and understanding.

The question next discussed in the Elector's council was, whether he should go to the diet. The majority of the councillors opposed it. "Is it not risking everything," said they, "to go and shut oneself up within the walls of a city with a powerful enemy?" Bruck and the Prince-electoral were of a different opinion. Duty in their eyes was a better councillor than fear. "What!" said they, "would the Emperor insist so much on the presence of the princes at Augsburg only to draw them into a snare? We cannot impute such perfidy to him." The Landgrave on the contrary seconded the opinion of the majority. "Remember Piacenza," said he. "Some unforeseen circumstance may lead the Emperor to take all his enemies in one cast of the net."

The Chancellor stood firm. "Let the princes only comport themselves with courage," said he, "and God's cause is saved." The decision was in favour of the nobler plan.

[Sidenote: SPIRITUAL ARMOUR.]

This diet was to be a lay council, or at the very least a national convention.[347] The Protestants foresaw that a few unimportant concessions would be made to them at first, and then that they would be required to sacrifice their faith. It was therefore necessary to settle what were the essential articles of christian truth, in order to know whether, by what means, and how far they might come to an understanding with their adversaries. The Elector accordingly had letters sent on the 14th March to the four principal theologians of Wittemberg, setting them this task, all other business being laid aside.[348] Thus, instead of collecting soldiers, this prince drew up articles: they were the best armament.

[347] Cum hæc comitia pro concilio aut conventu nationali haberi
videantur.--(Seckend. ii. p. 17.--Letter to the Elector, Corp. Ref.
ii. p. 26.)

[348] Different projects will be found in _Forstenmanns Urkundenbuch_,
i. p. 63-108, and in the Corp. Ref. iv. p. 973, sqq. Those that were
presented were doubtless the _Articuli non concedendi, Articles not to
be conceded_. They treat of the communion in both kinds, of celibacy,
the mass, orders, the pope, convents, confession, distinction of
meats, and of the sacraments.--(Corp. Ref. iv. p. 981.)

Luther, Jonas, and Melancthon (Pomeranus remaining at Wittemberg), arrived at Torgau in Easter week, asking leave to deliver their articles in person to Charles the Fifth.[349] "God forbid!" replied the Elector, "I also desire to confess my Lord."

[349] Mirantibus hominibus.--(Seck. ii. p. 153.)

John having then confided to Melancthon the definitive drawing up of the confession, and ordered general prayers to be offered up, began his journey on the 3d April, with one hundred and sixty horsemen, clad in rich scarlet cloaks embroidered with gold.

Every man was aware of the dangers that threatened the Elector, and hence many in his escort marched with downcast eyes and sinking hearts. But Luther, full of faith, revived the courage of his friends, by composing and singing with his fine voice that beautiful hymn, since become so famous: _Eine vaste Burg ist unser Gott_. Our God is a strong tower.[350] Never did soul that knew its own weakness, but which, looking to God, despises every fear, find such noble accents.

[350] We have attempted a very feeble translation of the second
stanza.

With our own strength we nought can do,
Destruction yawns on every side:
He fights for us, our champion true,
Elect of God to be our guide.
What is his name? The Anointed One,
The God of armies he;
Of earth and heaven the Lord alone--
With him, on field of battle won,
Abideth victory.

[Sidenote: LUTHER REMAINS AT COBURG.]

This hymn was sung during the diet, not only at Augsburg, but in all the churches of Saxony, and its energetic strains were often seen to revive and inspirit the most dejected minds.[351]

[351] Qui tristem etiam et abjectum animum erigere et exhilarare, et
velut ενθουσιἁζειν possent.--(Scult. p. 270.)

On Easter-eve the troop reached Coburg, and on the 23d April the Elector resumed his journey; but at the very moment of departure Luther received an order to remain. "Some one has said, Hold your tongue, you have a harsh voice," wrote he to one of his friends.[352] He submitted however without hesitation, setting an example of that passive obedience which he advocated so boldly. The Elector feared that Luther's presence would still further exasperate his adversaries, and drive Charles to extreme measures: the city of Augsburg had also written to him to that effect. But at the same time John was anxious to keep the Reformer within reach, that he might be able to consult him. He was therefore left at Coburg, in the castle overlooking the town and the river Itz, in the upper story on the south side. It was from this place he wrote those numerous letters dated from the _region of birds_; and it was there that for many months he had to maintain with his old enemy of the Wartburg, Satan, a struggle full of darkness and of anguish.

[352] Sed erat qui diceret: Tace tu, habes malam vocem.--(L. Epp. iv.
p. 2.)

[Sidenote: CHARLES AT INNSPRUCK.]

On the 2d May the Elector reached Augsburg; it had been expected that he would stay away, and, to the great astonishment of all, he was the first at the rendezvous.[353] He immediately sent Dolzig, marshal of the court, to meet the Emperor and to compliment him. On the 12th May, Philip of Hesse, who had at last resolved on not separating himself from his ally, arrived with an escort of one hundred and ninety horsemen; and almost at the same time the Emperor entered Innspruck, in the Tyrol, accompanied by his brother, the queens of Hungary and Bohemia, the ambassadors of France, England, and Portugal, Campeggio the papal legate, and other cardinals, with many princes and nobles of Germany, Spain, and Italy.

[353] Omnibus sepositis aliis rebus.--(L. Epp. iii. p. 564.)

How bring back the heretics to obedience to the Church? Such was the great topic of conversation in this brilliant court among nobles and priests, ladies and soldiers, councillors and ambassadors. They, or Charles at least, were not for making them ascend the scaffold, but they wished to act in such a manner that, untrue to their faith, they should bend the knee to the Pope. Charles stopped at Innspruck to study the situation of Germany, and ensure the success of his schemes.

Scarcely was his arrival known when a crowd of people, high and low, flocked round him on every side, and more than 270,000 crowns, previously raised in Italy, served to make the Germans understand the justice of Rome's cause. "All these heretics," was the cry, "will fall to the ground and crawl to the feet of the Pope."[354]

[354] Zum kreutz kriechen werden.--(Mathesius Pred. p. 91.) The
allusion is to the cross embroidered on the Pope's slipper.

Charles did not think so. He was, on the contrary, astonished to see what power the Reformation had gained. He momentarily even entertained the idea of leaving Augsburg alone, and of going straight to Cologne, and there proclaiming his brother King of the Romans.[355] Thus, religious interests would have given way to dynastic interests, at least so ran the report. But Charles the Fifth did not stop at this idea. The question of the Reformation was there before him, increasing hourly in strength, and it could not be eluded.

[355] Iter Coloniam versus decrevisse.--(Epp. Zw. May 13.)

[Sidenote: SENTIMENTS OF GATTINARA.]

Two parties divided the imperial court. The one, numerous and active, called upon the Emperor to revive simply the edict of Worms, and, without hearing the Protestants, condemn their cause.[356] The legate was at the head of this party. "Do not hesitate," said he to Charles; "confiscate their property, establish the inquisition, and punish these obstinate heretics with fire and sword."[357] The Spaniards, who strongly seconded these exhortations, gave way to their accustomed debauchery, so that many of them were arrested for seduction.[358] This was a sad specimen of the faith that they wished to impose on Germany. Rome has always thought lightly of morality.

[356] Alii censent Cæsarem debere, edicto proposito, sine ulla
cogitatione damnare causam nostrum.--(Corp. Ref. ii. p. 57.)

[357] _Instructio data Cæsari_ dal Reverendissimo Campeggio.--(Ranke,
iii. p. 288.)

[358] Sich die Spanier zu Inspruck unfläthig gehalten.--(Corp. Ref.
ii. p. 56.)

Gattinara, although sick, had painfully followed in Charles's train to neutralize the influence of the legate. A determined adversary of the Roman policy, he thought that the Protestants might render important services to Christendom. "There is nothing I desire so much," said he, "as to see the Elector of Saxony and his allies persevere courageously in the profession of the Gospel, and call for a free religious council. If they allow themselves to be checked by promises or threats, I hesitate myself, I stagger, and I doubt of the means of salvation."[359] The enlightened and honest members of the Papal Church (and of whom there is always a small number) necessarily sympathize with the Reformation.

[359] Semper vacillaturum de vera et certa salutis adipiscendæ
ratione.--(Seck. ii. p. 57.)

Charles V., exposed to these contrary influences, desired to restore Germany to religious unity by his personal intervention: for a moment he thought himself on the eve of success.

[Sidenote: PIETY OF THE ELECTOR.]

Amongst the persons who crowded to Innspruck was the unfortunate Christian, king of Denmark, Charles's brother-in-law. In vain had he proposed to his subjects undertaking a pilgrimage to Rome in expiation of the cruelties of which he was accused: his people had expelled him. Having repaired to Saxony, to his uncle the Elector, he had there heard Luther, and had embraced the evangelical doctrines, as far at least as external profession goes. This poor dethroned king could not resist the eloquence of the powerful ruler of two worlds, and Christian, won over by Charles the Fifth, publicly placed himself again under the sceptre of the Roman hierarchy. All the papal party uttered a shout of triumph. Nothing equals their credulity, and the importance they attach to such valueless accessions. "I cannot describe the emotion with which this news has filled me," wrote Clement VII. to Charles, his hand trembling with joy; "the brightness of your Majesty's virtues begins at last to scatter the darkness: this example will lead to numberless conversions."

Things were in this state, when Duke George of Saxony, Duke William of Bavaria, and the Elector Joachim of Brandenburg, the three German princes who were the greatest enemies of the Reformation, hastily arrived at Innspruck.

The tranquillity of the Elector, whom they had seen at Augsburg, had alarmed them, for they knew not the source whence John derived his courage; they imagined that he was revolving in his mind some perfidious design. "It is not without reason," said they to Charles, "that the Elector John has repaired the first to Augsburg, and that he appeared there with a considerable train: he wishes to seize your person. Act then with energy, and allow us to offer your Majesty a guard of six thousand horse."[360] Conference upon conference immediately took place. The Protestants were affrighted. "They are holding a diet at Innspruck," said Melancthon, "on the best means of having our heads."[361] But Gattinara prevailed on Charles to preserve his neutrality.

[360] Ut mascule ageret, sex mille equitum, præsidium ei
offerentes.--(Seck. ii. p. 156.)

[361] Ibi habentur de nostris cervicibus comitia.--(Corp. Ref. ii. p.
45.)

While all was thus agitated in the Tyrol, the Evangelical Christians, instead of mustering in arms, as they were accused, sent up their prayers to heaven, and the Protestant princes were preparing to render an account of their faith.

[Sidenote: WILES OF THE ROMANISTS.]

The Elector of Saxony held the first rank among them. Sincere, upright, and pure from his youth, early disgusted with the brilliant tourneys in which he had at first taken part, John of Saxony had joyfully hailed the day of the Reformation, and the Gospel light had gradually penetrated his serious and reflective mind. His great pleasure was to have the Holy Scriptures read to him during the latter hours of the day. It is true that, having arrived at an advanced age, the pious Elector sometimes fell asleep, but he soon awoke with a start, and repeated the last passage aloud. Although moderate and a friend of peace, he yet possessed an energy that was powerfully aroused by the great interests of the faith. There is no prince in the sixteenth century, and none perhaps since the primitive times of the Church, who has done so much as John of Saxony for the cause of the Gospel. Accordingly it was against him that the first efforts of the Papists were directed.

In order to gain him over, they wished to put in operation very different tactics from those which had been previously employed. At Spire the Evangelicals had met with angry looks in every quarter; at Augsburg, on the contrary, the Papists gave them a hearty welcome; they represented as very trifling the distance that separated the two parties, and in their private conversations uttered the mildest language, "seeking thus to make the credulous Protestants take the bait," says an historian.[362] The latter yielded with simplicity to these skilful manœuvres.

[362] Seckendorf.

Charles the Fifth was convinced that the simple Germans would not be able to resist his star. "The King of Denmark has been converted," said his courtiers to him, "why should not the Elector follow his example? Let us draw him into the imperial atmosphere." John was immediately invited to come and converse familiarly with the Emperor at Innspruck, with an assurance that he might reckon on Charles's particular favour.

[Sidenote: AUGSBURG.]

The Prince-electoral, John Frederick, who on seeing the advances of the Papists had at first exclaimed: "We conduct our affairs with such awkwardness, that it is quite pitiable!" allowed himself to be caught by this stratagem. "The Papist princes," said he to his father, "exert every means of blackening our characters. Go to Innspruck in order to put a stop to these underhand practices; or if you are unwilling, send me in your place."

This time the prudent Elector moderated his son's precipitancy, and replied to Charles's ministers, that it was not proper to treat of the affairs of the diet in any other place than that which the Emperor had himself appointed, and he begged, in consequence, that his majesty would hasten his arrival. This was the first check that Charles met with.

III. Meantime Augsburg was filling more and more every day. Princes, bishops, deputies, gentlemen, cavaliers, soldiers in rich uniforms, entered by every gate, and thronged the streets, the public places, inns, churches, and palaces. All that was most magnificent in Germany was there about to be collected. The critical circumstances in which the empire and Christendom were placed, the presence of Charles V. and his kindly manners, the love of novelty, of grand shows, and of lively emotions, tore the Germans from their homes. All those who had great interests to discuss, without reckoning a crowd of idlers, flocked from the various provinces of the empire, and hastily made their way towards this illustrious city.[363]

[363] Omnes alliciebat.--(Cochlœus, p. 191.)

[Sidenote: THE GOSPEL PREACHED.]

In the midst of this crowd the Elector and the Landgrave were resolved to confess Jesus Christ, and to take advantage of this convocation in order to convert the empire. Scarcely had John arrived when he ordered one of his theologians to preach daily with open doors in the church of the Dominicans.[364] On Sunday the 8th May, the same was done in the church of St. Catherine; on the 13th, Philip of Hesse opened the gates of the cathedral, and his chaplain Snepff there preached the Word of Salvation; and on the following Sunday (May 15) this prince ordered Cellarius, minister of Augsburg and a follower of Zwingle, to preach in the same temple. Somewhat later the Landgrave firmly settled himself in the church of St. Ulric, and the Elector in that of St. Catherine. These were the two positions taken up by these illustrious princes. Every day the Gospel was preached in these places before an immense and attentive crowd.[365]

[364] Rogantibus Augustanis publice in templum Dominicorum.--(Seck.
Lat. p. 193.)

[365] Täglig in den kirchen, unverstört; dazu kommt sehr viel
Volks.--(Corp. Ref. ii. p. 53.)

The partisans of Rome were amazed. They expected to see criminals endeavouring to dissemble their faults, and they met with confessors of Christ with uplifted heads and words of power. Desirous of counterbalancing these preachings, the Bishop of Augsburg ordered his suffragan and his chaplain to ascend the pulpit. But the Romish priests understood better how to say Mass than to preach the Gospel. "They shout, they bawl," said some. "They are stupid fellows," added all their hearers, shrugging their shoulders.[366]

[366] Clamant et vociferantur. Audires homines stupidissimos atque
etiam sensu communi carentes.--(Ibid. p. 86.)

The Romanists, ashamed of their own priests, began to grow angry,[367] and unable to hold their ground by preaching, they had recourse to the secular arm. "The priests are setting wondrous machines at work to gain Cæsar's mind," said Melancthon.[368] They succeeded, and Charles made known his displeasure at the hardihood of the princes. The friends of the Pope then drew near the Protestants and whispered into their ears "that the Emperor, victor over the King of France and the Roman Pontiff, would appear in Germany to crush all the Gospellers."[369] The anxious Elector demanded the advice of his theologians.

[367] Urebat hoc pontifices.--(Scultet. p. 271.)

[368] Ὁι αρχιερεἱς miris machinis oppugnant.--(Corp. Ref.
ii. p. 70.)

[369] Evangelicos omnes obtriturum.--(Scultet. p. 269.)

Before the answer was ready, Charles's orders arrived, carried by two of his most influential ministers, the Counts of Nassau and of Nuenar. A more skilful choice could not have been made. These two nobles, although devoted to Charles, were favourable to the Gospel, which they professed not long after. The Elector was therefore fully disposed to listen to their counsel.

[Sidenote: THE EMPEROR'S MESSAGE.]

On the 24th May, the two Counts delivered their letters to John of Saxony, and declared to him that the Emperor was exceedingly grieved that religious controversies should disturb the good understanding that had for so many years united the houses of Saxony and Austria;[370] that he was astonished at seeing the Elector oppose an edict (that of Worms) which had been unanimously passed by all the states of the Empire; that the alliances he had made tended to tear asunder the unity of Germany, and might inundate it with blood. They required at last that the Elector would immediately put a stop to the evangelical preachings, and added, in a confidential tone, that they trembled at the thought of the immediate and deplorable consequences that would certainly follow the Elector's refusal. "This," said they, "is only the expression of our own personal sentiments." It was a diplomatic manœuvre, the Emperor having enjoined them to give utterance to a few threats, but that solely on their own account.[371]

[370] These instructions may be found in Cœlestin, i. p. 50, and
Forstemann Urk. i. p. 220.

[371] Quidquid duri Electori denuntiabant suo veluti nomine et injussi
dicebant.--(Seck. ii. p. 156.)

The Elector was greatly agitated. "If his majesty forbids the preaching of the Gospel," exclaimed he, "I shall immediately return home."[372] He waited however for the advice of his theologians.

[372] Den nächsten heim zu reiten.--(Corp. Ref. ii. p. 88.)

Luther's answer was ready first. "The Emperor is our master," said he; "the town and all that is in it belong to him. If your Highness should give orders at Torgau for this to be done, and for that to be left undone, the people ought not to resist. I should prefer endeavouring to change his majesty's decision by humble and respectful solicitations; but if he persists, might makes right; we have but done our duty."[373] Thus spoke the man who has often been represented as a rebel.

[373] L. Epp. iv. p. 18.

[Sidenote: FIRMNESS OF THE ELECTOR.]

Melancthon and the others were nearly of the same opinion; only they insisted more on the necessity of representing to the Emperor "that they did not speak of controversy in their sermons, but were content simply to teach the doctrine of Christ the Saviour.[374] Let us beware, above all," continued they, "of abandoning the place. Let your highness with an intrepid heart confess in presence of his majesty by what wonderful ways you have attained to a right understanding of the truth,[375] and do not allow yourself to be alarmed at these thunder-claps that fall from the lips of our enemies." To confess the truth, such was the object to which, according to the Reformers, everything else should be subordinate.

[374] Nullas materias disputabiles a nobis doceri.--(Corp. Ref. ii. p.
72.)

[375] Quo modo plane inenarrabili atque mirifico.--(Ibid. p. 74.)

Will the Elector yield to this first demand of Charles, and thus begin, even before the Emperor's arrival, that list of sacrifices, the end of which cannot be foreseen?

No one in Augsburg was firmer than John. In vain did the Reformers represent that they were in the Emperor's city, and only strangers:[376] the Elector shook his head. Melancthon in despair wrote to Luther: "Alas! how untractable is our old man!"[377] Nevertheless he again returned to the charge. Fortunately there was an intrepid man at the Elector's right hand, the chancellor Bruck, who feeling convinced that policy, honour, and above all, duty, bound the friends of the Reformation to resist the menaces of Charles, said to the Elector: "The Emperor's demand is but a worthy beginning to bring about the definitive abolition of the Gospel.[378] If we yield at present, they will crush us by and by. Let us therefore humbly beg his majesty to permit the continuance of the sermons." Thus, at that time, a statesman stood in the foremost rank of the confessors of Jesus Christ. This is one of the characteristic features of this great age, and it must not be forgotten, if we would understand its history aright.

[376] In cujus urbe jam sumus hospites.--(Ibid. p. 46.)

[377] Sed noster senex difficilis est.--(Ibid.)

[378] Ein fügsamer Anfang der Niderbrengung des Evangelii.--(Ibid. p.
76.)

[Sidenote: THE ELECTOR'S REPLY.]