Chapter XXII: The Results of Emancipation (1)

THE APPARENT IDLENESS OF THE NEGRO SPORADIC RATHER THAN
GENERIC.--HE QUIETLY SETTLES DOWN TO WORK.--THE GOVERNMENT MAKES
AMPLE PROVISIONS FOR HIS EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL IMPROVEMENT.--THE
MARVELLOUS PROGRESS MADE BY THE PEOPLE OF THE SOUTH IN
EDUCATION.--EARLIEST SCHOOL FOR FREEDMEN AT FORTRESS MONROE IN
1861.--THE RICHMOND INSTITUTE FOR COLORED YOUTH.--THE UNLIMITED
DESIRE OF THE NEGROES TO OBTAIN AN EDUCATION.--GENERAL ORDER
ORGANIZING A "BUREAU OF REFUGEES, FREEDMEN, AND ABANDONED
LANDS."--GEN. O. O. HOWARD APPOINTED COMMISSIONER OF THE
BUREAU.--REPORT OF ALL THE RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES OF THE
FREEDMEN'S BUREAU FROM 1865-1867.--AN ACT INCORPORATING THE
FREEDMAN'S BANK AND TRUST COMPANY.--THE BUSINESS OF THE COMPANY
AS SHOWN FROM 1866-1871.--FINANCIAL STATEMENT BY THE TRUSTEES FOR
1872.--FAILURE OF THE BANK.--THE SOCIAL AND FINANCIAL CONDITION
OF THE COLORED PEOPLE IN THE SOUTH.--THE NEGRO RARELY RECEIVES
JUSTICE IN SOUTHERN COURTS.--TREATMENT OF NEGROES AS CONVICTS IN
SOUTHERN PRISONS.--INCREASE OF THE COLORED PEOPLE FROM
1790-1880.--NEGROES SUSCEPTIBLE OF THE HIGHEST CIVILIZATION.

Surely some good did come out of Nazareth. The poor, deluded, misguided, confiding Negro finished his long holiday at last, and turning from the dream of "forty acres and a mule," settled down to the stubborn realities of his new life of duties, responsibilities, and privileges. His idleness was sporadic, not generic,--it was simply reaction. He had worked faithfully, incessantly for two centuries and a half; had enriched the South with the sweat of his brow; and in two wars had baptized the soil with his patriotic blood. And when the year of jubilee came he enjoyed himself right royally.

This disposition to frolic on the part of the Negro gave rise to grave concern among his friends, and was promptly accepted as conclusive proof of his unfitness for the duties of a freeman by his enemies. But he soon dispelled the fears of his friends and disarmed the prejudices of his foes.

As already shown there was no provision made for the education of the Negro before the war; every thing had been done to keep him in ignorance. To emancipate 4,000,000 of slaves and absorb them into the political life of the government without detriment to both was indeed a formidable undertaking. Republics gain their strength and perpetuity from the self-governing force in the people; and in order to be self-governing a people must be educated. Moreover, all good laws that are cheerfully obeyed are but the emphatic expression of public sentiment. Where the great majority of the people are kept in ignorance the tendency is toward the production of two other classes, aristocrats and political "Herders." The former seek to get as far from "the common herd" as possible, while the latter bid off the rights of the poor and ignorant to the highest bidder.

It was quite appropriate for the Government to make speedy provision for plying the mass of ignorant Negroes with school influences. And the liberality of the provision was equalled by the eagerness of the Negroes to learn. Nor should history fail to record that the establishment of schools for freedmen by the Government was the noblest, most sensible act it could have done. What the Negroes have accomplished through these schools is the marvel of the age.

On the 20th of May, 1865, Major-Gen. O. O. Howard was appointed Commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau. He gave great attention to the subject of education; and after planting schools for the freedmen throughout a great portion of the South, in 1870--five years after the work was begun--he made a report. It was full of interest. In five years there were 4,239 schools established, 9,307 teachers employed, and 247,333 pupils instructed. In 1868 the average attendance was 89,396; but in 1870 it was 91,398, or 79-3/4 per cent. of the total number enrolled. The emancipated people sustained 1,324 schools themselves, and owned 592 school buildings. The Freedmen's Bureau furnished 654 buildings for school purposes. The wonderful progress they made from year to year, in scholarship, may be fairly judged by the following, corresponding with the half year in 1869:

JULY, 1869. JULY, 1870.
Advanced readers 43,746 43,540
Geography 36,992 39,321
Arithmetic 51,172 52,417
Writing 53,606 58,034
Higher branches 7,627 9,690

There were 74 high and normal schools, with 8,147 students; and 61 industrial schools, with 1,750 students in attendance. In doing this great work--for buildings, repairs, teachers, etc.,--$1,002,896.07 was expended. Of this sum the _freedmen raised_ $200,000.00! This was conclusive proof that emancipation was no mistake. Slavery was a twofold cross of woe to the land. It did not only degrade the slave, but it blunted the sensibilities, and, by its terrible weight, carried down under the slimy rocks of society some of the best white people in the South. Like a cankerous malady its venom has touched almost every side of American life.

The white race is in a constant and almost overpowering relation to the other races upon this continent. It is the duty of this great totality of intellectual life and force, to supply adequate facilities for the education of the less intelligent and less fortunate. Of every ten thousand (10,000) inhabitants there are:

WHITE. COLORED. CHINESE. INDIANS.
In the States 8,711 1,269 15 5
In the Territories 8,711 1,017 158 114
In the whole Union 8,711 1,266 16 7

When we turn our attention to the Southern States, we shall find that the white people are in excess of the Colored as follows:

MAJORITY.
Alabama 45,874
Arkansas 239,946
Delaware 79,427
Florida 4,368
Georgia 93,774
Kentucky 876,442
Maryland 430,106
Missouri 1,485,075
North Carolina 286,820
Tennessee 613,788
Texas 311,225
Virginia 199,248
West Virginia 406,043

while the Colored people are in excess in only three States, having over the whites the following majorities:

MAJORITY.
Louisiana 2,145
South Carolina 126,147
Mississippi 61,305

This leaves the whites in these sixteen States in a majority of 4,882,539, over the Colored people. There are more than two whites to every Colored in the entire population in these States.

Group the States and territories into three geographical classes, and designate them as Northern, Pacific, and Southern. The first may comprise all the "free States," where slavery never existed; put in the second the three Pacific States and all the territories, except the District of Columbia; and in the third gather all the "slave States" and the District. Now then, in the Northern class, out of every 14 persons who can neither read nor write, 13 are white. In the Pacific class, out of every 23 who can neither read nor write, 20 are white. In the Southern class, out of every 42 who can neither read nor write, 15 are white. Thus it can be seen that the white illiterates of the United States outnumber those of all the other races together. It might be profitable to the gentlemen who, upon every convenient occasion, rail about "the deplorable ignorance of the blacks," to look up this question a little![117]

The Colored people have made wonderful progress in educational matters since the war. Take a few States for examples of what they are doing. In Georgia, in 1860, there were 458,540 slaves. In 1870 there were 87 private schools, 79 teachers with 3,021 pupils. Of other schools, more public in character, there were 221, with an attendance of 11,443 pupils. In 1876 the Colored school population of this State was 48,643, with 879 schools; and with 55,268 pupils in public and private schools in 1877.

In South Carolina, in 1874, there were 63,415 Colored children attending the public schools; in 1876 there were 70,802, or an increase of 7,387.

In Virginia, in 1870, there were 39,000 Colored pupils in the schools, which were few in number. In 1874 there were 54,941 pupils; in 1876 there were 62,178, or again of 7,237. In 1874 there were 539 teachers; in 1876 there were 636, or an increase of 97. In 1874 there were 1,064 schools for Colored youth; in 1876 there were 1,181, or an increase of 117.

In the District of Columbia, in 1871, there were 4,986 Colored children in 69 schools, with 71 teachers. In 1876, of Colored schools in the District, 62 were primary, 13 grammar, and 1 high, with an enrolment of 5,454.

The following statistics exhibit the wonderful progress the Colored people of the South have made during the brief period of their freedom in the department of education. These tables come as near showing the extent, the miraculous magnitude of the work, as is possible.

COMPARATIVE STATISTICS OF EDUCATION AT THE SOUTH.

_Table showing comparative population and enrolment of the White and Colored races in the public schools of the recent slave States, with total annual expenditure for the same in 1879._

White. Colored. States. ------------------------ ----------------------- [A] [B] [C] [A] [B] [C] [D][a] Alabama 214,098 106,950 50 162,551 67,635 42 $377,033 Arkansas [b]174,253 [b]39,063 22 [b]62,348 [b]13,980 22 205,449 Delaware 31,849 23,830 75 3,800 2,842 75 223,638 Florida [c]40,606 [bc]18,169 45 [c]42,001[bc]18,795 45 [c]134,880 Georgia [c]236,319 147,192 62[c]197,125 79,435 40 465,748 Kentucky [d]476,870 [e]208,500 48 [d]62,973 [e]19,107 30[e]1,130,000 Louisiana [c]141,130 44,052 31[c]133,276 34,476 26 529,065 Maryland [f]213,669 138,029 65 [f]63,591 27,457 43 1,551,558 Mississippi 156,434 105,957 68 205,936 111,796 54 641,548 Missouri 663,135 428,992 65 39,018 20,790 53 3,069,464 North Carolina 271,348 153,534 57 154,841 85,215 55 337,541 South Carolina [e]83,813 58,368 70[e]144,315 64,095 44 319,320 Tennessee 388,355 208,858 54 126,288 55,829 44 710,652 Texas [b]160,482 [c]111,048 69 [b]47,842 [c]35,896 75 837,913 Virginia 280,849 72,306 26 202,852 35,768 18 570,389 West Virginia 198,844 132,751 67 7,279 3,775 52 709,071 District of Columbia[c] 26,426 16,085 61 [c]12,374 9,045 73 368,343 ------------------------------------------------------------ Total 3,758,480 2,013,684 1,668,410 685,942 12,181,602

Transcriber's Note: The following column heading text appeared
directly above the respective columns. The text is shown here
to minimize the table width.

[A] School population.
[B] Enrolment.
[C] Percentage of school population enrolled.
[D] Total expenditure for both races.

[a] In Delaware and Kentucky the school tax collected from Colored citizens is the only State appropriation for the support of Colored schools; in Maryland there is a biennial appropriation by the Legislature; in the District of Columbia one third of the school moneys is set apart for Colored public schools; and in the other States mentioned above the school moneys are divided in proportion to the school population without regard to race.

[b] Estimated by the Bureau.

[c] In 1878.

[d] For whites the school age is 6-20; for Colored, 6-16.

[e] In 1877.

[f] Census of 1870.

_Statistics of institutions for the instruction of the Colored race for 1879._

Name and class of institution. Location. Students. Instructors. | Religious | | denomination. | | NORMAL SCHOOLS. | | | | | | Rust Normal Institute Huntsville, Ala. Meth. 3 235 State Normal School for Colored Students Huntsville, Ala. . 2 51 Lincoln Normal University Marion, Ala. . [a]5 [a]225 Emerson Institute Mobile, Ala. Cong. 6 240 Alabama Baptist Normal and Theological School Selma, Ala. Bapt. 6 250 Normal department of Talladega College Talladega, Ala. Cong. 6 95 State Normal School for Colored Students Pine Bluff, Ark. . 4 72 Normal department of Atlanta University Atlanta, Ga. Cong. [a]176 Haven Normal School Waynesboro', Ga. Meth. 125 Normal department of Berea College Berea, Ky. Cong. [b] [b] Normal department of New Orleans University New Orleans, La. Meth. . . Normal department of Straight University New Orleans, La. Cong. [b] 91 Peabody Normal School New Orleans, La. . [a]2 [a]35 Baltimore Normal School for Colored Pupils Baltimore, Md. . 4 190 Centenary Biblical Institute Baltimore, Md. M. E. [a]5 [a]75 Natchez Seminary Natchez, Miss. Bapt. 4 46 Tougaloo University and Normal School Tougaloo, Miss. Cong. 6 96 Lincoln Institute Jefferson, Mo. . 6 139 State Normal School for Colored Students Fayetteville, N. C. . 3 93 Bennett Seminary Greensboro'. N. C. Meth. 3 125 Lumberton Normal School Lumberton, N. C. . 2 51 St. Augustine's Normal School Raleigh, N. C. P. E. 4 81 Shaw University Raleigh, N. C. Bapt. 5 192 Institute for Colored Youth Philadelphia, Pa. Friends. . 300 Avery Normal Institute Charleston, S. C. Cong. 8 322 Normal department of Brainerd Institute Chester, S. C. Presb. 3 50 Claflin University, normal department Orangeburg, S. C. M. E. 3 167 Fairfield Normal Institute Winnsboro', S. C. Presb. 390 The Warner Institute Jonesborough, Tenn. . [c]4 [c]149 Knoxville College Knoxville, Tenn. Presb. 13 240 Freedman's Normal Institute Maryville, Tenn. Friends. [a]4 [a]229 Le Moyne Normal Institute Memphis, Tenn. Cong. [a]200 Central Tennessee College, normal [a]7 department Nashville, Tenn. M. E. 3 114 Nashville Normal and Theological Institute Nashville, Tenn. Bapt. 6 231 Normal department of Fisk University Nashville, Tenn. Cong. 5 215 Tillotson Collegiate and Normal Institute Austin, Tex. . 3 158 State Normal School of Texas for Colored Students Prairie View, Tex. . 3 49 Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute[d] Hampton, Va. Cong. [e]28 [e]320 St. Stephen's Normal School Petersburg, Va. P. E. 8 240 Miner Normal School Washington, D. C. . 5 19 Normal department of Howard University Washington, D. C. Non-sect. 2 95 Normal department of Wayland Seminary Washington, D. C. Bapt. [f] [f] ---- ----- Total 181 6,171

INSTITUTIONS FOR SECONDARY INSTRUCTION.

Trinity School Athens, Ala. Cong. 2 162 Dadeville Seminary Dadeville, Ala. M. E. . . Lowery's Industrial Academy Hunstville, Ala. . . . Swayne School Montgomery, Ala. Cong. 6 470 Burrell School Selma, Ala. Cong. 5 448 Talladega College Talladega, Ala. Cong. 12 212 Walden Seminar Little Rock, Ark. M. E. . . Cookman Institute Jacksonville, Fla. M. E. [a]5 [a]140 Clark University Atlanta, Ga. M. E. 5 167 Storrs School Atlanta, Ga. Cong. 5 528

[a] In 1878.

[b] Included in university and college reports.

[c] For two years.

[d] In addition to the aid given by the American Missionary Association, this institute is aided from the income of Virginia's agricultural college land fund.

[e] For all departments.

[f] Reported under schools of theology.

_Statistics of institutions for the instruction of the Colored race for 1879.--_Continued.

Name and class of institution. Location. Students. Instructors. | Religious | | denomination. | | | | | INSTITUTIONS FOR SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. | | | --Continued. | | | | | | Howard Normal Institute Cuthbert, Ga. Cong. 3 66 La Grange Seminary La Grange, Ga. M. E. 4 140 Lewis High School Macon, Ga. Cong. 2 110 Beach Institute Savannah, Ga. Cong. 6 338 St. Augustine's School Savannah, Ga. P. E. . . Day School for Colored Children New Orleans, La. R. C. . 80 St. Augustine's School New Orleans, La. R. C. 3 60 St. Mary's School for Colored Girls New Orleans, La. R. C. . 60 St. Francis's Academy Baltimore, Md. R. C. . 50 Meridian Academy Meridian, Md. M. E. . . Natchez Seminary Natchez, Miss. Bapt. 4 45 Scotia Seminary Concord, N. C. Cong. 8 152 St. Augustine's School New Berne, N. C. P. E. . . Estey Seminary Raleigh, N. C. Bapt. . . Washington School Raleigh, N. C. Cong. 3 149 St. Barnabas School Wilmington, N. C. P. E. [a]100 Williston Academy and Normal School Wilmington, N. C. Cong. [a]6 [a]126 Albany Enterprise Academy Albany, Ohio Non-sect. 4 64 Polytechnic and Industrial Institute Bluffton, S. C. Non-sect. 8 265 High School for Colored Pupils Charleston, S. C. P. E. . . Wallingford Academy Charleston, S. C. Presb. 6 261 Brainerd Institute Chester, S. C. Presb. 5 300 Benedict Institute Columbia, S. C. Bapt. 4 142 Brewer Normal School Greenwood, S. C. Cong. [a]1 [a]58 West Tennessee Preparatory School Mason, Tenn. Meth. 2 76 Canfield School Memphis, Tenn. P. E. . . West Texas Conference Seminary Austin, Tex. M. E. . . Wiley University Marshall, Tex. M. E. [a]3 [a]123 Thyne Institute Chase City, Va. U. Presb. 3 213 Richmond Institute Richmond, Va. Bapt. 3 92 St. Philip's Church School Richmond, Va. P. E. 2 100 St. Mary's School Washington, D. C. P. E. . . --- ----- Total 120 5,297

UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES

Atlanta University Atlanta, Ga. Cong. [ab]13 [a]71 Berea College Berea. Ky. Cong. [b]12 [b]180 Leland University New Orleans, La. Bapt. [a]6 [ac]91 New Orleans University New Orleans, La. M. E. 5 92 Straight University New Orleans, La. Cong. [b]11 [d]260 Shaw University Holly Springs,Miss. M. E. 6 273 Alcorn University Rodney, Miss. Non-sect. 10 180 Biddle University Charlotte, N.C. Presb. 9 151 Wilberforce University Wilberforce, Ohio M. E. 15 [b]150 Lincoln University Lincoln University, Pa. Presb. [a]9 [a]74 Claflin University and College of Agriculture Orangeburg. S. C. M. E. 10 165 Central Tennessee College Nashville, Tenn. M. E. 13 139 Fisk University Nashville, Tenn. Cong. 13 74 Agricultural and Mechanical College Hempstead, Tex. . . . Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute Hampton, Va. Cong. [e] [e] Howard University[f] Washington, D. C. Non-sect. 5 [f]33 --- ----- Total 137 1,933

[a] In 1878.

[b] For all departments.

[c] These are preparatory.

[d] Normal students are here reckoned as preparatory.

[e] Reported with normal schools.

[f] This institution is open to both races, and the figures given are known to include some whites.

_Statistics of institutions for the instruction of the Colored race for 1879.--_Continued.

Name and class of institution. Location. Students. Instructors. | Religious | | denomination. | | | | | SCHOOLS OF THEOLOGY. | | | | | | Alabama Baptist Normal and Theological School Selma, Ala. Bapt. 1 . Theological department of Talladega College Talladega, Ala. Cong. 2 14 Institute for the Education of Colored Ministers Tuscaloosa, Ala. Presb. Atlanta Baptist Seminary Atlanta, Ga. Bapt. 3 113 Theological department of Leland University New Orleans, La. Bapt. [a]2 [a]55 Thomson biblical Institute (New Orleans University) New Orleans, La. M. E. [a]1 [a]16 Theological department of Straight University New Orleans, La. Cong. 1 21 Centenary Bible Institute Baltimore, Md. Meth. [a]6 [a]20 Theological department of Shaw University Holly Springs,Miss. Meth. [a]2 [a]17 Natchez Seminary Natchez, Miss. Bapt. 2 31 Theological department of Biddle University Charlotte. N. C. Presb. 4 8 Bennett Seminary Greensboro', N. C. Meth. 2 6 Theological department of Shaw Univers'y Raleigh, N. C. Bapt. 2 59 Theological Seminary of Wilberforce University Wilberforce, Ohio M. E. 7 16 Theological department of Lincoln Lincoln University University, Pa. Presb. [a]7 [a]22 Baker Theological Institute (Claflin University) Orangeburg, S. C. Meth. 2 28 Nashville Normal and Theological Institute Nashville, Tenn. Bapt. 6 50 Theological course in Fisk University Nashville, Tenn. Cong. [a]2 [a]12 Theological department of Central Tennessee College Nashville, Tenn. M. E. 4 45 Richmond Institute Richmond, Va. Bapt. 10 86 Theological department of Howard University Washington, D. C. Non-sect. 4 50 Wayland Seminary Washington, D. C. Bapt. [b]9 [b]84 ---- ----- Total 79 762

SCHOOLS OF LAW.

Law department of Straight
University New Orleans, La. [a]4 [a]28
Law department of Shaw
University Holly Springs. Miss. [a]1 [a]6
Law department of Howard
University Washington, D. C. 3 8
---- ----
Total 8 42

SCHOOLS OF MEDICINE.

Medical department of
New Orleans University New Orleans. La [a]5 [a]8
Medical department of Shaw
University Holly Springs, Miss. [a]1 [a]4
Meharry medical department of
Central Tennessee College Nashville, Tenn. 9 22
Medical department of
Howard Univers'y Washington, D. C. 8 65
---- ----
Total 23 99

SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF AND DUMB AND THE BLIND.

Institution for the Colored Blind
and Deaf-Mutes Baltimore, Md. 1 30
North Carolina Institution for
the Deaf and Dumb and the
Blind (Colored department) Raleigh, N. C. [ab]15 [a]60
----- -----
Total 16 120

[a] In 1878.

[b] For all departments.

_Summary of statistics of institutions for the instruction of the Colored race for 1879._

Institutions for secondary States. Public schools. Normal schools. instruction. ----------------- -------------- -------------- [A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [C] [D] [E] Alabama 162,551 67,635 6 28 1,096 6 25 1,292 Arkansas 62,348 13,986 1 4 72 1 . . Delaware 3,800 2,842 . . . . . . Florida 42,001 18,795 . . . 1 5 140 Georgia 197,125 79,435 2 . 301 7 25 1,349 Kentucky 62,973 19,107 1 . . . . . Louisiana 133,276 34,476 3 2 126 3 3 200 Maryland 63,591 27,457 2 9 265 1 . 50 Mississippi 205,936 111,796 2 10 142 2 4 45 Missouri 39,018 20,700 1 6 139 . . . North Carolina 154,841 85,215 5 17 542 6 17 527 Ohio . . . . . 1 4 64 Pennsylvania . . 1 . 300 . . . South Carolina 144,315 64,095 4 14 929 6 24 1,026 Tennessee 126,288 55,829 7 42 1,378 2 2 76 Texas 47,842 35,896 2 6 207 2 3 123 Virginia 202,852 35,768 2 36 560 3 8 405 West Virginia 7,279 3,775 . . . . . . District of Columbia 12,374 9,045 3 7 114 1 . . --------- ------- -- --- ----- -- --- ----- Total 1,668,410 685,942 42 181 6,171 42 120 5,297

Transcriber's Note: The following column heading text appeared
directly above the respective columns. The text is shown here
only to minimize the table width.

[A] School population.
[B] Enrolment.
[C] Schools.
[D] Teachers.
[E] Pupils.

_Summary of statistics of institutions for the instruction of the Colored race for 1879._--Continued.

Universities and Schools of colleges. theology. Schools of law. ------------------- ------------------ ---------------- Pupils. Pupils. Pupils. States Teachers. | Teachers. | Teachers. | Schools. | | Schools. | | Schools. | | | | | | | | | | | Alabama . . . 3 3 14 . . . Georgia 1 13 71 1 3 113 . . . Kentucky 1 12 180 . . . . . . Louisiana 3 22 443 3 4 92 1 4 28 Maryland . . . 1 6 29 . . . Mississippi 2 16 453 2 4 48 1 1 6 North Carolina 1 9 151 3 8 73 . . . Ohio 1 15 150 1 7 16 . . . Pennsylvania 1 9 74 1 7 22 . . . South Carolina 1 10 165 1 2 28 . . . Tennessee 2 26 213 3 12 107 . . . Texas 1 . . . . . . . . Virginia 1 . . 1 10 86 . . . District of Columbia 1 5 33 2 13 134 1 3 8 -- --- ----- -- -- --- - - -- Total 16 137 1,933 22 79 762 3 8 42

_Summary of statistics of institutions for the instruction of the Colored race for 1879._--Continued.

Schools for the
deaf and dumb and
Schools of medicine. the blind.
-------------------- ------------------
Pupils. Pupils.
States Teachers. | Teachers. |
Schools. | | Schools. | |
| | | | | |
Louisiana 1 5 8 . . .
Maryland . . . 1 1 30
Mississippi 1 1 4 . . .
North Carolina . . . 1 15 90
Tennessee 1 9 22 . . .
District of Columbia 1 8 65 . . .
- -- -- - -- ---
Total 4 23 99 2 16 120

_Table showing the number of schools for the Colored race and enrolment in them by institutions without reference to States._

Class of institutions. Schools. Enrolment. --------- ---------- Public schools [a]14,341 [a]585,942 Normal schools 42 6,171 Institutions for secondary instruction 42 5,297 Universities and colleges 16 1,933 Schools of theology 22 762 Schools of law 3 42 Schools of medicine 4 99 Schools for the deaf and dumb and the blind 2 120 ------ ------- Total 14,472 700,366

[a] To these should be added 417 schools, having an enrolment of 20,487 in reporting free States, making total number of Colored public schools 14,758, and total enrolment in them 706,429; this makes the total number of schools, as far as reported, 14,889, and total number of the Colored race under instruction in them 720,853. The Colored public schools of those States in which no separate reports are made, however, are not included; and the Colored pupils in white schools cannot be enumerated.

Virginia has done more intelligent and effective educational work than any other State in the South. The Hon. W. H. Ruffner has no equal in America as a superintendent of public instruction. He is the Horace Mann of the South.

It appears from the reports of the Freedmen's Bureau that the earliest school for freedmen was opened by the American Missionary Association at Fortress Monroe, September, 1861; and before the close of the war, Hampton and Norfolk were leading points where educational operations were conducted; but after the cessation of hostilities, teachers were sent from Northern States, and schools for freedmen were opened in all parts of the State.

The Colored normal school at Richmond, and the one at Hampton, were commenced in 1867 and 1868. Captain C. S. Schaeffer, Bureau officer at Christiansburg, commenced his remarkable efforts about the same time in Montgomery County.

School superintendents for each State were appointed by the Freedmen's Bureau, July 12, 1865, and a general superintendent, or "Inspector of Schools," was appointed in September, 1865. These superintendents were instructed "to work as much as possible in conjunction with State officers, who may have had school matters in charge, and to take cognizance of all that was being done to educate refugees and freedmen." In 1866 an act of Congress was passed enlarging the powers of the Bureau, and partially consolidating all the societies and agencies engaged in educational work among the freedmen. In this bill $521,000 were appropriated for carrying on the work, to which was to be added forfeitures of property owned by the Confederate Government. Up to January 1, 1868, over a million of dollars was expended for school purposes among the freedmen. In Virginia 12,450 pupils are reported for 1867. Mr. Manly, the Virginia superintendent, reports the following statistics for the year 1867-8: Schools, 230; teachers, 290; pupils enrolled, 14,300; in average attendance, 10,320; the cost as follows:

From Charity $78,766
From the Freedmen 10,789
From the Bureau 42,844
--------
Total Cost $132,399

The amount raised from freedmen was in the form of small tuition fees of from ten to fifty cents a month--a system approved by Mr. Manly.

In the final report to the Freedmen's Bureau, made July 1, 1870, the Virginia statistics are: Schools, 344; teachers, 412; pupils, 18,234; the average attendance, 78 per cent. This year the freedmen paid $12,286.50 for tuition. Mr. C. S. Schaeffer and Mr. Samuel H. Jones, who remained in Virginia as teachers--the former still at Christiansburg, and the latter, until very lately, at Danville--both acted as assistants to Mr. Manly. A considerable number of school-houses were built in Virginia by the Bureau, including the splendid normal and high school building in Richmond, erected and equipped at a cost of $25,000, and afterward turned over to the city. After the conclusion of his superintendency, Mr. Manly continued for several years to do valuable service as principal of this school.

"The Freedmen's Bureau ceased its educational operations in the
summer of 1870, and in the autumn of that year our State public
schools were opened. So that, counting from the beginning of the
mission school at Hampton in 1861, there has been an unbroken
succession of schools for freedmen in one region for nineteen
years; and at a number of leading points in the State--such as
Norfolk, Richmond, Petersburg, Danville, Charlottesville,
Christiansburg, etc.--an unbroken line of schools for fourteen
years and upwards. These efforts, however, of the Federal
Government toward educating the rising generation of Colored
people, could not have been designed as any thing more than an
experiment, intended first to test and then to stimulate the
appetite of those people for learning. And in this view they were
entirely successful in both particulars; for the children flocked
to the schools, attended well, made good progress in knowledge,
and paid a surprising amount of money for tuition.

"But, considered as a serious attempt to educate the children of
the freedmen, the movement was wholly inadequate, even when
contrasted with the operations of our imperfect State system. The
largest number enrolled in the schools supported by the combined
efforts of the Bureau, the charitable societies, and the tuition
fees, was 18,234, in 1870. The next year we had in our public
schools considerably over double this number, and an annual
increase ever since, always excepting those two dark years
(_tenebricosus and tenebricosissimus_), 1878 and 1879."[118]

"Two institutions for the education of the Colored race, founded
before the beginning of our school, system, are still in
successful operation, but remain independent of our school
system. One of them has some connection with the State by reason
of the receipt of one-third of the proceeds of the Congressional
land-grant for education. I refer to the well-known Hampton
Normal and Agricultural Institute, and the Richmond Colored
Institute. Nothing need be said in reference to the Hampton
School, except that its numbers and usefulness are constantly
increasing under the continued superintendence of the indomitable
Gen. Armstrong. Its reports, which are published every year as
State documents in connection with the Report of this department,
are so accessible to all, that I will only repeat here the
testimony often given, that in my opinion this is the most
valuable of all the schools opened on this Continent for Colored
people. Its most direct benefit is in furnishing to our State
schools a much-needed annual contribution of teachers; and
teachers so good and acceptable that the demand for them is
always much greater than the supply.

"The Richmond Institute has more of a theological intent, but it
also sends out many good teachers. As a school it has prospered
steadily under the excellent management of the Rev. C. H. Corey,
D.D.; and it will soon be accommodated in a large new and
handsome building. Both these institutions receive their support
chiefly from the North."[119]

It will be seen that the tables we give refer only to the work done in educating the Negro in the Southern States. Much has been done in the Northern States, but in quite a different manner. The work of education for the Negro at the South had to begin at the bottom. There were no schools at all for this people; and hence the work began with the alphabet. And there could be no classification of the scholars. All the way from six to sixty the pupils ranged in age; and even some who had given slavery a century of their existence--mothers and fathers in Israel--crowded the schools established for their race. Some ministers of the Gospel after a half century of preaching entered school to learn how to spell out the names of the twelve Apostles. Old women who had lived out their threescore years and ten prayed that they might live to spell out the Lord's prayer, while the modest request of many departing patriarchs was that they might recognize the Lord's name in print. The sacrifices they made for themselves and children challenged the admiration of even their former owners.

The unlettered Negroes of the South carried into the school-room an inborn love of music, an excellent memory, and a good taste for the elegant--almost grandiloquent--in speech, gorgeous in imagery, and energetic in narration; their apostrophe and simile were wonderful. Geography and history furnished great attractions, and they developed ability to master them. In mathematics they did not do so well, on account of the lack of training to think consecutively and methodically. It is a mistake to believe this a mental infirmity of the race; for a very large number of the students in college at the present time do as well in mathematics, geometry, trigonometry, mensuration, and conic sections as the white students of the same age; and some of them excel in mathematics.

The majority of the Colored students in the Southern schools qualify themselves to teach and preach; while the remainder go to law and medicine. Few educated Colored men ever return to agricultural life. There are two reasons for this: First, reaction. There is an erroneous idea among some of these young men that labor is dishonorable; that an educated man should never work with his hands. Second, some of them believe that a profession gives a man consequence. Such silly ideas should be abandoned--they must be abandoned! There is a great demand for educated farmers and laborers. It requires an intelligent man to conduct a farm successfully, to sell the products of his labor, and to buy the necessaries of life. No profession can furnish a man with brains, or provide him a garment of respectability. Every man must furnish brains and tact to make his calling and election sure in this world, as well as by faith in the world to come. Unfortunately there has been but little opportunity for Colored men or boys to get employment at the trades: but prejudice is gradually giving way to reason and common-sense; and the day is not distant when the Negro will have a free field in this country, and will then be responsible for what he is not that is good. The need of the hour is a varied employment for the Negro race on this continent. There is more need of educated mechanics, civil engineers, surveyors, printers, artificers, inventors, architects, builders, merchants, and bankers than there is demand for lawyers, physicians, or clergymen. Waiters, barbers, porters, boot-blacks, hack-drivers, grooms, and private valets find but little time for the expansion of their intellects. These places are not dishonorable; but what we say is, _there is room at the top_! An industrial school, something like Cooper Institute, situated between New York and Philadelphia, where Colored boys and girls could learn the trades that race prejudice denies them now, would be the grandest institution of modern times. It matters not how many million dollars are given toward the education of the Negro; so long as he is deprived of the privilege of learning and plying the trades and mechanic arts his education will injure rather than help him.[120] We would rather see a Negro boy build an engine than take the highest prize in Yale or Harvard.

It is quite difficult to get at a clear idea of what has been done in the Northern States toward the education of the Colored people. In nearly all the States on the borders of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers "Colored schools" still exist; and in many instances are kept alive through the spirit of the self-seeking of a few Colored persons who draw salaries in lieu of their continuance. They should be abolished, and will be, as surely as heat follows light and the rising of the sun. In the New England, Middle, and extreme Western States, with the exception of Kansas, separate schools do not exist. The doors of all colleges, founded and conducted by the white people in the North, are open to the Colored people who desire to avail themselves of an academic education. At the present time there are one hundred and sixty-nine Colored students in seventy white colleges in the Northern States; and the presidents say they are doing well.

_The Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands_ was established in the spring of 1865 to meet the state of affairs incident upon the closing scenes of the great civil war. The Act creating the Bureau was approved and became a law on the 3d of March, 1865. The Bureau was to be under the management of the War Department, and its officers were liable for the property placed in their hands under the revised regulations of the army. In May, 1865, the following order was issued from the War Department appointing Major-Gen. O. O. Howard Commissioner of the Bureau:

"[GENERAL ORDERS NO. 91.]

"WAR DEPARTMENT, ADJUTANT GENERAL'S OFFICE, }
"WASHINGTON, May 12, 1865. }

"Order Organizing Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned
"Lands.

"I. By the direction of the President, Major General O. O. Howard
is assigned to duty in the War Department as Commissioner of the
Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, under the act
of Congress entitled 'An act to establish a bureau for the relief
of freedmen and refugees,' to perform the duties and exercise all
the rights, authority, and jurisdiction vested by the act of
Congress in such Commissioner. General Howard will enter at once
upon the duties of Commissioner specified in said act.

"II. The Quartermaster General will, without delay, assign and
furnish suitable quarters and apartments for the said bureau.

"III. The Adjutant General will assign to the said bureau the
number of competent clerks authorized by the act of Congress.

"By order of the President of the United States:

"E. D. Townsend,
"_Assistant Adjutant General_."

Gen. Howard entered upon the discharge of the vast, varied, and complicated duties of his office with his characteristic zeal, intelligence, and high Christian integrity. Hospitals were founded for the care of the sick, infirm, blind, deaf, and dumb. Rations were issued, clothing distributed, and lands apportioned to the needy and worthy.

From May 30, 1865, to November 20, 1865, inclusive, this Bureau furnished transportation for 1,946 freedmen, and issued to this class of persons in ten States, 1,030,100 rations.

"Congress, when it created the bureau, made no appropriation to
defray its expenses; it has, however, received funds from
miscellaneous sources, as the following report will show:

"In several of the States, Virginia, North and South Carolina,
Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Arkansas,
Missouri, and the District of Columbia, the interests of the
freedmen were under the control of military officers assigned by
the War Department previous to the organization of this bureau.
Their accounts became naturally absorbed in the accounts of the
bureau, and the following report embraces all the receipts and
expenditures in all States now under control of the bureau since
January 1, 1865:"

RECEIPTS.

Amount on hand January 1, 1865, and received since, to October
31, 1865:

From freedmen's fund $466,028 35
From retained bounties 115,236 49
For clothing, fuel, and subsistence 7,704 21
Farms 76,709 12
From rents of buildings 56,012 42
From rents of lands 125,521 00
From Quartermaster's department 12,200 00
From conscript fund 13,498 11
From schools (tax and tuition) 34,486 58
----------
Total received 907,396 28

EXPENDITURES.

Freedmen's fund $8,009 14
Clothing, fuel, and subsistence 75,504 05
Farms 40,069 71
Household furniture 2,904 90
Rents of buildings 11,470 88
Labor (by freedmen and other employés) 237,097 62
Repairs of buildings 19,518 46
Contingent expenses 46,328 07
Rents of lands 300 00
Internal revenue 1,379 86
Conscript fund 6,515 37
Transportation 1,445 51
Schools 27,819 60
----------
Total expended 478,363 17

RECAPITULATION.

Total amount received $907,396 28
Total amount expended 478,363 17
-----------
Balance on hand October 31, 1865 429,033 11
Deduct the amount held as retained bounties 115,236 49

Balance on hand October 31, 1865, available
to meet liabilities 313,796 62[121]

It was the policy of the Government to help the freedmen on to their feet; to give them a start in the race of self-support and manhood. They received such assistance as was given them with thankful hearts, and were not long in placing themselves upon a safe foundation for their new existence. Out of a population of 350,000 in North Carolina only 5,000 were receiving aid from the Government in the fall of 1865. Each month witnessed a wonderful reduction of the rations issued to the freedmen. In the month of August, 1865, Gen. C. B. Fisk had reduced the number of freedmen receiving rations from 3,785 to 2,984, in Kentucky. In the same month, in Mississippi, Gen. Samuel Thomas, of the 64th U. S. C. I., had reduced the number of persons receiving rations to 669. In his report for 1865, Gen. Thomas said:

"The freedmen working land assigned them at Davis's Bend, Camp
Hawley, near Vicksburg, De Soto Point, opposite, and at
Washington, near Natchez, are all doing well. These crops are
maturing fast; as harvest time approaches, I reduce the number of
rations issued and compel them to rely on their own resources. At
least 10,000 bales of cotton will be raised by these people, who
are conducting cotton crops on their own account. Besides this
cotton, they have gardens and corn enough to furnish bread for
their families and food for their stock till harvest time
returns. * * * A more industrious, energetic body of citizens
does not exist than can be seen at the colonies now."

Speaking of the industry of the freed people Gen. Thomas added: "I have lately visited a large portion of the State, and find it in much better condition than I expected. In the eastern part fine crops of grain are growing; the negroes are at home working quietly; they have contracted with their old masters at fair wages; all seem to accept the change without a shock."

From June 1, 1865, to September 1, 1866, the Freedmen's Bureau issued to the freed people of the South 8,904,451½ rations, and was able to make the following financial showing of the Refugees' and Freedmen's fund. From November 1, 1865, to October 1, 1866, the receipts and expenditures were as follows:

Amount on hand November 1, 1865 $313,796 62

Received from various sources, as follows:

Freedmen's fund $367,659 93
Clothing, fuel, and subsistence 2,074 55
Farms (sales of crops) 109,709 98
Rent of buildings 48,560 87
Rent of lands 113,641 78
Conscript funds 140 95
Transportation 1,053 50
Schools (taxes) 64,145 86
-------------
Total on hand and received $1,020,784 04

EXPENDITURES.
Freedmen's fund $7,411 32
Clothing, fuel, and subsistence 13,870 93
Farms (fencing, seeds, tools, etc.) 7,210 66
Labor (by freedmen and other employés) 426,918 12
Rent of buildings (offices, etc.) 50,186 61
Repairs of buildings 1,957 47

EXPENDITURES.--(_Continued._)

Contingent expenses 74,295 77
Rent of lands (restored) 9,260 58
Quartermaster's department 11 26
Internal revenue (tax on salaries) 7,965 22
Conscript fund 1,664 01
Transportation 22,387 01
Schools 115,261 56
-----------
Total expended $738,400 52
-----------
Balance on hand October 1, 1866 $282,383 52

In September, 1866, the Bureau had on hand:

RECAPITULATION.

Balance on hand of freedmen's fund $282,383 52
Balance of District destitute fund 18,328 67
Balance of appropriation 6,856,259 30
-------------
Total $7,156,971 49

Estimated amount due subsistence
department $297,000 00
Transportation reported unpaid 26,015 94
Transportation estimated due 20,000 00
Estimated amount due medical department 100,000 00
Estimated, amount due quartermaster's
department 200,000 00
-----------
$643,015 94
-------------
Total balance for all purposes of
expenditures $6,513,955 55
-------------

But the estimate of Gen. Howard for funds to run the Bureau for the fiscal year commencing July 1, 1867, only called for the sum of three million eight hundred and thirty-six thousand and three hundred dollars, as follows:

Salaries of assistant commissioners,
sub-assistants, and agents $147,500
Salaries of clerks 82,800
Stationery and printing 63,000
Quarters and fuel 200,000
Subsistence stores 1,500,000
Medical department 500,000
Transportation 800,000
School superintendents 25,000
Buildings for schools and asylums, including
construction, rental, and repairs 500,000
Telegraphing and postage 18,000
----------
$3,836,300

This showed that the freed people were rapidly becoming self-sustaining, and that the aid rendered by the Government was used to a good purpose.

Soon after Colored Troops were mustered into the service of the Government a question arose as to some safe method by which these troops might save their pay against the days of peace and personal effort. The noble and wise Gen. Saxton answered the question and met the need of the hour by establishing a Military Savings Bank at Beaufort, South Carolina. Soldiers under his command were thus enabled to husband their funds. Gen. Butler followed in this good work, and established a similar one at Norfolk, Virginia. These banks did an excellent work, and so favorably impressed many of the friends of the Negro that a plan for a Freedman's Savings Bank and Trust Company was at once projected. Before the spring campaign of 1865 opened up, the plan was presented to Congress; a bill introduced creating such a bank, was passed and signed by President Lincoln on the 3d of March. The following is the Act:

"AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE FREEDMAN'S SAVINGS AND TRUST "COMPANY.

"_Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
United States of America in Congress assembled:_ That Peter
Cooper, William C. Bryant, A. A. Low, S. B. Chittenden, Charles
H. Marshall, William A. Booth, Gerrit Smith, William A. Hall,
William Allen, John Jay, Abraham Baldwin, A. S. Barnes, Hiram
Barney, Seth B. Hunt, Samuel Holmes, Charles Collins, R. R.
Graves, Walter S. Griffith, A. H. Wallis, D. S. Gregory, J. W.
Alvord, George Whipple, A. S. Hatch, Walter T. Hatch, E. A.
Lambert, W. G. Lambert, Roe Lockwood, R. H. Manning, R. W. Ropes,
Albert Woodruff, and Thomas Denny, of New York; John M. Forbes,
William Claflin, S. G. Howe, George L. Stearns, Edward Atkinson,
A. A. Lawrence, and John M. S. Williams, of Massachusetts;
Edward Harris and Thomas Davis, of Rhode Island; Stephen Colwell,
J. Wheaton Smith, Francis E. Cope, Thomas Webster, B. S. Hunt,
and Henry Samuel, of Pennsylvania; Edward Harwood, Adam Poe, Levi
Coffin, J. M. Walden, of Ohio, and their successors, are
constituted a body corporate in the City of Washington, in the
District of Columbia, by the name of the FREEDMAN'S SAVINGS AND
TRUST COMPANY, and by that name may sue and be sued in any court
of the United States.

"SEC. 2. _And be it further enacted_, That the persons named in
the first section of this act shall be the first Trustees of the
Corporation, and all vacancies by death, resignation, or
otherwise, in the office of Trustee shall be filled by the Board,
by ballot, without unnecessary delay, and at least ten votes
shall be necessary for the election of any Trustee. The Trustees
shall hold a regular meeting, at least once in each month, to
receive reports of their officers on the affairs of the
Corporation, and to transact such business as may be necessary;
and any Trustee omitting to attend the regular meetings of the
Board for six months in succession, may thereupon be considered
as having vacated his place, and a successor may be elected to
fill the same.

"SEC. 3. _And be it further enacted_, That the business of the
Corporation shall be managed and directed by the Board of
Trustees, who shall elect from their number a President and two
Vice-Presidents, and may appoint such other officers as they may
see fit; nine of the Trustees, of whom the President or one of
the Vice-Presidents shall be one, shall form a quorum for the
transaction of business at any regular or adjourned meeting of
the Board of Trustees; and the affirmative vote of at least seven
members of the Board shall be requisite in making any order for,
or authorizing the investment of, any moneys, or the sale or
transfer of any stock or securities belonging to the Corporation,
or the appointment of any officer receiving any salary therefrom.

"SEC. 4. _And be it further enacted_, That the Board of Trustees
of the Corporation shall have power, from time to time, to make
and establish such By-Laws and regulations as they shall judge
proper with regard to the elections of officers and their
respective functions, and generally for the management of the
affairs of the Corporation, provided such By-Laws and regulations
are not repugnant to this act, or to the Constitution or laws of
the United States.

"SEC. 5. _And be it further enacted_, That the general business
and object of the Corporation hereby created shall be, to receive
on deposit such sums of money as may, from time to time, be
offered therefor, by or on behalf of persons heretofore held in
slavery in the United States, or their descendants, and investing
the same in the stocks, bonds, Treasury notes, or other
securities of the United States.

"SEC. 6. _And be it further enacted_, That it shall be the duty
of the Trustees of the Corporation to invest, as soon as
practicable, in the securities named in the next preceding
section, all sums received by them beyond an available fund, not
exceeding one third of the total amount of deposits with the
Corporation, at the discretion of the Trustees, which available
funds may be kept by the Trustees, to meet current payments of
the Corporation, and may by them be left on deposit, at interest
or otherwise, or in such available form as the Trustees may
direct.

"SEC. 7. _And be it further enacted_, That the Corporation may,
under such regulations as the Board of Trustees shall, from time
to time, prescribe, receive any deposit hereby authorized to be
received, upon such trusts and for such purposes, not contrary to
the laws of the United States, as may be indicated in writing by
the depositor, such writing to be subscribed by the depositor and
acknowledged or proved before any officer in the civil or
military service of the United States, the certificate of which
acknowledgment or proof shall be endorsed on the writing; and the
writing, so acknowledged or proved, shall accompany such deposit
and be filed among the papers of the Corporation, and be
carefully preserved therein, and may be read in evidence in any
court or before any judicial officer of the United States,
without further proof; and the certificate of acknowledgment or
proof shall be _prima facie_ evidence only of the due execution
of such writing.

"SEC. 8. _And be it further enacted_, That all sums received on
deposit shall be repaid to such depositor when required, at such
time, with such interest, not exceeding seven per centum per
annum, and under such regulations as the Board of Trustees shall,
from time to time, prescribe, which regulations shall be posted
up in some conspicuous place in the room where the business of
the Corporation shall be transacted, but shall not be altered so
as to affect any deposit previously made.

"SEC. 9. _And be it further enacted_, That all trusts upon which,
and all purposes for which any deposit shall be made, and which
shall be indicated in the writing to accompany such deposit,
shall be faithfully performed by the Corporation, unless the
performing of the same is rendered impossible.

"SEC. 10. _And be it further enacted_, That when any depositor
shall die, the funds remaining on deposit with the Corporation to
his credit, and all accumulations thereof, shall belong and be
paid to the personal representatives of such depositor, in case
he shall have left a last will and testament, and in default of a
last will and testament, or of any person qualifying under a last
will and testament, competent to act as executor, the Corporation
shall be entitled, in respect to the funds so remaining on
deposit to the credit of any such depositor, to administration
thereon in preference to all other persons, and letters or
administration shall be granted to the Corporation accordingly in
the manner prescribed by law in respect to granting of letters of
administration, with the will annexed, and in cases of intestacy.

"SEC. 11. _And be it further enacted_, That in the case of the
death of any depositor, whose deposit shall not be held upon any
trust created pursuant to the provisions hereinbefore contained,
or where it may prove impossible to execute such trust, it shall
be the duty of the Corporation to make diligent efforts to
ascertain and discover whether such deceased depositor has left a
husband, wife, or children, surviving, and the Corporation shall
keep a record of the efforts so made, and of the results thereof;
and in case no person lawfully entitled thereto shall be
discovered, or shall appear, or claim the funds remaining to the
credit of such depositor before the expiration of two years from
the death of such depositor, it shall be lawful for the
Corporation to hold and invest such funds as a separate trust
fund, to be applied, with the accumulations thereof, to the
education and improvement of persons heretofore held in slavery,
or their descendants, being inhabitants of the United States, in
such manner and through such agencies as the Board of Trustees
shall deem best calculated to effect that object; _Provided_,
That if any depositor be not heard from within five years from
the date of his last deposit, the Trustees shall advertise the
same in some paper of general circulation in the State where the
principal office of the Company is established, and also in the
State where the depositor was last heard from; and if, within two
years thereafter, such depositor shall not appear, nor a husband,
wife, or child of such depositor, to claim his deposits, they
shall be used by the Board of Trustees as hereinbefore provided
for in this section.