Chapter XXXIX: Book III: Part II

I. The Impact of the French Revolution: Abundant material will be found in Charles D. Hazen, _Contemporary American Opinion of the French Revolution_ (Baltimore, 1897, _Johns Hopkins Studies in Hist. and Pol. Science_, Extra Vol. 16). See also _The Journal of William Maclay_, edited by E. S. Maclay (New York, 1890). For _Publicola_, see John Q. Adams, _Writings ..._, edited by Worthington C. Ford (7 vols., New York, 1913-17).

II. Tom Paine: _Writings ..._, edited by Moncure D. Conway (4 vols., New York, 1894-99). Moncure D. Conway, _Life of Thomas Paine ... To which is added a Sketch of Paine by William Cobbett ..._ (2 vols., New York and London, 1892).

Thomas Jefferson: _Writings_, edited by H. A. Washington (9 vols., Washington, 1853-54). _The Works of Thomas Jefferson_ (with _Anas_ and _Autobiography_), edited by P. L. Ford (12 vols., New York, 1904-05).

Numerous lives, many of which are wholly unreliable. The official biography was written by Henry S. Randall, _The Life of Thomas Jefferson_ (3 vols., Philadelphia, 1858, 1871). Of later studies the following are excellent: David S. Muzzey, _Thomas Jefferson_ (New York, 1919); Francis W. Hirst, _Life and Letters of Thomas Jefferson_ (New York, 1926)--an English view; and Albert Jay Nock, _Jefferson_ (New York, 1926). See also Sarah N. Randolph, _The Domestic Life of Thomas Jefferson_ (New York, 1871) and Thomas E. Watson, _The Life and Times of Thomas Jefferson_ (New York, 1903).

III. The Federalist Group: For backgrounds of the Hartford wits, see Richard J. Purcell, _Connecticut in Transition: 1775-1818_ (Washington, 1918). William A. Robinson, _Jeffersonian Democracy in New England_ (New Haven, 1916). Samuel E. Morison, _Life and Letters of Harrison Gray Otis_ (2 vols., Boston, 1913). For criticism, see F. Sheldon, “Pleiades of Connecticut” (_Atlantic Monthly_, Vol. XV). Mrs. Annie R. Marble, _Heralds of American Literature_ (Chicago, 1907). Moses Coit Tyler, _Three Men of Letters_ (New York, 1895)--Dwight and Barlow. The writings of the Wits have long been out of print. The most available text is _The Connecticut Wits_, edited with introduction and bibliographies, by Vernon L. Parrington (New York, 1926, American Authors Series), which reprints large portions of Trumbull, Timothy Dwight, Barlow, Humphreys, _The Anarchiad_, and portions of _The Echo_.

Timothy Dwight: The most important titles are _The Conquest of Canaan ..._ (Hartford, 1785). _The Triumph of Infidelity ..._ (1788). _Greenfield Hill ..._ (1794). _Travels in New England and New York: 1796-1815_ (4 vols., New Haven, 1821-22; London, 1823).

See W. B. Sprague, _Life of Timothy Dwight_ (Sparks _Lib. Amer. Biog._, Second Series, Vol. IV, Boston, 1845).

The French Group: Philip Freneau: _Poems_, edited for the Princeton Hist. Assoc. by Fred L. Pattee (3 vols., Princeton, 1902-07). Victor H. Paltsits, _A Bibliography of the Separate and Collected Works of Philip Freneau, together with an Account of his Newspapers_ (New York, 1903). Mary S. Austin, _Philip Freneau, Poet of the Revolution_ (New York, 1901). S. E. Forman, _The Political Activities of Philip Freneau_ (Baltimore, 1902, _Johns Hopkins Studies in Hist. and Pol. Science_, Series XX, No. 9-10). Mrs. Annie R. Marble, _Heralds of American Literature_ (Chicago, 1907).

Joel Barlow: His works are out of print, but portions will be found in _The Connecticut Wits_ (New York, 1926). The important titles are: _The Vision of Columbus ..._ (Hartford, 1787; London, 1787). _A Letter to the National Convention of France ..._ (London, 1792). _Advice to the Privileged Orders in the Several States of Europe ..._ (London, 1792, 1796). _The Conspiracy of Kings ..._ (London, 1792). _The Hasty Pudding ..._ (New York, 1796; Salem, 1799; Stockbridge, 1799). _The Columbiad_ (Philadelphia, 1807; London, 1809).

Charles Burr Todd, _Life and Letters of Joel Barlow_ (New York, 1886). See also Tyler, _Three Men of Letters_ (New York, 1895), and Marble, _Heralds of American Literature_ (Chicago, 1907).

Hugh Henry Brackenridge: _Modern Chivalry: Containing the Adventures of Captain John Farrago, and Teague O’Regan, his servant ..._ (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1792; Vol. 3, Pittsburgh, 1793; Vol. 4, Philadelphia, 1797). These four volumes constitute Part I. Part II was issued in two volumes, Philadelphia, 1804-05. Many revisions and changes of the text followed. The complete work was issued in four volumes (Philadelphia, 1815), the fourth volume containing new material. Another complete edition was issued in two volumes (Pittsburgh, 1819). For detailed information see _Cambridge History of American Literature_ (Vol. I, p. 526).

An account of Brackenridge and in particular of his experience during the Whiskey Rebellion, in a memoir by H. M. Brackenridge, prefaces the edition of 1846 and later editions. No life of Brackenridge has been written. His fugitive writings in verse, drama, and prose are numerous but inaccessible. Some comment on Brackenridge is given in Henry Adams, _Life of Albert Gallatin_ (Philadelphia, 1879).

Index [Volume One]

Adams, James Truslow, 20 n, 30 n, 36 n, 58 n, 87 n, 103 n

----, John, 179, 188, 190, 200 n, 205, 207, 208, 213, 222, 241, 247,
249, 253, 259, 292, 296, 299, 307-320, 323, 324, 328, 340, 368,
375, 384

----, John Quincy, 283, 324, 325-326

----, R. G., 310 n

----, Samuel, 123, 181, 196, 200, 206, 228, 233-247, 311, 322, 344,
348, 372

----, Samuel, Sr., 234

_Address and Declaration of the Friends of Universal Peace and
Liberty_, 339 n

_Address to the Inhabitants of Quebec_, 219

_Advice to the Privileged Orders in the Several States of Europe_,
324, 383, 384-386, 386 n

_Age of Reason, The_, 324, 341

_Agrarian Justice_, 337-339, 385

Allen, V. G., 154, 157 n, 160 n

Alsop, Richard, 359, 360

Alvord, C. W., 184 n

_American Belisarius, The_, 147, 147 n

_American Historical Review, The_, 136 n

_American Political Theories_, 280 n

_American Soldier, The_, 375 n

_American Times, The_, 257-259

_American Weekly Mercury, The_, 134

Ames, Fisher, 360

_Anarchiad, The_, 249, 363-367

André, Major John, 256

Andros, Sir Edmund, 118

Anne, Queen, 87, 166

_Answer of Bernard to the Petition of the House of Representatives to
the King_, 199 n, 204 n

_Apology for the Bible, An_, 324, 337 n

_Arbitrary Government Described: & the Government of the
Massachusetts Vindicated from that Aspersion_, 44

Aristotle, 213, 282, 284

Arnold, Benedict, 256

_Autobiography of John Adams_, 309 n

_Autobiography of Thomas Jefferson_, 350 n

Augustine, Saint, 68, 150

Austin, James Trecothick, 276 n

Babeuf, François Noel, 337

_Babylonian Captivity, The_, 12 n

Baillie, Joseph, 35

Ball, Captain John, 134

Bancroft, George, 247

Barlow, Joel, 324, 359, 360, 367, 368, 382-389, 391

Barré, Isaac, 183

Beard, Charles A., 184 n, 276 n, 287 n, 320 n

Belcher, Mr., 113

Bentham, Jeremy, 285, 292, 296

Berkeley, Bishop, 162

Bernard, Governor, 198, 199, 200, 201, 204, 205, 216, 224, 242, 243,
244

Blackstone, Lord, 189, 236, 238, 244, 249, 280, 343, 352, 353

Blathwayt, Mr., 127

_Bloudy Tenent of Persecution for Cause of Conscience, The_, 68 n, 70
n, 71 n, 72

_Bloudy Tenent Yet more Bloody, The_, 68 n, 69 n, 71 n

_Body of Liberties_, 21, 76, 80

Bolingbroke, Henry Saint John, Lord, 319

Borgeaud, Charles, 58 n

_Boston Chronicle, The_, 379

_Boston Gazette, The_, 128

Boucher, Rev. Jonathan, 190, 194, 214-218

Bowres, Captain, 135

Brackenridge, Hugh Henry, 368, 369, 372, 390-395

Braddock, General Edward, 373

_Brook of the Valley, The_, 381 n

Brooke, Lord, 34

Brooks, Noah, 277 n

Browne, Robert, 59

Bunyan, John, 40, 85

Burke, Edmund, 69, 183, 324, 325, 334, 335, 375

Burnaby, Rev. Andrew, 276 n

Byles, Rev. Mather, 128, 192, 248

Byrd, Colonel William, 138-140, 141

Cairns, William B., 391 n

Calef, Robert, 108

Calhoun, John C., 320

Calvin, John, 9, 11, 12-15, 20, 23, 27, 30, 42, 76, 89, 100, 150,
159, 249

Camden, Charles Pratt, Earl of, 183, 189, 224, 238

Campbell, Thomas, 370

_Candidus_, 237, 239 n, 242 n, 243 n

Canticles, 40, 65, 66 n, 154

Care, Henry, 119 n

Carson, Hampton Lawrence, 284 n

_Causes of the War of Independence, The_, 179 n, 182 n, 184 n, 188 n,
189 n, 203 n

Channing, William Ellery, 62, 65, 105, 106

Charles I, King, 16, 19, 55, 76, 77, 84, 225

Chastellux, Marquis de, 250

_Chatterer, A_, 241 n, 243 n

_Christian Commonwealth, The_, 81-84

Church, Dr., 118 n

Churchill, Charles, 248, 249, 257, 363, 371

_Churches Quarrel Espoused, The_, 120, 122 n, 123

Cicero, 213, 317

Clark, Mr., 113

Clarke, Captain Jonathan, 134

Clymer, George, 221, 230, 252

Clinton, George, 285

----, Sir Henry, 258, 259

Cogswell, Dr. Mason F., 359

Coke, Sir Edward, 44, 64, 89, 188, 222, 234, 236, 238, 239, 343, 352

Colbert, Jean Baptiste, 173

Colman, Rev. Benjamin, 109

_Colonial Merchants and the American Revolution, The_, 183 n, 379 n

_Columbia University Contributions to Philosophy, Psychology and
Education_, 155 n

_Columbiad, The_, 384, 387-389

_Columbian Centinel, The_, 325

_Commentaries_ (Blackstone), 280

_Common Sense_, 329-332

Commons, John R., 134 n

_Congratulation, The_, 257

_Connecticut in Transition: 1775-1818_, 384 n

_Conquest of Canaan, The_, 362

_Considerations for J. W._, 39

_Considerations on the Propriety of Imposing Taxes in the British
Colonies, for the Purpose of Raising Revenue by an Act of
Parliament_, 226 n

_Contemporary American Opinion of the French Revolution_, 321 n, 323 n

Conway, Moncure D., 177 n, 336 n, 339 n

Corinthians, Second Epistle to the, 66 n

Cotton, Rev. John, vi, 19, 27-37, 38, 49, 51, 54, 55, 57, 60, 62, 63,
64, 72, 82, 99, 101, 361

_Cotton Mather, Puritan Priest_, 108 n, 114 n

Coults, James, 134

Crèvecœur, Hector St. John de, 140-147

Cromwell, Oliver, 10, 29, 66, 82, 220

Crusoe, Robinson, 166

_Curiosa Americana_, 115

Cushing, Caleb, 249

Daingerfield, Colonel, 136

D’Alembert, Jean le Rond, 324

Dana, Judge, 276

Danforth, Mr., 93

Daniel, Book of, 66 n

Davenport, Rev. John, 60

----, Mr., 113

David, King, 31

Dean, John Ward, 80 n

_Declaration of Rights of the Stamp Act Congress_, 219

_Decline and Fall of the English System of Finance, The_, 340

_Defence of the Constitution of Government of the United States of
America, A_, 310, 311, 312 n, 315 n, 316 n, 317 n, 318 n

Defoe, Daniel, 90, 91, 110, 166

_De Jure Naturae et Gentium_, 121

_Diary of Jonathan Edwards_, 154

_Diary of John Harrower_, 135-136

_Diary of Cotton Mather_, 107, 109, 109 n, 110 n, 112, 123, 123 n,
128 n

_Diary of Samuel Sewall_, 88, 90 n, 91 n, 92 n, 93, 93 n, 94 n, 95 n,
96 n, 97 n, 113 n, 126 n, 127 n

_Diary and Letters of Thomas Hutchinson_, 196 n

_Diary of the Revolution_, 191 n

Dickinson, John, 137, 167, 219-232, 253, 291, 344

Diderot, Denis, 324

Diffenderfer, F. R., 134, 135 n

_Discourses on Davila_, 310, 311, 324, 376

Dodd, William Edward, 345 n

_Don Quixote_, 390

Duck, Chancellor, 56

Dudley, Joseph, 29

----, Governor Joseph, 92, 93, 104, 112, 113, 118, 126-127

----, Paul, 112, 127

Duguit, Léon, 73 n

Dulaney, Daniel, 221, 226, 344

Dummer, Mr., 92

Duns Scotus, 14

Dwight, Theodore, 359, 360

----, Rev. Timothy, 249, 358, 359, 360-363, 367, 369, 383, 385, 389

_Early American Philosophers_, 155 n

_Ecclesiasticall Politie_, 149, 149 n

_Echo, The_, 363

_Economic Basis of Politics, The_, 287 n

_Economic Interpretation of the Constitution, An_, 184 n

_Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy, The_, 320 n

_Economic Writings of Sir William Petty, The_, 171 n

Edwards, Jonathan, vi, 105, 120, 151, 152-163, 249, 359, 361

_Elegy on the Times, An_, 249

Elizabeth, Queen, 7

Eliot, Rev. John, 30, 59, 81-84

----, Sir John, 38

_Elliot’s Debates_, 229 n, 230 n, 282 n, 283 n, 302 n

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 62, 153

_End of the Wicked Contemplated by the Righteous, The; or, The
Torments of the Wicked in Hell, no Occasion of Grief to the
Saints in Heaven_, 159 n

Endicott, Roger, 23, 29, 50

Epistle to the Romans, 67

Ernst, Dr. James E., 67 n

_Essay of Projects, An_, 166

_Essay for the Recording of Illustrious Providences, An_, 105, 106

_Eternity of Hell Torments, The_, 159 _n Every Man in his Humour_, 28

_False Systems of Government, On_, 377 n

_Familiar Letters of John and Abigail Adams_, 253 n

_Federal Constitution in Massachusetts, The_, 284 n

_Federalist, The_, 283 n, 284-288, 289

Fenno, John, 311, 379, 380

Ferne, Dr., 46

_Feu de Joie, The_, 257

Filmer, Sir Robert, 103, 189, 190, 215, 218, 240

_First Principles of Government_, 280

Ford, Paul Leicester, 231 n, 283, 284 n

----, Worthington C., 326 n

Forman, S. E., 311 n, 379 n, 380

Fothergill, Dr., 169

_Founding of New England, The_, 20 n, 30 n, 36 n, 58 n, 87 n

Fox, Charles James, 383

Franklin, Benjamin, vi, 90, 97, 124, 128, 162, 164-178, 180, 188,
202, 236, 244, 328, 334, 347, 363, 369, 380

----, Ebenezer, 165

----, James, 96, 128, 166

----, Josiah, 166

----, Mrs., 168 n

_Freedom of the Will, On the_, 157

Freneau, Philip, 247, 251, 255, 256, 368-381, 390

_Frontier Woman, The_, 146 n

Fuller, Dr., of Plymouth, 23

Gage, General Thomas, 128, 183, 199, 259

Galloway, Joseph, 235, 259

_Gazette of the United States, The_, 311, 311 n

_General History of Connecticut, A_, 260-262

Genesis, Book of, 94

Genêt, Citizen, 323

George III, King, 182, 183, 184, 185, 190, 228, 256, 259, 330, 340,
371, 373, 395

_German Immigrants into Pennsylvania, The_, 134, 134 n

Gerry, Elbridge, 288

_God’s Sovereignty_, 156 n

Godwin, William, 292, 296, 313, 376

Goldsmith, Oliver, 172

Gooch, George Peabody, 73 n

_Grace Abounding_, 40

_Greenfield Hill_, 363

Grenville, George, 240

Grotius, Hugo, 236

_Group, The_, 207

Halifax, Marquis of, 280

Hamilton, Alexander, vi, 275, 281, 284, 285, 289, 292-307, 317 n,
320, 323, 328, 342, 346, 347, 348, 367, 368, 375, 380, 391

Hancock, John, 205, 241

Harding, Samuel Bannister, 284 n

Harrington, James, 25, 26, 103, 213, 269, 270, 278, 280, 296, 318, 319

_Harrison Gray Otis_, 359 n

Harrower, John, 135-136

Hartford Wits, The, 291, 357-367, 368

Hartley, David, 170

Hasselwood, Captain, 135

_Hasty Pudding, The_, 389

Haynes, Governor, 57, 57 n

Hazen, Charles D., 321 n, 323 n

_Henry the Fourth_, 28

_Henry Knox_, 277 n

Henry, Patrick, 222

_Heresiography_, 64 n

Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, 321

Hirst, Francis W., 342 n

_History of American Literature, A_, 391 n

_History of American Literature during the Colonial Period, A_, 89 n

_History of the Congregational Churches in the United States, A_, 23
n, 25 n, 100 n, 101 n, 148 n

_History of English Democratic Ideas in the Seventeenth Century, A_,
73 n

_History of the Dividing Line, The_, 138 n, 139-140

_History of Massachusetts Bay Colony_, 31 n, 33 n, 34 n, 50 n, 127 n,
196, 198 n, 203 n, 205 n, 219 n, 242, 242 n

_History of Mrs. B., The_, 146 n

_History of New England, A_, 118 n

_History of New England_ (Winthrop), 49 n, 105

_History of the Supreme Court_, 284 n

Hobbes, Thomas, 68, 69, 103, 208, 278, 280, 296, 300, 319

Hillsboro, Lord, 200, 201

_Hoch Deutsche Pennsylvanische Bericht, Der_, 135

Homer, 250

Hooker, Richard, 12, 67, 68, 149, 236

----, Thomas, 47, 53-62, 68, 79, 90, 99, 361

Hopkins, Dr. Lemuel, 359, 364-365

----, Rev. Samuel, 105

Hopkinson, Francis, 252-255, 291

Hosmer, J. K., 196 n, 200, 237 n

Howe, Joseph, 249

----, Sir William, 164

Hubbard, Rev. William, 57

Hume, David, 171, 222, 236, 239, 280, 296, 298, 319, 352, 353, 354,
363

Humphreys, David, 359, 360, 367

Hutchinson, Mistress Anne, 24, 28, 29, 49, 50, 194, 195

----, Mistress Peggy, 191

----, Colonel John, 38

----, Thomas, Sr., 195

----, Governor Thomas, 31 n, 33 n, 50 n, 127 n, 181, 194-206, 207,
219, 224, 234, 235, 237 n, 241, 242, 243, 245, 250, 259

_Hutchinson Papers_, 36 n

_Increase Mather, the Foremost American Puritan_, 98 n, 100 n, 101 n,
103 n, 104 n, 106 n

_Institutes of Calvin_, 20, 30, 31 n, 42 n, 249

Irving, Washington, 369, 391

Isaiah, 14, 66 n

James I, King, 55, 76

Jay, John, 284

Jefferson, Thomas, iii, vi, 72, 147, 176, 190, 222, 230, 247, 259,
280, 292, 296, 299, 302, 306, 307, 312, 320, 324, 327, 333,
337, 342-356, 362, 368, 374, 375, 379, 380, 389, 391, 397, 398

_Johns Hopkins Studies in History and Political Science_, 311 n, 321
n, 379 n

Johnson, Dr. Samuel, 307

----, Sir William, 373

_Jonathan Edwards_, 154 n, 157, 160 n

Jones, Adam Leroy, 155 n

Jonson, Ben, 28, 76

_Journal of William Maclay_, 323, 342

_Journal_ (Winthrop), 32, 45 n, 47 n

Knight, Madam Sarah, 137-138, 141

Knox, General Henry, 277, 375

Lafayette, Marquis de, 323

_Landscapes_, 147 n

Laski, Harold J., 190 n, 280 n

Latimer, Hugh, 55

Laud, Archbishop, 23, 27, 32, 55, 56, 84, 215, 256

_Law in the Modern State_, 73 n

_Layman_, 243 n

Lechford, Thomas, 23

Lee, Richard Henry, 284, 288-291

Leonard, Daniel, 194, 207-213, 216, 250

_Letter to Lord Onslow_, 335 n

_Letter of Lord Say and Sele_, 48 n

_Letter to Lord Say and Sele_, 31 n

_Letter to Major Mason_, 57 n

_Letter to the National Convention of France_, 386-387

_Letter to Mr. Niles_, 179 n

_Letter to John Taylor_, 313 n, 316 n

_Letter to Robert Wodrow_, 123 n

_Letter to the Town Clerk of Providence_, 67 n, 72 n

_Letters from an American Farmer_, 140, 142 n, 143 n, 144 n, 145, 145
n, 146

_Letters of Fabius_, 230, 231

_Letters from the Federal Farmer to the Republican_, 284, 288-291

_Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer_, 219, 223 n, 224 n, 225, 226 n,
228 n

_Letters on Various Interesting and Important Subjects_, 378 n

_Leviathan, The_, 209, 280

_Libera Nos, Domine_, 373

_Liberty of the Press in the American Colonies, The_, 119 n

_Life and Letters of Thomas Jefferson_, 342 n

_Life and Letters of John Winthrop_, 39 n, 40 n, 41 n, 43 n, 44 n, 45
n, 46 n, 47 n

_Life of Samuel Adams_, 196 n, 237 n

_Life of Franklin_, 171

_Life of Elbridge Gerry_, 276 n

_Life of Thomas Hutchinson_, 200 n, 201 n, 202 n, 203 n

_Life of Milton_, 64 n, 75 n

_Life of Thomas Paine_, 336 n, 339 n

Lilburne, “Free-born” John, 328

_Lilly’s Grammar_, 249, 378

Lincoln, Earl of, 29

_Literary History of America, A_, 116 n, 150 n, 284 n, 371 n

_Literary History of the American Revolution, A_, 207 n, 226 n, 371 n

Livy, 213

Locke, John, iv, 66, 69, 103, 121, 123, 149, 189, 190, 196, 213, 215,
217, 220, 222, 236, 237, 238, 239, 269, 270, 271, 282, 296,
316, 319, 338, 343, 344

_Loyal Verses of Joseph Stansbury and Dr. Jonathan Odell, The_, 168
n, 257 n, 259 n

Luther, Martin, 6, 9, 11-12, 70, 72, 100

_Luxury, Idleness and Industry, On_, 174 n

Machiavelli, 280, 312, 319

Maclay, Senator William, 323, 342

_M’Fingal_, 249, 250-251, 363

McMaster, John Bach, 171

Madison, James, 282, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 292, 299, 311, 315,
369, 379, 390

_Magnalia Christi Americana_, 33 n, 63, 63 n, 108, 115, 116

Malthus, Thomas Robert, 313

_Man of Sorrows, The_, 146 n

Marshall, Chief Justice John, 310, 353

Martin, George, 134 n

Mary, Queen, 91 n

Mason, George, 231, 281, 292

_Massachusettensis_, 207-213

_Massachusetts Historical Society Collections_, 81 n, 90 n, 112 n,
123 n

_Massachusetts Historical Society Proceedings_, 119 n, 328 n

Masson, David, 64 n, 75 n

_Master John Cotton’s Answer to Master Roger Williams_, 37 n

Mather, Cotton, 14, 27, 28, 33, 56, 63, 75, 85, 86, 97, 99, 106-117,
120, 123, 127, 128, 137, 148, 162, 195

----, Increase, 76, 98, 99-106, 114, 119, 127, 214, 361

----, Richard, 60, 99

----, Samuel, 195

Mather Dynasty, The, 98-117

Mathers, The, 98, 120, 128, 162

Mein, John, 379

_Memoirs of Rev. Nathaniel Ward_, 80 n

_Memorial of the Present Deplorable State of New England ... by the
Male-Administration of their Present Governor, Joseph Dudley,
Esq. and his Son Paul, A_, 112 n

Merriam, Charles E., 280 n

Milton, John, 10, 12, 38, 59, 66, 72, 103, 149, 189, 236, 280, 288,
320

_Mississippi Valley in British Politics, The_, 184 n

_Model of Moses His Judicials_, 33

_Modell of Christian Charity_, 43

_Modern Chivalry_, 390-394

_Modest Inquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a Paper Currency,
A_, 170

Montcalm, Marquis de, 141

Montesquieu, Baron, 236, 271, 280, 282, 284, 319

Moore, Frank, 191 n

More, Sir Thomas, 350

_More Letters from an American Farmer_, 140

_More Wonders of the Invisible World_, 108

Morison, Samuel Eliot, 359 n

Morris, Gouverneur, 192, 282, 292, 324

----, Robert, 184, 221, 252, 259, 295

Murdock, Kenneth B., 98 n, 100 n, 101 n, 103 n, 104 n, 106 n

Napoleon, 324, 353, 384, 397

_Narragansett Club Publications_, 25 n, 35 n, 37 n, 57 n, 64 n, 66 n,
67 n, 68 n, 69 n, 71 n, 72 n, 74 n

_Narrative of the Surprizing Works of God, A_, 160

_Nation, The_, 86 n

_National Gazette, The_, 379

_Negotiations in London_, 169 n

Nemours, DuPont de, 346

_New England Courant, The_, 128

_England Weekly Journal, The_, 128

_New Haven Gazette, The_, 363

_New Roof, The_, 254

_New View Points in American History_, 179 n

_News-Letter_, 127-128

Norris, Isaac, 221

_Notes on Virginia_, 347

North, Frederick Lord, 253, 373

_Novanglus_, 200 n

_Novanglus and Massachusettensis_, 208 n

Oakes, President, 102

_Objections to the Proposed Plan of a Federal Government for the
United States on Genuine Principles_, 254-255

_Oceana_, 25, 269, 319

Odell, Rev. Jonathan, 255-259, 371

Olivers, The, 250

Onslow, Lord, 335

Otis, Harrison Gray, 359

----, James, 205, 212, 310

Paget (_also_ Pagit _or_ Pagitt), Rev. Ephraim, 64 n

Paine, Robert Treat, 247, 324

----, Tom, 62, 72, 245, 247, 259, 293, 307, 324, 325, 327-341, 352,
353, 369, 374, 376, 378, 380, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 393

Palfrey, John Gorham, 118 n

_Pamphlets on the Constitution_, 231 n

_Patriarcha_, 189, 215

Pattee, Fred L., 373 n, 378 n

Paul, Saint, 8, 15, 67

Peters, Rev. Hugh, 75

----, Rev. Samuel, 58

----, Rev. Samuel (of Connecticut), 259-263

_Petition to the King_, 219

Petty, Sir William, 170, 171, 172

_Phaenomena Quaedam Apocalyptica_, 93

_Philadelphiensis_, 254 n

Philip, King, 29, 30

Phips, Governor William, 86, 104, 119

_Pillars of Salt_, 110

Pitt, William, 8, 164, 182, 183, 185, 188, 220, 224, 226, 227, 238,
292, 293, 372

----, William (the younger), 340, 385

Plato, 213

Plugson of Undershot, 174

_Poems of Philip Freneau_, 373 n, 378 n

_Poganuc People_, 13

_Political Activities of Philip Freneau, The_, 311 n, 379 n

_Political Greenhouse, The_, 363

_Political Ideas of the American Revolution, The_, 310 n

_Political Justice_, 376

_Political Science of John Adams, The_, 319 n, 334 n

_Political Theory of Roger Williams, The_, 67 n

_Political Thought from Locke to Bentham_, 280 n

Pope, Alexander, 248, 249, 318

_Positions to be Examined concerning National Wealth_, 173

Postgate, R. W., 337 n

Pownall, Governor Thomas, 205, 235

_Pretty Story, A_, 253

Price, Lucien, 86 n

Price, Richard, 334

Priestley, Joseph, 280, 292, 296, 334, 383

Prince, Rev. Thomas, 94, 114, 128

_Principles of Trade_, 173

_Private Journal Kept by Madam Knight on a Journey from Boston to New
York in the year 1704, The_, 137-138

_Probationary Odes by Jonathan Pindar, Esq._, 375

_Problem of Sovereignty, The_, 190 n

_Progress and Poverty_, 338

_Progress of Dulness, The_, 249

_Projet d’une Disme Royale_, 171

Proverbs, 113

Psalms, 83

Ptolemy, 13

_Public Advertiser, The_, 235

_Publick Occurrences_, 127

_Publicola_, 324, 325-326

Pufendorf, Baron, 121, 236, 280

Purcell, Richard J., 384 n

_Puritan_, 243 n

Pym, John, 220

_Queries and Remarks Respecting Alterations in the Constitution of
Pennsylvania_, 177 n

Quesnay, François, 346

_Races and Immigrants in America_, 134 n

Read, Charles, 134

_Reflections on the Augmentation of Wages_, 174 n

_Remarkable Providences_, 105

_Replye to the Answ: Made to the Discourse about the Neg: Vote, A_,
44, 46 n

_Resolves of the House of Representatives of Massachusetts Bay_, 202 n

Revelation, Book of the, 66 n, 83, 94

_Revolution from 1789-1906_, 337 n

Reyner, Mr., 91

_Rhode Island Historical Society Publications_, 64 n

Riggs, Luther G., 363

_Rights of the Colonists, The_, 238 n

_Rights of Man, The_, 324, 334-337, 340 n, 384, 385, 393

_Rise of Modern Democracy, The_, 58 n

_Rising Glory of America, The_, 372, 390

_Rip Van Winkle_, 391

Robinson, Rev. John, 17

_Rolliad, The_, 364

Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 154, 164, 271, 272, 324, 334

Sainte-Beuve, 178

Santayana, George, vi

Sargent, Winthrop, 168 n

Say and Sele, Lord, 29, 34

Schlesinger, A. M., 179 n, 183 n, 379 n

Schuyler, Livingston Rowe, 119 n

Scroggs, Lord Chief Justice, 119 n

Scott, Sir Walter, 256, 370

_Selling of Joseph, The_, 95

_Sermon IX_, 159 n

_Sermon XXVII_, 158 n

_Sermon XXXIV_, 156 n

Sewall, Henry, 90

----, Jonathan, 207, 246

----, Samuel, 85, 87, 88-97, 113, 114, 117 n, 124, 126, 127, 165,
170, 195

Shays, Daniel, 277, 278, 320, 352, 364, 365

Shakespeare, 28

Shelburne, Earl of, 183

Sidney, Algernon, 103, 189, 213, 236, 280

_Simple Cobler of Aggawam, The_, 76-80

Singletary, Amos, 284

_Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God_, 159 n

_Sketches of Eighteenth Century America_, 140 n, 146, 147 n

Smith, Adam, 171, 173, 269, 271, 296, 346

----, Dr. Elihu Hubbard, 359

Solomon’s Song. See Canticles

_Some Good Whig Principles_, 177 n

Song of Songs. See Canticles

_Speech of January 6, 1773_ (Hutchinson), 203 n

Spinoza, 152

_State Trials_, 119 n

_Statesmen of the Old South_, 345 n

Stoddard, Rev. Solomon, 153, 249

Stone, Rev. Samuel, 57

Stoughton, Lieut. Governor, 85

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 13, 153

Strafford, Earl of, 269

_Summary View of the Rights of British America, A_, 244 n

Sumner, William Graham, 294

_Supreme Court and the Constitution, The_, 276 n

_Survey of the Summe of Church Discipline, A_, 54, 60-62

Swift, Jonathan, 333

Tailor, Colonel, 113

_Thomas Hooker, Preacher, Founder, Democrat_, 55 n, 58 n, 59 n

Thompson, General, 284

Tippet, Mehetabel, 141

_To all the Great Folks in a Lump_, 375

_To all True-hearted Christians_, 96

_To Atlas_, 375

_To Duncan Doolittle_, 375 n

Tooke, Horne, 339, 383

_To a Select Body of Great Men_, 375

Townshend, Charles Viscount, 240

_To a Would Be Great Man_, 375

_Travels in New England and New York_, 362 n, 363

_Travels through the Middle Settlements in North America in the Years
1759 and 1760_, 276 n

_Treatise on Christian Liberty_, 12

_Treatise on Taxes_, 171

_Treatises on Civil Government, Two_, 189, 237, 270 n

_Two Letters on the Tea Tax_, 228

_Triumph of Infidelity, The_, 363

Trumbull, Rev. Benjamin, 248

----, John, 248-252, 254, 359, 362

----, John (the painter), 248

----, Governor Jonathan, 248, 360

Tyler, Moses Coit, 89 n, 123, 207 n, 220, 226 n, 256, 371, 372, 381

_United States Gazette, The_, 379

Vane, Sir Harry, 10, 12, 38, 59, 66, 72, 73-74

Van Schaak, Peter, 192

Van Tyne, C. H., 179 n, 182 n, 184 n, 188 n, 189 n, 203 n

_Various Prospects_, 280

Varnum, General, 276

Vattel, Emrich von, 236, 239, 280

Vauban, Sébastien de, 171

_View of the Causes and Consequences of the American Revolution, A_,
215-218

_Vindication of the Government of the New England Churches, A_, 119
n, 120, 122 n, 123

_Vision of Columbus, The_, 387

Voltaire, 324, 363

_Walker, G. L._, 55 n, 56 n, 58 n, 59 n

---- Williston, 23 n, 24, 100 n, 101 n, 148 n

Wallace, Robert, 280, 319

Walley, Major, 119

Walpole, Horace, 203

Walsh, C. M., 319 n, 334 n

Ward, Nathaniel, 21, 33, 55, 76-81, 84

Warren, Mrs. Mercy, 207

Warwick, Earl of, 29

Washington, George, 184, 258, 259, 276, 277, 292, 295, 305, 323, 349,
360, 368, 369, 380, 393

Watson, Bishop, of Llandaff, 324, 337

_Way of the Congregational Churches Cleared, The_, 35

_Wealth of Nations, The_, 171, 173, 271, 296

Webster, Daniel, 25

----, Noah, 291, 299, 382

----, Peletiah, 291

Wedderburn, Alexander, 164

Wendell, Barrett, 107, 114 n, 116, 150 n, 284 n, 370

Whately, George, 173

_When the Wicked shall have Filled up the Measure of their Sins,
Wrath will come upon them to the Uttermost_, 159 n

Whitfield, Rev. George, 160, 373

Whittier, John G., 89

Wigglesworth, Rev. Michael, 85

Wilkes, John, 251

Willard, Rev. Samuel, 87

William III, King, 91 n

Williams, Roger, iv, vi, 6, 10, 12, 24, 25, 28, 35-36, 37, 49, 50,
53, 54, 57 n, 59, 62-75, 77, 79, 94, 100, 103, 105, 121, 333,
341, 386

Willing, Thomas, 221

Wilson, James, 254, 291, 292

----, Rev. John, 59

----, Wood row, 306

_Wingate on the Common Law_, 93

Winthrop, Adam, 41

----, John, 17, 18, 19, 30, 32, 38-50, 51, 55, 57, 58, 71, 80, 88,
92, 97, 105

----, Margaret, 39

_Wisdom and Goodness of God, In having Made both Rich and Poor, The_,
337

Wise, Rev. John, 94, 101, 118-125, 162

_Witchcraft, Then and Now_, 86 n

_Wonders of the Invisible World, The_, 86 n, 108, 115-116, 116 n

Worcester, Bishop of, 253

_Word of Comfort to a Melancholy Country, A; Or the Bank of Credit_,
124

_Word of Congress, The_, 257

_Works_ of John Adams, 207 n, 309 n, 311 n, 312 n, 313 n, 314 n, 315
n, 316 n, 317 n, 318 n

_Works_ of Samuel Adams, 199 n, 234 n, 236 n, 237 n, 238 n, 239 n,
240 n, 241 n, 242 n, 244 n, 245 n, 246 n

_Works_ of John Dickinson, 226 n, 227 n, 228 n

_Works_ of Jonathan Edwards, 156 n, 158 n, 159 n

_Works_ of Benjamin Franklin, 168 n, 169 n, 170 n, 171 n, 173 n, 174
n, 176 n, 177 n

_Works_ of Alexander Hamilton, 298 n, 301 n, 304 n, 306 n

_Works_ of Martin Luther, 12 n

_Works_ of Thomas Paine, 177 n, 335 n, 338 n, 339 n, 341 n

_Works_ of Daniel Webster, 26 n

_Writings_ of John Quincy Adams, 326 n

_Writings of Col. William Byrd of Westover in Virginia, Esq., The_,
138 n

_Writings_ of Thomas Jefferson, 303 n, 347 n, 348 n, 350 n, 351 n,
353 n, 355 n

_Wyoming Massacre, The_, 146 n

Yates, Robert, 285

The Romantic Revolution in America [Volume Two]

Foreword

In justification of the choice of writers and allotment of space in the following pages, let it be said frankly that I have been guided by what I conceived to be the historical significance of the several documents. With aesthetic judgments I have not been greatly concerned. I have not wished to evaluate reputations or weigh literary merits, but rather to understand what our fathers thought, and why they wrote as they did. This will serve to explain the considerable number of pages devoted to southern letters, as well as to certain well-nigh forgotten figures. For the purpose I had in view such a method was inevitable. Lost causes have a way of shrinking in importance in the memory of later generations, and the historian must go back to the days before their overthrow, and view them in the light of their hopes. Time is not always a just winnower; it is partial to success and its verdict too often inclines to the side of the biggest cannon or the noisiest _claque_. The exhuming of buried reputations and the revivifying of dead causes is the familiar business of the historian, in whose eyes forgotten men may assume as great significance as others with whom posterity has dealt more generously. Communing with ghosts is not unprofitable to one who listens to their tales. To our fathers John Taylor and Beverley Tucker and Fisher Ames were living figures; they spoke for their generation, and they may have something still to say to a later generation. For dealing at length with such men as Hugh Legaré and Gilmore Simms and John P. Kennedy and Herman Melville, no apologies need be offered. They have too long been slighted. Walt Whitman I have chosen to regard as the forerunner of a later school, and have reserved the consideration of his work for another study. Certain other men I have omitted regretfully out of regard to space--diverse figures such as Orestes Brownson, Albert Brisbane, and John Esten Cooke, together with a group of poets and essayists, who though they have long been reckoned ghosts are nevertheless well worth knowing. Even echoes imply substance somewhere.

V. L. P.

_Seattle, February 22, 1926._

Introduction

The present volume is the second in a proposed study of the main tendencies of American thought as expressed in our literature. In the preceding volume I have considered the incoming into America of certain old-world ideals and institutions, and the subjection of those ideals and institutions to the pressure of a new environment, from which resulted the overthrow of the principles of monarchy and aristocracy, and the setting up of the principle of republicanism. In the present study I purpose considering certain new growths that sprang up in the land thus cleared--what particular forms they assumed and why they assumed such forms. The delimitations of the period to be treated of are fixed by two wars that disturbed the normal unfolding of national experience: the War of 1812 that hastened the development of nineteenth-century ideals, and the Civil War that uprooted certain of the crasser growths of those vigorous years. The half century that lay between these dramatic episodes was a period of extravagant youth, given over to a cult of romanticism that wrought as many marvels as Aaron’s rod. In the South, in New England, and on the western frontier, it laid hold of men’s minds, consuming the stubble of eighteenth-century harvests, sweeping away the drab realisms of a cautious past, and offering in their stead more alluring ideals. Revolutions, greater and lesser, trod on each other’s heels; the common adventure led into unexplored paths; and the final outcome for which it was all preparing was the emergence of a new middle class that in the succeeding half century was to subdue America to middle-class ends.

Such drastic overturnings of the customary and familiar, such swift ruptures with the past, quite evidently do not come from trivial causes. Men do not put off the old before the new is ready; and if in those credulous years they turned romantic and refused to heed the counsels of experience, it was because the soil had been new-plowed for the growing of such crops as their fathers had not known. The grapes from which the wine of romance is vinted, it must not be forgotten, are rooted in the common earth. The loveliest romantic dreams spring from a parentage that is humbly prosaic. There is no more fruitful source of romantic hope than a fluid economics that overflows all narrow preëmptions and sweeps away the restrictions that hamper free endeavor. With fresh economic realms to conquer, the dullest plodder discovers a stimulus in anticipation that sets him upon creating a Utopia. The breaking up of the static, the bold adventuring upon new worlds, is the fertile soil in which romance springs most luxuriantly. It needs no uncommon eyes, surely, to discover in the swift changes that came to America in the wake of the second English war, the seed-bed of those ebullient romanticisms which in politics and economics, in theology and literature, turned away so contemptuously from the homespun past. Of a sudden America was becoming a new world with potentialities before undreamed of; and this new America was no longer content with the narrow ways of a more cautious generation. The older America of colonial days had been static, rationalistic, inclined to pessimism, fearful of innovation, tenacious of the customary. It conceived of human nature as evil, and accounting men incurably wicked, it opened no doors to Utopian dreams of a golden future. The round of daily life was confined within a narrow domestic economy, with few and rare changes in social status. Growth in population came mainly from natural increase. Exploitation was laborious, and such wealth as was laid by was gained in shop and field, in fisheries and shipping. With its expectations cramped by a drab agrarianism, it was content to remain primitively self-sufficient, not given to seeking riches by speculative short-cuts, clinging to the habitual, distrustful of change.

During the thirty-odd years between the Peace of Paris and the end of the War of 1812 that older America was dying. The America that succeeded was a shifting, restless world, youthfully optimistic, eager to better itself, bent on finding easier roads to wealth than the plodding path of natural increase. It conceived of human nature as acquisitive, and accounting acquisitiveness a cardinal virtue, it set out to inquire what opportunities awaited it in the unexploited resources of the continent. The cautious ways of earlier generations were become as much out of date as last year’s almanac. New commonwealths were rising in the wilderness; immigration from war-torn Europe was pouring in; wild lands were daily coming on the market. Money was to be made by the enterprising, and the multitude of the enterprising was augmenting with the expansion of the settlements. The ideal of a static society having been put away, progress was assumed to be the first law of nature, and innovation was accepted as the sign and seal of progress. It was our first great period of exploitation, and from it emerged, as naturally as the cock from the mother egg, the spirit of romance, gross and tawdry in vulgar minds, dainty and refined in the more cultivated. But always romance. The days of realism were past, and it was quietly laid away with the wig and smallclothes of an outgrown generation.

Unfortunately economic romance is more imperious in its demands than literary romance. Its dreams follow objective desires, and in America of those days of new beginnings the desires of diverse economic groups conducted straight to antagonistic imperialisms. The major interests of the three great sections of the country differentiated more and more sharply. The East was discovering its Utopia in an industrial capitalistic order. With the flocking of immigrants to the factories began the extraordinary expansion of the cities and the movement of centralization that was eventually to transform America from a rural to an urban society, supplanting the farmer by the business man and disintegrating the traditional psychology. The new manufacturing and the new finance were subjecting an agrarian people to the dislocations and readjustments implied in the industrial revolution, the outcome of which no man could foresee. The reaction of this new industrialism upon the South was immediate. With the improvements in textile manufacturing came greater demands upon the new southern staple, and an agriculture that had long been static with its traditional crops of indigo, rice, and tobacco, began to look forward confidently to a Utopia founded on cotton, and conceived an imperialistic dream of expanding fields of white bolls and black slaves, reaching into Mexico and embracing the West Indies. The new South left off apologizing for slavery and hoping for its ultimate extinction. Slavery had become enormously profitable and it proposed to exploit the negro as frankly as New England was exploiting the Irish immigrant, but more humanely if possible, in something of the patriarchal spirit.

Meanwhile in the Inland Empire was arising an economics that looked with little favor on the imperialisms of eastern capitalism or southern slavery; an economics equalitarian in temper, decentralizing in impulse; nourished on the idealism of the Declaration of Independence, but interpreting it to mean the natural right of every free citizen to satisfy his acquisitive instinct by exploiting the national resources in the measure of his shrewdness. Democratic in professions, it was middle-class in spirit and purpose. Discovering the inflowing tide of immigration to be favorable to speculation, it sought its Utopia in county-seat towns where land holdings mounted in value with every new wave. No narrow horizons bounded a realm that stretched to the Pacific and into the remote Northwest, and no stodgy ways of money-getting could satisfy men whose imaginations ranged through such spaces. This country was theirs to do with as they chose, and if eastern capitalism or southern slavery interfered with their inalienable rights, their Sharp’s rifles were at hand for defense. In the vast territory drained by the Mississippi--the “Valley of Democracy,” a recent writer has chosen to call it--was conceived what may be accounted the most romantic dream that ever visited the native mind of America. It impressed de Tocqueville, who discovered the poetry of America in this romance of a moving frontier, in the vision that led the pioneer on his conquering way westward, hewing at an interminable wilderness that was matched only by his ambitions.

Such swift expansions, such mounting romanticisms of temper, must inevitably provide themselves with correspondent philosophies to phrase the new aspirations. The nineteenth century was not content to think in the narrower terms of the eighteenth, but must refashion its thought to suit the romantic style. The modes which it came to accept were for the most part of European origin, adapted to new-world needs. From France and England, and later from Germany, came variant schools of romantic theory that at bottom were a common glorification of the ideal of individualism; and this very diversity of interpretation made possible in America an appeal to different classes and diverse interests, the sum total of which was a many-sided contribution to social theory, but a contribution which carried within it the seeds of later conflict.

The first stage in the romanticization of American thought resulted from the naturalization of French revolutionary theory. Its devious progress through the country can be traced fairly accurately. Landing first in Virginia in the early seventeen-seventies, it met with a hospitable reception from the generous planter society and spread widely there the fashion of Physiocratic agrarianism. Traveling thence westward into the Inland Empire it domesticated itself in frontier log cabins under the guise of an assertive individualism, to issue later as the coonskin democracy of the Jacksonian revolution. Eventually reaching New England, the last haven and refuge of eighteenth-century realism, it disarmed Yankee antagonism by assuming the dress of Unitarianism and preached the doctrine of human perfectibility with such conviction as to arouse the conscience of New England to an extraordinary enthusiasm for reforming man and society. And coming finally to New York it inoculated the mind of the emerging proletariat with its doctrine of the rights of man, with Fourieristic and other Utopias, and turmoiled contemporary politics with equalitarian Locofoco programs. No other philosophy assumed so many and such attractive disguises, or wrought such changes in American ideals, as this French romanticism with its generous humanitarian impulses. The ground was ready for the seed it was to sow, and if in the judgment of a hostile philosophy the crop turned out to be tares, increasing thousands believed it to be excellent wheat, to the growing of which America was to be dedicated henceforth.

The rival philosophy, which came to view with increasing dislike the doctrines of French romanticism, was of English middle class origin and sprang from the long struggle of that class to loose the hands of the landed gentry from control of the state. Phrased persuasively by Adam Smith, it embodied the principle of liberalism as that principle was understood by men of affairs. It conceived of a social Utopia that must result if economic forces were given free play; if governmental restrictions on trade were done away with and individual enterprise were free to buy and sell in the open market. Springing from the same root of individualism that brought forth French romanticism, it flowered in an economics that denied the aspirations of the French school. Assuming as its determining principle the common instinct of acquisitiveness, it set up the economic man as the criterion of conduct and proposed to reorder society to the single end of trade. Thus sanctioned and given free rein, the principle of acquisitiveness set forth on its triumphant march through western civilization. Accepted by the English middle class as the ultimate social philosophy sufficient to all needs, it presented to willing eyes the ideal of exploitation as the goal of social progress.

But transported to America, the new philosophy soon discovered unforeseen obstacles in its path. The acquisitive instinct was here enormously strengthened by the vast unpreëmpted resources lying all about, but unfortunately those resources were too great or too speculative to be exploited by individual effort. Capital was wanting, and unless collective funds were available, exploitation must be slow and inadequate. There was need of the state to further the opening up of western lands and to throw its guardianship about an infant industrialism. Roads and canals could not wait on individual enterprise; tariffs and subsidies could flow only from the government. Hence arose a modification of _laissez faire_, from which resulted the theory that a democratic state stands _in loco parentis_ to the economic interests of its citizens, and should guarantee the progressive well-being of strategic groups on whose prosperity depended the common well-being. It was this modification of the English philosophy that the Whig party came to embody in its platform, and which by pooling the interests of western speculators, eastern financiers and New England industrialists, sponsored the “American Plan,” a curiously ingenious scheme to milk the cow and divide the milk among those who superintended the milking.

Meanwhile in the imperialistic South was arising a distinctive philosophy, native to the special conditions imposed by slavery, that was to set it apart from both eastern and western economics and draw it inevitably into a narrowing isolation. Frankly defensive in purpose, rejecting alike French equalitarianism and English individualism, it sought to justify the institution of slavery by an appeal to realism and square it to the theory of democracy by analogy with northern industrialism. The conception of a Greek democracy, which was the last citadel of the southern mind, was a skillful compromise between the antagonistic principles of aristocracy and democracy, the most romantic ideal brought forth by our golden age of romance. Assuming the middle-class principle of exploitation as the creative source of every civilization, it proposed to erect a free state on the basis of a slave proletariat after the model of ancient Athens. A democracy, it argued, is possible only among equals. In every society hitherto the inevitable inequality between economic classes has nullified every democratic program. Master and man, exploiter and exploited, are necessarily opposed in vital economic interests; and this potential clash, this fundamental antagonism of classes, has been intensified by the rise of industrialism. Exploitation has been brutalized by the impersonal wage-system, and the proletariat has been reduced to sodden and embittered beasts. If now as honest realists we recognize frankly that equality cannot exist between inferior and superior races, if we accept the inevitable proletarian status of the negro, if finally we concede the truism that the lifelong relations between master and slave are more humane than the temporary relations between wage-giver and wage-earner, we shall concern ourselves less with a romantic equalitarianism and more with a rational conception of a democracy of equals that may conceivably erect a civilization worthy of the name.

It was an ingenious theory, but unfortunately it left out of account the ambitions of the middle class, and it was this class that in the end destroyed it. Whether they will it or not, imperialisms have a way of clashing with rival imperialisms. Reality persists though romance may deny it, and in their several programs the three diverse sections of America were driving blindly to a collision. In that bitter collision the dream of the South was destroyed. With the overthrow of the aristocratic principle in its final refuge the ground was cleared of the last vestiges of the eighteenth century. Thenceforth America was to become wholly middle class, and such romance as it might bring forth was to be of another sort.

The literature of this extraordinarily vigorous period we are now to deal with, not in the narrow field of _belles lettres_ alone but in the outlying fields of social and political philosophies. The difficulties in the way are many. To endeavor to penetrate critically to the intellectual core of a period, to weigh this romance in realistic scales, to take off the outer wrappings and lay bare the inner truth, is no May-day undertaking. The critic finds himself at every turn confronted by reputations distorted by contemporary praise or censure. In the formal biographies written in that golden age of myth-making, criticism too often gave way to eulogy. Our fathers wrote like gentlemen, but unfortunately too often they believed that in preparing a biography a gentleman was under obligation to speak well of the dead. No blemishes were to be recognized, no disagreeable truths to find a place in their immaculate pages. In consequence scarcely a single commentary of the times is to be trusted, and the critic is reduced to patching together his account out of scanty odds and ends, or else settling down to do a series of full-length portraits, in which work, quite evidently, he will not get far. The inadequacies of the present study I am painfully conscious of: its omissions, its doubtful interpretations, its hasty generalizations, its downright guesses; but in the present lack of exact knowledge of the history of American letters, I do not see how such inadequacies can be avoided.

Contents [Volume Two]

Introduction: Delimitations of period; romance and economic
change; differentiating imperialisms of East, South, West; romantic
philosophies: Physiocratic agrarianism, French equalitarianism,
English _laissez faire_; a counter-philosophy--slavery and a
Greek democracy iii

Book I: The Mind of the South

The mind of the South old-fashioned. Two germinal sources: Virginia,
from which derived Kentucky and Tennessee; South Carolina,
from which derived the Black Belt 3