Chapter XCIX: Part III: Reaction

I. [The War and Liberalism: The reaction developed a many-sided
attack on the liberalisms of the preceding period.
The older intellectuals had abandoned French equalitarian
democracy, but set as their goal economic democracy;
the younger intellectuals attacked the principle of democracy,
the ideal of industrialism, the culture of the
middle class]

II. [The Attack on Democracy: A return to the eighteenth
century spirit of aristocracy. Purveyors of current disgusts]

I. [Philosophical: H. L. Mencken--a Nietzschean critic. A
cynic who grows witty over American failure]

II. [Biological: The falsity of the perfectionist philosophy derived
from Locke. Not environment but heredity--the
isolated germ existence before birth]

III. [Psychological: The discovery of morons. Primitive drives--sex,
hunger--keep men children. Nevertheless behaviorism
a denial of the aristocracy of the biological argument,
holding with Locke that environment is determining]

III. [The Attack on Industrialism: A comprehensive movement
that enlists first-class minds--intellectuals, poets,
novelists, dramatists]

IV. [The Attack on the Middle Class: Sinclair Lewis;[502] Zona
Gale;[503] Evelyn Scott]

V. [New Philosophies]

I. [Economics: Denial of the finality of economic law: A pragmatic
view--Mitchell]

II. [Political Theory: A decline of the program of industrial
democracy]

III. [Science: A rejection of the law of causality and a weakening
of the authority of science]

VI. [New Literary Fashions]

I. [In fiction, impressionism and expressionism--Sherwood
Anderson[503]]

II. [In biography: The impressionism of psychography]

III. [In war fiction:[503] A brutal realism and frank pacifism]

Addenda 323

Naturalism in American Fiction 323

1. Stephen Crane 328

2. Frank Norris 329

“McTeague” 330

“Vandover and the Brute” 332

“The Octopus” 332

Sidney Lanier 334

The Incomparable Mr. Cabell 335

The Problem Novel and the Diversion from Naturalism 346

Jack London: The Novelist of the Proletariat 352

Upton Sinclair 353

Theodore Dreiser: Chief of American Naturalists 354

Sinclair Lewis: Our Own Diogenes 360

Sherwood Anderson: A Psychological Naturalist 372

A New Romance 372

1917-1924 373

I. The Small Town in Fiction 373

William Allen White: A Son of the Middle Border 374

Booth Tarkington: The Dean of American Middle-Class Letters 375

Dorothy Canfield (Fisher) 375

II. The Realistic Small Town and the New Naturalism 376

Zona Gale--The Transition from Romance to Realism 377

Donn Byrne 377

Robert Nathan 378

Joseph Hergesheimer: A Sophisticated Romantic 379

III. Certain Other Writers 381

Edith Wharton--The Genteel Tradition and the New Plutocracy 381

Willa Cather: Epics of Women 382

IV. Some War Books 384

John Dos Passos 384

E. E. Cummings 385

Thomas Boyd 385

Laurence Stallings 385

V. Youth in Revolt--Certain Purveyors of the Hectic 385

F. Scott Fitzgerald 386

Stephen Vincent Benét and Floyd Dell 386

Ben Hecht 386

Ole Rölvaag’s _Giants in the Earth_ 387

The Short Story 397

A Chapter in American Liberalism 401

Bibliography 415

Index 421

Footnotes

[493] This is given in full, as Professor Parrington left it, with those parts not completed by him in brackets. Some revision has been made for the parts he completed, but notes have been added to the text to show his original intention. For some of the bracketed headings after Part II of Book II some material is given in the Addenda from other work of Parrington’s.--_Publisher._

[494] See “Naturalism in American Fiction,” in the Addenda--lecture notes including Crane and Norris.

[495] See Addenda for lecture notes on Lanier.

[496] See Addenda for magazine article on Cabell.

[497] See “A Chapter in American Liberalism,” the last of the Addenda.

[498] See _Ibid._

[499] See Addenda, “The Problem Novel and the Diversion from Naturalism.”

[500] See Addenda for brief notes.

[501] See Addenda for notes of lecture on Dreiser.

[502] See Addenda for reprint of pamphlet on Lewis.

[503] See Addenda for brief notes.

Book One • Changing America

When America laid aside its arms after Appomattox and turned back to the pursuits of peace it was well advanced toward the goal set by Alexander Hamilton three-quarters of a century before. The great obstacle that had withheld its feet hitherto had been swept from its path. A slave economy could never again thwart the ambitions of the capitalistic economy. The jealous particularism that for a generation had obstructed the inevitable drift toward a coalescing national unity had gone down in defeat. The agrarian South was no longer master in the councils of government; the shaping of the future had fallen to other hands and the unfolding of the new order could go forward without southern let or hindrance.

Other obstacles were falling away of themselves. North as well as South, the traditional domestic economy was already a thing of the past. An easier way to wealth, and one enormously more profitable, had been discovered. The future lay in the hands of the machine that was already dispossessing the tool. In the hurry of the war years the potentialities of the factory system had been explored and the ready resources of liquid capital had been greatly augmented. From the smoke of the great conflict an America had emerged unlike any the earlier generations had known. An ambitious industrialism stood on the threshold of a continental expansion that was to transfer sovereignty in America from a landed and mercantile aristocracy to the capable hands of a new race of captains of industry. Only the western farmers, newly settled in the Middle Border and spreading the psychology of the frontier through the vast prairie spaces of a greater Inland Empire, remained as a last stumbling-block. Other battles with agrarianism must be fought before capitalism assumed undisputed mastery of America; but with the eventual overthrow of the agrarian hosts in their last stronghold the path would lie broad and straight to the goal of an encompassing industrialism, with politicians and political parties its willing servants. There would be no more dissensions in the household. With southern Jeffersonians and western agrarians no longer sitting as watch dogs to the Constitution, the political state would be refashioned to serve a new age, and the old dream of a coalescing national economy become a reality. The American System was in the way of complete establishment.

Other changes impended, and greater. The enthronement of the machine was only the outward and visible sign of the revolution in thought that came with the rise of science. As a new cosmos unfolded before the inquisitive eyes of scientists the old metaphysical speculations became as obsolete as the old household economy. A new spirit of realism was abroad, probing and questioning the material world, pushing the realm of exact knowledge into the earlier regions of faith. The conquest of nature was the great business of the day, and as that conquest went forward triumphantly the solid fruits of the new mastery were gathered by industrialism. Science and the machine were the twin instruments for creating a new civilization, of which the technologist and the industrialist were the high priests. The transcendental theologian was soon to be as extinct as the passenger pigeon.

With the substitution of the captain of industry for the plantation master as the custodian of society, the age of aristocracy was at an end and the age of the middle class was established. A new culture, created by the machine and answering the needs of capitalism, was to dispossess the old culture with its lingering concern for distinction and its love of standards--a culture that should eventually suffice the needs of a brisk city world of machine activities. But that would take time. In the meanwhile--in the confused interregnum between reigns--America would be little more than a welter of crude energy, a raw unlovely society where the strife of competition with its prodigal waste testified to the shortcomings of an age in process of transition. The spirit of the frontier was to flare up in a huge buccaneering orgy. Having swept across the continent to the Pacific coast like a visitation of locusts, the frontier spirit turned back upon its course to conquer the East, infecting the new industrialism with a crude individualism, fouling the halls of Congress, despoiling the public domain, and indulging in a huge national barbecue. It submerged the arts and created a new literature. For a time it carried all things before it, until running full tilt into science and the machine, its triumphant progress was stopped and America, rejecting individualism, began the work of standardization and mechanization. It is this world in transition from an aristocratic to a middle-class order, turmoiled by the last flare-up of the frontier spirit, shifting from a robust individualism to a colorless standardization, which the chapters that follow must deal with. A confused and turbulent scene, but not without its fascination to the American who would understand his special heritage--perhaps the most characteristically native, the most American, in our total history.

Part One: The Gilded Age