Chapter IV (1)

OPENING OF THE UPPER PALÆOLITHIC--THE GRIMALDI RACE--ARRIVAL OF THE
CRÔ-MAGNON RACE AND OF THE AURIGNACIAN INDUSTRY--GEOGRAPHIC AND
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS--MAMMALIAN LIFE--CHARACTERISTICS AND HABITS OF THE
CRÔ-MAGNONS--DISTRIBUTION OF THE AURIGNACIAN INDUSTRY--THE BIRTH OF
ART--ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SOLUTREAN INDUSTRY--BRÜNN
RACE--SOLUTREAN INDUSTRY AND ART.

In the whole racial history of western Europe there has never occurred so profound a change as that involving the disappearance of the Neanderthal race and the appearance of the Crô-Magnon race. It was the replacement of a race lower than any existing human type by one which ranks high among the existing types in capacity and intelligence. The Crô-Magnons belonged to _Homo sapiens_, the same species of man as ourselves, and appear to have been the chief race of the Upper Palæolithic Period up to the very close of Magdalenian times, after which they apparently underwent a decline.

Although there were one or more other races which influenced the industrial development of western Europe, the Crô-Magnons were certainly dominant, as shown both by the abundance of their skeletal remains and by the wide distribution of their industry and art; the Upper Palæolithic may almost be said to be the period of the Crô-Magnons as the Lower Palæolithic is that of the Neanderthals and the Pre-Neanderthals. Their arrival toward the end of Mousterian times effected a social and industrial change and a race replacement of so profound a nature that it would certainly be legitimate to separate the Upper Palæolithic from the Lower by a break equal to that which separates the former from the Neolithic.(1)

The arrival of the Crô-Magnons and the introduction of the Aurignacian industry are the first events of the prehistory of Europe to which we can assign a date with any degree of confidence; they correspond geologically with the close of the fourth glaciation and the beginning of Postglacial time, the duration of which has been estimated by geologists from evidence of many different kinds, but which brings us, nevertheless, to substantially similar conclusions. It seems that 25,000 years is a conservative estimate for the duration of the Postglacial Period; this is supported by the independent observations of Lyell, Taylor, Penck and Brückner, and Coleman; it is within the estimates made by Chamberlin and Salisbury, Fairchild, Sardeson, and Spencer; it is somewhat larger than the estimates of Gilbert and Upham.[AJ] Thus, with considerable confidence we may record man of the modern type of _Homo sapiens_ as entering western Europe between 25,000 and 30,000 years ago.

The Lower Palæolithic industrial cycle, comprising the Chellean, Acheulean, and Mousterian, seems to have been similar in evolution both around the Mediterranean coasts and in the northern portions of Europe. From the fact that the Crô-Magnons arrived with the Aurignacian industry it would appear that they came through Phœnicia and along the southern coasts of the Mediterranean, through Tunis, into Spain; also perhaps along the northern coasts of the Mediterranean through Italy. Their evolution had probably taken place somewhere on the continent of Asia, for their physical structure is entirely of Asiatic type, and not in the least of African or Ethiopian type; that is, they exhibit no negroid characters whatever. The reason that Breuil considers that the Aurignacian did not come in through central or eastern Europe is that there are no early Aurignacian stations in either region, whereas the Aurignacian is abundantly developed along the Mediterranean coasts, both of Europe and Africa. The passage of the Crô-Magnons along these coasts was, therefore, like the subsequent wave of the true Mediterranean race, dark-haired, long-headed, narrow-faced people, which followed this coast in early Neolithic times, or, again, like the wave of the Arabian or Moslem advance, which pressed forward along the northern coast of Africa and into southwestern Europe.

Some support of this theory of migration along the north coast of Africa is given by the presence of the skeletons of two members of an entirely distinct race, which are commonly known as the 'negroids of Grimaldi' because of their discovery in the _Grottes de Grimaldi_ near Mentone, and because they alone among all the Upper Palæolithic races thus far discovered in Europe display a number of resemblances to the African negroid race. Anatomically they are related neither to the Neanderthals nor to the Crô-Magnons. Their archæologic age appears to be early Aurignacian because they are found immediately above the layer which marks the close of Mousterian time and the last climate favorable to the warm fauna of mammals.

This sunny coast where modern France joins Italy has supplied some of the most valuable records of the racial and industrial transition from the Lower to the Upper Palæolithic. Of the nine _Grottes de Grimaldi_ three at least show evidences of occupation in closing Mousterian times, probably by men of the Neanderthal race, although no skeletal remains of Neanderthals have been found here. Four of the grottos, namely, the _Grotte des Enfants_, the _Grotte de Cavillon_, the _Barma Grande_, and the _Baousso da Torre_, have yielded altogether the skeletal remains of sixteen individuals, all associated with implements of Aurignacian culture and evidently representing a number of ceremonial burials. Fourteen of these skeletons are attributed by Verneau to the Crô-Magnon race; the other two are the 'negroids of Grimaldi' above referred to. This is, therefore, a prehistoric record of the greatest significance, which we shall now examine more in detail.

RACIAL SUCCESSION ALONG THE ANCIENT RIVIERA

Where the southern spurs of the Alps descend into the Mediterranean and separate France from Italy we find a limestone promontory, known as the _Baoussé Roussé_, projecting in a long cliff, beneath which the rocky shore descends abruptly into the sea. Opening toward the south, and at intervals along the base of this cliff are the nine _Grottes de Grimaldi_. Doubtless the Neanderthals migrated along these shores at a time when the hippopotamus, the straight-tusked elephant (_E. antiquus_), and Merck's rhinoceros (_R. merckii_) still abounded as the last representatives of the great African-Asiatic fauna. These hunters of Mousterian times entered the sea-swept floor of the great _Grotte du Prince_[AK] (Fig. 131), with a ceiling height at that time perhaps of over 80 feet, carrying in their game to the fire-hearths, and leaving Mousterian implements in the accumulating deposits. In the succeeding layers of this grotto the changing forms of animal life demonstrate the effect of the fourth glaciation and the cooling of the climate toward the close of Mousterian times.

The smaller _Grotte des Enfants_ (Fig. 132), which lies to the west of the Prince's Grotto, was apparently occupied at a somewhat more recent period, because the lowest fire-hearths contain, together with the Mousterian implements, remains of Merck's rhinoceros only--apparently the last survivor here, as well as in other parts of western Europe, of the warm African-Asiatic fauna. The hippopotamus and the straight-tusked elephant had either become extinct or had been driven farther south by the time the hunters first occupied this grotto. In the overlying layers of this and several other grottos the fire-hearths contain remains of a rich forest fauna which includes the wild boar, stag, roe-deer, wild horse, wolf, and bear. The first signs of increasing cold in the mountains to the north is the appearance of remains of the chamois and ibex driven from the Alpine heights. Then in still higher layers appears the reindeer, harbinger of the tundra climate.

THE GRIMALDI RACE

Verneau is inclined to regard the Grimaldi as a very ancient race, antedating the Crô-Magnon.(2) He believes that they belong to a new ethnic type which played an important rôle in Europe and enjoyed a wide geographic distribution. There does not, however, seem to be much support for this opinion, because, unlike some other races, no traces of the Grimaldis have been found elsewhere, and it would appear more probable that they were, as their skeletal characters indicate, true negroids which perhaps found their way from Africa but never became established as a race in western Europe.

The type consists of two skeletons found in the _Grotte des Enfants_ by Verneau in 1906. One skeleton is that of a middle-aged woman; the other is that of a youth of sixteen or seventeen. Both are referred to the existing species of man, _Homo sapiens_. The layer which contained them is on a level two feet lower than any which contained Crô-Magnons, and immediately above the culture layer of Mousterian times.

_A._ Burial of two infant skeletons. Remains of forest and alpine
(_Ibex_) mammals.

_B._ Burial of the skeleton of a Crô-Magnon woman. Remains of forest
and alpine mammals.

_C._ Fire-hearths containing forest mammals--the wild boar, also the
reindeer.

_D._ Fire-hearths with flints of Aurignacian type. Remains of forest
fauna--the marten.

_E._ Layer containing a cairn or artificial pile of stone. Remains of
ibex, horse, wolf, cave-lion, and fox.

Intermediate layer. Remains of the wild ass, perhaps of the steppe
type, and of the reindeer; also of the ibex, the wild horse, and
forest fauna--the wild boar.

_F._ Large fragments fallen from the cave roof. No evidence of
habitation.

_G._ Fire-hearths. Remains of the moose, roe-deer, fallow deer, stag,
wild cattle, ibex, fox, leopard, and rabbit.

_H._ Burial of a very tall skeleton of the CRÔ-MAGNON RACE (see Fig.
144, p. 297). Fire-hearths containing remains of the forest fauna,
also the alpine chamois and marmot, the cave-hyæna, and the leopard.

_I._ Burial of two skeletons of the GRIMALDI RACE (see Fig. 133, p.
267). Flints of Aurignacian type and remains of a forest fauna which
includes the deer, also of the wild horse, the alpine ibex, and the
hyæna.

_K._ Traces of charcoal and disturbed fire-hearths.

_K-L._ Remains of Merck's rhinoceros and of the hyæna. Alpine (_Ibex_)
and temperate forest fauna.

_L._ Traces of fire-hearths with Mousterian implements, chiefly of
quartzite, probably left by members of the NEANDERTHAL RACE on the
ancient floor of the grotto, following the recession of the sea.
Evidence of previous occupation by hyænas.]

The Grimaldi characters present a wide contrast to those of the Crô-Magnon. The two known skeletons, of a woman and a youth, are of inferior stature, not exceeding 5 feet 3 inches:

Grimaldi female estimated at 1.57 m. 5 ft. 2 in.
" youth " " 1.55 m. 5 ft. 1 in.

These measurements, however, are only slightly inferior to those of the Crô-Magnon woman and youth, which rise to 5 feet 5 inches. There are many negroid characters in the skull, in the structure of the hip-girdle, and in the proportions of the limbs; there are also some characters in common with the anthropoid apes, namely, the long forearm, the curved thigh-bone, and the marked prognathism, or projection of the tooth row; the face is low and broad, and extremely prognathous; the nose is platyrhine, or broad and flat; the jaw is heavy, with large teeth and without the chin prominence; the head form, like that of the Crô-Magnons, is dolichocephalic and somewhat disharmonic; that is, while the head is long, the face is short and relatively broad. Yet the cranial capacity is relatively high, being estimated at 1,580 c.cm. Unlike the Crô-Magnons, the Grimaldis have a relatively long forearm and a negroid type of pelvis. The proportions of the leg are, however, somewhat similar to those of the leg of the Crô-Magnon, the thigh-bone being short and the shin-bone long, the index being 83.8 per cent. In addition to the long forearm, which approaches in form that of the living anthropoid apes, there is a curved femur, distinctly of anthropoid-ape character.

"In its body and tooth characters," observes Verneau,(3) "this negroid race in many respects shows a greater resemblance to the anthropoid apes than does the Neanderthal race." He continues: "The fact remains that at a very remote period of the Pleistocene there existed in Europe, beside the Neanderthal race, a type of man that in many of his cephalic characters, in the structure of his pelvis, and in his limb proportions showed striking analogies to the negro of to-day. In their remarkable proportions they exaggerate some of the peculiarities of the recent negroes; the teeth resemble those of the Australian types. There is evidence of the establishment and spread of the Grimaldi race throughout western Europe, namely, in cases of partial reversion to this type among the skeletal remains of the Neolithic Age, the Bronze Age, and the early Iron Age in Brittany, Switzerland, and northern Italy. Extreme prognathism is the characteristic that most frequently appears, and in some instances there is the broad nose, with the same osteological peculiarities that mark the Grimaldi type. In every instance these individuals show dolichocephaly, nearly always combined with a short, broad face. Until the discovery of the Grimaldi type we were at a loss to explain the existence of these individuals among a population from which they differed so radically."

Against this opinion of Verneau we should weigh the entire absence of any trace of this Grimaldi race in any part of western Europe among all the burials and other human remains of Upper Palæolithic age known at the present time. Setting aside any such records which are of doubtful authenticity or difficult to diagnose on account of their fragmentary nature, there remains a number of human fossils representing at least ninety individuals discovered at over fifteen widely distributed localities. None of these shows any features of the Grimaldi race.

In describing the Grimaldi skeletons, Keith(4) agrees that they are of a mixed or negroid type; the shallow, projecting incisor part of the upper jaw and the characters of the chin are features of recent negroid races; so are the wide opening of the nose, the prominent cheek-bones, the flat and short face. Yet the bridge of the nose is not flat as in negroes, but rather prominent as in Europeans, and the capacity of the skull in the woman (1,375 c.cm.) is ample. In the boy the teeth are large and of the negro type; he bears a striking resemblance to the woman, and his cranial capacity (1,580 c.cm.) indicates a distinctly modern brain; the prominences of the forehead do not meet across the median line as in certain negroids and in the Neanderthals. Keith concludes that the Grimaldi people represent an intermediate type in the evolution of the typical white and black races.

MAIN FEATURES OF THE ENTIRE UPPER PALÆOLITHIC HISTORY

Having now considered the opening of the Upper Palæolithic, also the single appearance of the Grimaldi race of which no further trace is known, it is desirable to briefly review the entire Upper Palæolithic history before we attempt to follow in detail its successive phases beginning with the appearance of the Aurignacian industry.

There is evidence of various kinds that the Crô-Magnons arrived in western Europe, bringing in their Aurignacian industry, while the Neanderthals were still in possession of the country and practising their Mousterian industry. Thus in the valley of the Somme, Commont believes he has recognized a level of flints, exhibiting the primitive Aurignacian 'retouch' of Dordogne, but occurring beneath a late Mousterian level. Additional evidence of a contact between the industries of these two races is found at the stations of La Ferrassie, of Les Bouffia, and especially of the Abri Audit, where there is a distinct transition period, in which the characteristic types of the late Mousterian are found intermixed with a number of flints suggesting the early Aurignacian;(5) here it would appear that the development of the Aurignacian is partly a local evolution, and not an invasion of wholly new types of implements. Breuil(6) suggests that these mixed layers may perhaps be explained by the supposition that we have here degenerate or modified Mousterian tools, more or less influenced by contact with the Aurignacian industry of the Crô-Magnon race.

THE STONE IMPLEMENTS CHARACTERISTIC OF LOWER AND UPPER PALÆOLITHIC TIMES

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | LOWER PALÆOLITHIC |UPPER |
| | |PALÆOLITHIC |
| |-------------------|------------|
| |PRE-CHELLEAN | |
| | |CHELLEAN | |
| | | |ACHEULEAN | |
| THE TYPICAL STONE IMPLEMENTS | | | |MOUSTERIAN| |
| | | | | |AURIGNACIAN |
| | | | | | |SOLUTREAN |
| | | | | | | |MAGDALENIAN |
| | | | | | | | |AZILIAN |
| | | | | | | | | |TARDE- |
| | | | | | | | | | NOISIAN|
|--------------------------------------|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--------|
|A.--WAR AND CHASE | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | |
| *1. MICROLITHIQUE? ARROW POINT? ETC.|..|..|..|..|..|..| =| =| + |
| 2. POINTE POINT |..|..| =| +| +| =| =| =|.. |
| 3. POINTE À SOIE LANCE OR KNIFE |..|..|..|..| =| +| =|..|.. |
| 4. POINTE À CRAN LANCE-HEAD |..|..|..|..| =|++| ?|..|.. |
| 5. POINTE DE | | | | | | | | | |
| LAURIER " " |..|..|..|..| ?|++| ?|..|.. |
| *6. COUP DE POING HAND-AXE, | | | | | | | | | |
| PONIARD, ETC. |..| +|++| =|..|..|..|..|.. |
| 7. PIERRE DE JET THROWING STONE | ?| ?| =| =| ?| ?| =|..|.. |
| *8. COUTEAU KNIFE | =| =| =| =| =| =| =| =| = |
| | | | | | | | | | |
|B.--INDUSTRIAL AND DOMESTIC | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | |
| 9. LAMPE LAMP |..|..|..|..|..|..| =|..|.. |
| 10. LISSOIR POLISHER |..|..|..|..|..| =| =|..|.. |
| 11. MORTIER MORTAR |..|..|..|..|..|..| =|..|.. |
| 12. HACHETTE | | | | | | | | | |
| (TRANCHETTE) CHOPPER |..| ?| =| =|..|..|..|..|.. |
|*13. COUP DE POING HAND-AXE, ETC. |..| +|++| =|..|..|..|..|.. |
| 14. GRATTOIR PLANING TOOL | =| =| =| =| =| =| =| =| = |
| 15. RACLOIR SCRAPER | =| =| =|++| +| =| =| =|.. |
| 16. PERÇOIR DRILL, BORER | =| =| =| =| =| =| =| =|.. |
|*17. COUTEAU KNIFE | =| =| =| =| =| =| =| =| = |
| 18. ENCLUME ANVIL STONE |..|..|..|..| =| ?| =|..|.. |
| 19. PERCUTEUR HAMMER-STONE | =| =| ?| ?| =| =| =| =| = |
| | | | | | | | | | |
|C.--ART, SCULPTURE, ENGRAVING | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | |
|*20. MICROLITHIQUE DRILL, GRAVER, | | | | | | | | | |
| AND ETCHER |..|..|..|..| =| =| =|++| = |
| 21. CISEAU CHISEL |..|..|..|..| =| =| =|..|.. |
| 22. GRAVETTE ETCHING TOOL |..|..|..|..| +| +| =| =|.. |
| 23. BURIN GRAVER |..|..|..|..|++| =| =| ?|.. |
| (ALSO MORTAR, HAMMER-STONE, | | | | | | | | | |
| AND POLISHER) | | | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

* = twice mentioned (in different classifications).

+ or ++ denotes an unusual or culminating development.

Again, the burial customs of the Neanderthals were in many respects followed by the Crô-Magnons; they chose, in fact, the same kind of burial sites, namely, at the entrances of grottos or in proximity to the shelters. Some degree of ceremony must have marked these burials, for with the remains were interred implements of industry and warfare together with offerings of food. The Neanderthal burials were with the body fully extended; the two burials of the Grimaldi race were with the limbs in a flexed position and tightly bound to the body, probably with skin garments or thongs. The Crô-Magnon burials are either with the body extended, as in the Grottes de Grimaldi, or with the limbs flexed, as in the Aurignacian burial of Laugerie Haute.

THE BONE IMPLEMENTS APPEARING AT THE CLOSE OF THE LOWER PALÆOLITHIC AND HIGHLY CHARACTERISTIC OF THE UPPER PALÆOLITHIC

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | LOWER PALÆOLITHIC |UPPER |
| | |PALÆOLITHIC |
| |-------------------|------------|
| |PRE-CHELLEAN | |
| | |CHELLEAN | |
| | | |ACHEULEAN | |
| THE TYPICAL BONE IMPLEMENTS | | | |MOUSTERIAN| |
| | | | | |AURIGNACIAN |
| | | | | | |SOLUTREAN |
| | | | | | | |MAGDALENIAN |
| | | | | | | | |AZILIAN |
| | | | | | | | | |TARDE- |
| | | | | | | | | | NOISIAN|
|--------------------------------------|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--------|
|A.--WAR, CHASE, FISHING | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | |
| *1. LAMES BLADES |..|..|..|..| =| ?| =|..|.. |
| 2. POIGNARD DAGGER |..|..|..|..|..| =| =|..|.. |
| 3. HAMEÇON? FISH-HOOK? |..|..|..|..| ?| ?| ?|..|.. |
| 4. PROPULSEUR SPEAR THROWER |..|..|..|..|..|..| =|..|.. |
| 5. HARPON HARPOON |..|..|..|..|..| =|++| =|.. |
| 6. POINTE DE SAGAIE JAVELIN POINT |..|..|..|..| =| =| =|..|.. |
| 7. POINTE DE LANCE SPEAR POINT |..|..|..|..| =| =| =| =|.. |
| | | | | | | | | | |
|B.--INDUSTRIAL AND DOMESTIC | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | |
| 8. SPATULE SPATULA |..|..|..|..|..| =| =|..|.. |
| 9. NAVETTE SHUTTLE |..|..|..|..|..|..| =|..|.. |
| 10. EPINGLE PIN |..|..|..|..|..|..| =|..|.. |
| 11. AIGUILLE NEEDLE |..|..|..|..| =| +|++|..|.. |
|*12. LAMES BLADES |..|..|..|..| =|..|++|..|.. |
| 13. COMPRESSEUR ANVIL |..|..|..| =|..|..|..|..|.. |
| 14. LISSOIR SMOOTHER |..|..|..|..| =| =| =| =|.. |
| 15. COIN WEDGE |..|..|..|..| =|..| =|..|.. |
| 16. CISEAU CHISEL |..|..|..|..| =|..| =| =|.. |
| 17. POINÇON AWL |..|..|..| =| =| =| =| =|.. |
| | | | | | | | | | |
|C.--CEREMONIAL, SOCIAL | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | |
| 18. BÂTON DE | | | | | | | | | |
| COMMANDEMENT CEREMONIAL STAFF|..|..|..|..| =| +|++|..|.. |
| 19. BAGUETTE WAND |..|..|..|..|..|..| =|..|.. |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+

* = twice mentioned (in different classifications).

+ or ++ denotes an unusual or culminating development.

Whether the Neanderthals were exterminated entirely or whether they were driven out of the country is not known; the encounter was certainly between a very superior people, both physically and mentally, who possibly had the use of the bow and arrow, and a very inferior and somewhat degenerate people that had been already reduced physically and perhaps numerically by the severe climatic conditions of the fourth glaciation. The Neanderthals were dispossessed of all their dwelling-places and industrial stations by this new and vigorous race, for at no less than eighteen points the Aurignacian immediately succeeds upon the Mousterian industry and in a few instances Crô-Magnon burials occur very near the Neanderthal burial sites.

In the racial replacements of savage as well as of historic peoples the men are often killed and the women spared and taken into families of the warriors, but no evidence has thus far been found that even the Neanderthal women were spared or allowed to remain in the country, because in none of the burials of Aurignacian times is there any evidence of the crossing or admixture of the Crô-Magnons and the Neanderthals.

The chief source of the change which swept over western Europe lay in the brain power of the Crô-Magnons, as seen not only in the large size of the brain as a whole but principally in the almost modern forehead and forebrain. It was a race which had evolved in Asia and which was in no way connected by any ancestral links with the Neanderthals; a race with a brain capable of ideas, of reasoning, of imagination, and more highly endowed with artistic sense and ability than any uncivilized race which has ever been discovered. No trace of artistic instinct whatever has been found among the Neanderthals; we have seen developing among them only a sense of symmetry and proportion in the fashioning of their implements. After prolonged study of the works of the Crô-Magnons one cannot avoid the conclusions that their capacity was nearly if not quite as high as our own; that they were capable of advanced education; that they had a strongly developed æsthetic as well as a religious sense; that their society was quite highly differentiated along the lines of talent for work of different kinds. One derives this impression especially from the conditions surrounding the development of their art, which are still mysterious and an interpretation of which we shall attempt to give in the following chapter.

CULTURAL, RACIAL, AND CLIMATIC DIVISIONS

The Upper Palæolithic covers the greater part of the 'Reindeer Epoch' as it was conceived by Lartet and Christy, who began their systematic study and exploration of the caves of Dordogne in 1863. They were soon joined by Massénat and the Marquis de Vibraye, while Dupont took up the work in Belgium and Piette made the artistic development, especially in the Pyrenees, his chosen field.

Lartet was the first to perceive that the culture of the grotto of Aurignac was quite distinct from that of the Lower Palæolithic in northern France; he also recognized in the shelter of Laugerie Haute, in Dordogne, that there was still another culture, which is now known as the Solutrean; also that in the shelter of Laugerie Basse, in Dordogne, there was yet another industry, that which we now know as Magdalenian. M. de Mortillet was the first to recognize the superiority of the Solutrean industry in stone, which in this period reached its height, and its succession by the Magdalenian period, in which the industry in bone and horn reached a climax; but he failed to recognize the very important preceding position of the Aurignacian, and it was not until 1906 that the clear presentation by Breuil of the entire distinctness of the Aurignacian industry led to the adoption by the Archæological Congress at Geneva of three cultural divisions of the Upper Palæolithic. In the meantime Piette had discovered that in the Mas d'Azil there was a distinct cultural phase, the Azilian, following the Magdalenian, and thus a fourfold division of the Upper Palæolithic (Breuil,(7) Obermaier(8)) was established, as follows:

_AZILIAN._--Industry of the surviving Crô-Magnon and other resident
races, and of newly arrived brachycephalic and dolichocephalic races
in western Europe; decadent forms of flint and bone workmanship;
entire absence of art. _Daun_ stage of Postglacial retreat; Europe
with a milder climate and forest and meadow fauna like that of early
historic times.

_MAGDALENIAN._--Closing stage of the industry and art of the
Crô-Magnon race; bone implements highly developed; marked decline in
the flint industry. Close of Postglacial Period; climate alternately
cold and moist (corresponding with the _Bühl_ and _Gschnitz_
Postglacial advances of the ice in the Alpine region), or cold and
arid; Europe covered with the tundra and steppe fauna; life chiefly in
the shelters and grottos.

_SOLUTREAN._--Culminating stage of flint industry; apparent invasion
in eastern Europe of the Brünn (Brüx, Předmost, and [?] Galley Hill)
race. The highly developed flint industry of the Solutrean types; art
development of the Crô-Magnon race partly suspended. Dry, cold
climate; life largely in the open.

_AURIGNACIAN._--Appearance of the Crô-Magnon race in southwestern
Europe, succeeding the Mousterian industry; art of engraving and
drawing and sculpture of human and animal forms developing. Animal
life the same as during the fourth glaciation; climate cold and
increasingly dry; life chiefly in the grottos and shelters.

The successive phases of development of Upper Palæolithic industry and art have been traced with extraordinary precision in Dordogne, in the Pyrenees, in northern Spain, and along the Danube and upper Rhine by a host of able workers--Cartailhac, Capitan, Peyrony, Bouyssonnie, Lalanne, and others. Breuil has made himself master especially of the Aurignacian and has succeeded Piette as the great historian of Upper Palæolithic art. Obermaier's chief service has been the comparison of the Upper Palæolithic of the Danubian region with that of the Dordogne and northern Spain both in regard to the geologic age and the archæologic and racial succession. The labors of Schmidt along the upper Rhine and Danube have not only brought this region into definite prehistoric relation with the Dordogne and the Pyrenees but have given us by far the clearest evidence of the relation between the human and the industrial development and the succession of climatic phases in northern Europe. Finally, the explorations of Commont along the River Somme have proved that this region, too, was frequented throughout all Upper Palæolithic times, during which it exhibits an industrial development hardly less important than that of the Lower Palæolithic.

There are two very distinct lines of thought among these archæologists: the first is shown in the tendency to regard the industries as mainly _autochthonous_, or as following local lines of development; the exponents of this theory dwell most strongly on the transitions between the Mousterian, the Aurignacian, and the Solutrean industries. For example, the chief object of Schuchhardt's tour(9) through the Palæolithic stations of Dordogne was to observe the transitions from one period to another and the evidence afforded of successive changes of climate. This writer is impressed with the transitions; he notes that the typical curved knives of the Abri Audit furnish a transition from the Mousterian scrapers to the Aurignacian 'points' of La Gravette and La Font Robert; that the Solutrean takes up all the fine threads of the Aurignacian culture and spins them further into Magdalenian times. Thus we get an Aurignacian-Solutrean-Magdalenian industrial cycle which is comparable to the Chellean-Acheulean-Mousterian cycle.

Breuil, on the other hand, from the archæologist's standpoint--because he is not especially interested in the matter of racial development--is a strong exponent of the idea of _successive invasions_ of cultures, either from the south or Mediterranean region or from the central region of Europe, which he calls the 'Atlantic'; and he distinguishes sharply between these two great areas of Upper Palæolithic evolution, namely, the _southern_ and the _central_ European, pointing out that it was only after the establishment of more genial climatic conditions, like those of modern times, that there was an added element of northern or Baltic invasion. Certainly the archæologic testimony strongly supports this culture-invasion hypothesis and it appears to be strengthened in a measure by the study of the human types, although this study has not progressed beyond the stage of hypothesis. When the Upper Palæolithic races have been studied with as close attention as those of the Lower Palæolithic we may be able to establish positively the relation between these human types and the advance of certain cultures and industries.

DISTRIBUTION OF UPPER PALÆOLITHIC HUMAN FOSSILS

Our present view, as drawn from a consideration of the facts before us, is that western Europe in Upper Palæolithic times was entered by four or five distinct races, all belonging to _Homo sapiens_, only three of which became established:

5. The _Furfooz_ (Ofnet, and [?] Grenelle) _race_, extremely
broad-headed, entering central Europe possibly from central Asia,
bringing an Azilian culture, without art or developed flint industry.
(Alpine type.)

4. A _dolichocephalic race_ with a narrow face, associated with the
Furfooz race, either connected with the Brünn and Brüx, or an advance
wave of one of the dolichocephalic Neolithic races. (Mediterranean
type.)

3. The _Brünn_ (Brüx, Předmost, and [?] Galley Hill) _race_,
long-headed, with a narrow, short face, probably entering central
Europe directly from Asia through Hungary and along the Danube;
bringing a perfected Solutrean culture; inferior in brain development
to the Crô-Magnons, in industrial contact with them but not displacing
them.

2. The _Crô-Magnon race_, long-headed with a very broad face, entering
Europe in closing Mousterian or early Aurignacian times, probably from
the south along the Mediterranean coast, and bringing in an
Aurignacian flint industry and art spirit characteristic especially of
Aurignacian and Magdalenian times; greatly reduced in number in
closing Magdalenian times, but leaving descendants in various colonies
in western Europe.

1. The _Grimaldi race_, in the transition between the Mousterian and
the Aurignacian; negroid or African in character; apparently never
established as a race of any influence in western Europe.

The presence of these five races, and perhaps of a sixth if the 'Aurignacian man' of Klaatsch proves to be distinct from the Crô-Magnon, is firmly established by anatomy. It is most important constantly to keep before our minds certain great principles of racial evolution: (1) that the development of a racial type, whether long-headed or broad-headed, narrow-faced or broad-faced, of tall or of short stature, must necessarily be very slow; (2) that this development of the races which invaded western Europe took place for the most part to the eastward in the vast continent of Asia and eastern Europe; (3) that, once established through a long process of isolation and separate evolution, these racial types are extremely stable and persistent; their head form, their bodily characters, and especially their psychic characters and tendencies are not readily modified or altered; nor are they in any marked degree blended by crossing. Crosses do not produce merely blends; they chiefly produce a mosaic of distinct characters derived from one race or the other.

We must therefore imagine western Europe in Upper Palæolithic times again as a terminal region; a great peninsula toward which the human migrants from the east and from the south came to mingle and superpose their cultures. These races took the great migration routes which had been followed by other waves of animal life before them; they were pressed upon from behind by the increasing populations of the east; they were attracted to western Europe as a fresh and wonderful game country, where food in the forests, in the meadows, and in the streams abounded in unparalleled profusion. The Crô-Magnons especially were a nomadic hunting people, perfectly fitted by their physical structure for the chase and developing an extraordinary appreciation of the beauty and majesty of the varied forms of animal life which existed in no other part of the world at the time. Between the retreating Alpine and Scandinavian glaciers Europe was freely open toward the eastern plains of the Danube, extending to central and southern Asia; on the north, however, along the Baltic, the climate was still too inclement for a wave of human migration, and there is no trace of man along these northern shores until the close of the Upper Palæolithic, nor of any residence of man in the Scandinavian peninsula until the great wave of Neolithic migration established itself in that region.

The climatic and cultural relations of Upper Palæolithic times may be correlated[AL] in descending order as follows:

6. The _Daun_ or final Postglacial advance of the glaciers of the
Alps, estimated at 7,000 B. C. Europe with its modern or prehistoric
forest fauna, the lion lingering in the Pyrenees, the moose in Spain.
AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN, closing stage of the Upper Palæolithic culture;
western Europe peopled by the broad-headed race of Furfooz and Ofnet,
also by a narrow-headed race. Baltic Migration, MAGLEMOSE culture.

5. The _Gschnitz_ stage in the Alps or second Postglacial advance.
Climate still cold and moist but gradually moderating. Decline of the
Magdalenian. Period of the retreat of the tundra and steppe animals;
mammoth, reindeer, and arctic rodents becoming more rare; Eurasiatic
forest mammals becoming more abundant.

Close of steppe period. Crô-Magnon race still dominant in western
Europe in the LATE MAGDALENIAN stage of culture.

4. Interval between the _Bühl_ and _Gschnitz_ Postglacial advances in
the Alps. A renewed steppe and 'loess' period. Climate cold and dry.
Mammoth and woolly rhinoceros, reindeer, full tundra and steppe fauna
very abundant. Crô-Magnon race in the stage of MIDDLE MAGDALENIAN
culture.

3. The _Bühl_ stage of Postglacial advance in the Alps; renewal of
severe conditions of cold moist climate, and spread all over western
Europe of the arctic banded and Obi lemmings of the _Upper Rodent
Layer_. _Bühl_ moraines in Lake Lucerne estimated as having been
deposited between 16,000 and 24,000 years B. C. Crô-Magnon race
dominant in the EARLY MAGDALENIAN stage of culture.

2. Period of the first Postglacial interval or _Achen_ retreat of the
glaciers in the Alpine region. A dry cold climate. Crô-Magnon and
Brünn races in the stage of SOLUTREAN culture.

1. Close of fourth glaciation, between 24,000 and 40,000 years B. C.
Cold and moist but increasingly dry climate succeeding the fourth
glaciation and deposition of _Lower Rodent Layer_, or first invasion
of the arctic tundra rodents. Crô-Magnon and possibly Aurignacian race
in the stage of AURIGNACIAN culture.

BEGINNING OF THE UPPER PALÆOLITHIC

THE AURIGNACIAN INDUSTRY

We now glance at western Europe as it was between 25,000 and 30,000 years ago, at the opening of the Upper Palæolithic.

During Aurignacian times France was still broadly connected with Great Britain.(11) The British Islands were not only united with each other but with the continent, while the elevation of the Scandinavian peninsula converted the Baltic Sea into a great fresh-water lake, the old shores of which are readily traced. Geikie also maintains that the rise of land in Scotland after the fourth glaciation was accompanied by an amelioration of climate and the advent of more genial conditions; a strong forest growth covered the lowlands, hence this is termed the _Lower Forestian_ stage of the physiographic history of northern Britain; it corresponds to the temporary period of the retreat of the glaciers in the Alpine region, which Penck has named the _Achenschwänkung_. The latter author is not inclined to connect any marked rise of temperature in the Alpine region with this interval of time; to our knowledge no fossil plant beds have been preserved which would give us such indications, and the animal life, as we shall see, certainly affords only a very slight indication of a rise in temperature in the retreat of certain of the snow-loving tundra and northern steppe lemmings to the north; the greater number of tundra forms remained. The continental elevation of the northern coast-line of Europe would explain the advent of a dry continental climate and the renewal of high prevailing winds, at least during the warmer and drier summer seasons, for it is certain that atmospheric conditions such as produced the great dust-storms and deposition of 'loess' after the second and third glaciations prevailed again in western Europe after the fourth glaciation. This gave rise to deposits of what is known among geologists as the 'newer loess,' and we find these sheets of 'newer loess' spreading immediately above the Mousterian culture at a number of different points in western Europe.

When the Crô-Magnon race entered this part of Europe the climate was becoming more dry and stimulating; the summers were warm or temperate, the winters very severe. Great ice-caps still spread over the Scandinavian peninsula and also over the Alps, but the borders of the ice-fields no longer reached the plains; in a sense, the Glacial Epoch had not yet closed, for during the whole period of Postglacial time the glaciers of the Alps, beginning in early Magdalenian times, developed three renewed advances, each somewhat less vigorous than the preceding one, with intervening stages of a drier climate.

The greater number of the Aurignacian stations, like those of Mousterian times, were under the shelters or within the entrances of the grottos and caverns; all the stations in southwestern France are of this character. There was, however, a great open camp at Solutré, which was a most famous hunting station for the wild horse in Aurignacian times. In northern France there are several open stations, such as those of Montières and St. Acheul, along the River Somme, and to the east, along the middle Rhine, there are several open 'loess' stations, such as those of Achenheim, Völklinshofen, Rhens, and Metternich. It may very well be that these open stations were visited only during the mild summer season. The continued choice of sites which naturally afforded the greatest protection from the weather, in France, Britain, Belgium, and all along the Danube, as well as in the genial region of the Riviera, is a sure indication of a prevailing severe climate. It is hardly possible, however, that the closed or protected stations were the only residences of these people; they merely indicate the points where the flint industry was continuously carried on and also the vast foyers and gathering places; but there is little doubt from the evidence afforded by the signs on the walls of the caverns, known as 'tectiforms,' that huts and large shelters built of logs and covered with hides were grouped around most of these stations and scattered through the country at points favorable for hunting and fishing. These would be the only dwelling-places possible in such vast open camps, for example, as Solutré.

CLIMATE AND LIFE OF AURIGNACIAN TIMES

3. _First Postglacial Retreat_, _Achenschwänkung_ in the Alpine
region. Period of Solutrean industry. A cold dry climate, with
dust-storms and wide-spread deposition of 'loess' in western Europe.
Flint workers seeking many open stations. Horses and wild asses
numerous on the prairies; reindeer and wild cattle very abundant.

2. _Recession of the Ice-Fields of the Fourth Glaciation._ Period of
Aurignacian industry. Climate cold and increasingly dry; renewal of
the dust-storms and deposits of the 'newer loess.' Flint industry in
the caverns, grottos, shelters, and a few open stations. Opening of
the Upper Palæolithic period. Arrival of the Crô-Magnon race.

1. _Final Stage of Fourth Glaciation._ Close of the Lower Palæolithic
Mousterian culture. Gradual extinction of the Neanderthal race.

The arrival of the Crô-Magnon race and the beginning of the Aurignacian industry took place during the period of retreat of the ice-fields of the fourth glaciation. As we pass from the levels of the early Aurignacian industry into those of the middle and upper Aurignacian, we find that the mammal life of Mousterian times continued in its prime all over western Europe, with the addition, one by one, of some new forms from the tundras, such as the musk-ox, and the successive arrival from the mountains and steppes of western Asia of such characteristic forms as the argali sheep and the wild ass, or kiang.

The extremely cold and moist climate of the fourth glaciation had passed, and a somewhat drier but still extremely cold climatic condition prevailed throughout western Europe. During the early Aurignacian the two northern types of lemming, the banded lemming (_Myodes torquatus_) and the Obi lemming (_Myodes obensis_), were still found along the upper Danube, as in the grottos of Sirgenstein, Ofnet, and Bockstein. From middle Aurignacian on through Solutrean times these denizens of the extreme north disappear from this region of Europe. Further evidence of a dry, cold climate is found in the recurrence of dust-storms and in the great deposits of 'newer loess' beginning in certain parts of Europe at the very close of the Mousterian industry and extending through both middle and late Aurignacian and Solutrean times in all the region of the upper Rhine, along both shores of the Danube, and westward in the valley of the Somme, in northern France. This period is therefore believed to correspond with the _Achen_ retreat of the great glaciers still covering the Alpine region.

Another striking proof of the amelioration of climate is the return of the flint workers to many of the open stations, old and new, in various parts of western Europe, the climate being more endurable because less humid. In Mousterian times the open stations were very rare and were perhaps visited during the summer season only; in Aurignacian times they were more abundant, there being twelve open stations out of a total of about sixty stations thus far discovered; in Aurignacian and Solutrean times the type station of Solutré was much frequented, and many other open camps are found in various parts of western Europe.

This is still the Reindeer Period; in fact, it is the typical 'Reindeer Epoch' of Lartet, and the predominant forms of life are the woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros; but for a time the reindeer seems to have been less abundant, and Aurignacian times are marked apparently by a very greatly increased number of horses. The animal life throughout retains its northern or arctic character; the tundra species predominate, the hardy forms of the forests and meadows of Eurasia are next in number, and then are found a few of the steppe forms, with here and there forms characteristic of the Alps. The entire fauna of the Aurignacian may be summed up as follows:

The wild ass, or kiang, of the Asiatic deserts appears in late Aurignacian times in the region of the upper Rhine and upper Danube, as seen in the deposits of Wildscheuer, Thaingen, Kesslerloch, and Schweizersbild, and also there probably arrived in Europe at this time the Elasmothere (_E. sibericum_), a gigantic rhinoceros, distinguished from all others that we have been considering by the entire absence of the anterior horn and by the possession of an enormous single horn situated on the forehead above the eyes, also by the elaborate foldings of the dental enamel, to which the name 'Elasmothere' refers; its teeth were especially adapted to a grassy diet; it apparently wandered into Europe from the arid grassy plains of central and western Asia, and its appearance is connected with the extensive deforestation accompanying the tundra and steppe periods of mammalian life.

TUNDRA LIFE.
Reindeer, woolly mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, musk-ox (rare),
arctic fox, arctic hare, arctic wolverene, arctic ptarmigan.
Banded and Obi lemmings in lower Aurignacian only.

ALPINE LIFE.
Argali sheep, ibex, alpine ptarmigan.

STEPPE LIFE.
Steppe horse, kiang, central Asiatic ass.

FOREST LIFE.
Red deer, roe-deer, giant deer, brown bear, cave-bear, wildcat,
wolf, fox, otter, lynx, weasel.

MEADOW LIFE.
Bison, wild cattle.

ASIATIC LIFE.
Cave-hyæna, cave-lion, ? cave-leopard.

These periodic arrivals from central Asia suggest the existence of migration routes which may also have been followed by tribes of Palæolithic hunters.

There is no evidence at this time of the presence of the more characteristic animals of the steppes, such as the saiga antelope, the jerboa, and the steppe hamster, which enter Europe during the later period of Magdalenian culture. As an indication, perhaps, of the dryness of the climate we observe that the moose (_Alces_) is no longer recorded, although it reappears in western Europe in later Magdalenian times. The giant deer (_Megaceros_) appears in southern Germany with the early Aurignacian culture, but this would seem to be the time of its extinction, because it does not occur in association with any of the later industries. For a time the bison in Dordogne, in southern Germany, and in Austria appears to be far more abundant than the wild cattle; the latter animals are not recorded either by Schmidt or Déchelette in association with the Aurignacian culture, but they reappear in the moister period of Magdalenian times.

The remains of similar late Pleistocene mammals lie scattered over a large area in Britain, and we must conclude from their presence, observes Dawkins,(12) that Britain was still broadly connected with the mainland of Europe. This is proved by the occurrence of the mammoth fauna in various places now covered by the sea, as in Holyhead Harbor, off the coasts of Devonshire and of Sussex, and in the North Sea. On the Dogger Bank the accumulation of bones, teeth, and antlers is so great that the fishermen of Yarmouth have collected in their nets and dredges more than three hundred specimens. They belong to the bear, wolf, cave-hyæna, giant deer, Irish elk, reindeer, stag, bison, urus, horse, woolly rhinoceros, mammoth, and beaver, and are to be viewed as the remains of animals deposited by river currents, as in the case of similar accumulations on land. Had they been deposited by the sea they would have been sifted by the action of the waves, the smaller being heaped together in one place and the larger in another. The carcasses had evidently been collected in the eddies of a river that helped to form the Dogger Bank, which now rises to within eight fathoms of the sea-level.

One of the animals of the Aurignacian period which is best known is the 'horse of Solutré.' Around the great Aurignacian camp at Solutré there accumulated the remains of a vast number of horses, which are estimated at not less than 100,000; the bones are distributed in a wide circle around the ancient camp, consisting of broken or entire skeletons compacted into a veritable magma, with which occur also remains of the reindeer, the urus, and the mammoth interbedded with all the types of Aurignacian implements. The majority of these horses belong to the stout-headed, short-limbed forest or northern type, measuring 54 inches (13.2 hands) at the withers, and about the size of the existing pony.(13) The joints and hoofs were especially large, and the long teeth and powerful jaws were adapted to feeding on coarse grasses; the greater part of the remains are those of horses from five to seven years of age. There is no evidence that the men of Aurignacian times either bred or reared these animals; they pursued them only for food. The discovery that the horse might be used as an animal of transport appears to have been made in the far East, and not in western Europe.

The animal and plant life of the Aurignacian station near Krems, on the Danube, above Vienna,(14) includes a strong element of the tundra forms--the arctic fox, wolverene, mammoth, rhinoceros, musk-ox, reindeer, hare, and ptarmigan. The steppe fauna, on the other hand, is rare, including only the suslik, but not the saiga antelope or any of the other characteristic steppe types. The principal objects of the chase were not only the mammoth, which was extraordinarily abundant, but also the reindeer and wild horses; the ibex is rare.

Obermaier observes that the chart of the geographic distribution of the Aurignacian shows this culture to belong essentially to the provinces surrounding the entire Mediterranean, from Syria (the grottos of Lebanon) through north Africa (Algiers) to Spain. It also has a strong development throughout France, entering middle and southern Germany and passing along the Danube to Austria, Poland, and southern Russia (Mezine) north of Kiev. There is no doubt that the mammoth hunters of Krems belonged in this wide-spread distribution; the shells used for ornaments, which unmistakably recall those of the Riviera, are only in part local from the neighborhood of Vienna; the larger part is from the Mediterranean. We may imagine that these shells passed through several hands among this race of nomadic hunters, and this is not surprising in view of the girdle which the Aurignacian stretched around the entire Mediterranean Sea.

DISCOVERY OF THE CRÔ-MAGNON RACE

The earliest discovery of a member of this race was that by Buckland, in the cave of Paviland, which opens on the face of a steep limestone cliff, about a mile east of Rhossilly, on the coast of Gower, Wales.(15) As described by Sollas, a painted skeleton, long known as the 'Red Lady,' was found in the kitchen midden which forms the floor of this cave; recent investigation has proved that this skeleton belongs to a man of the Crô-Magnon race; the associated implements are of Aurignacian type. Paviland cave is thus the first Aurignacian station discovered in Britain and marks the most westerly outpost of the Crô-Magnon race.

In 1852 the sepulchral grotto of Aurignac, on the nearest spur of the Pyrenees, in Haute-Garonne, was accidentally discovered by a laborer. It was almost filled with bones, among which were two entire skulls and many fragments, numbering altogether no less than seventeen skeletons of both sexes and of all ages. The mayor of Aurignac ordered all the bones to be taken out and re-interred in the parish cemetery. Thus, in 1860, when Lartet visited this grotto and determined it as the type station of a distinct industry, all the human remains had been lost beyond recovery, and with them all possibility of learning to what race, culture, and geologic age they belonged. On a sloping terrace in front of the grotto was the hearth containing one hundred flint implements, mingled with the remains of a typical reindeer fauna.

In 1868 Lartet explored a grotto in the little hamlet of Crô-Magnon, near Les Eyzies, on the Vézère, where he found five skeletons, which have become the type of the great Crô-Magnon race of Upper Palæolithic times. The grotto was accidentally discovered by workmen building a road in the Vézère valley. Here Lartet found the skeleton of an old man, now known as the 'old man of Crô-Magnon'; then that of a woman, whose forehead bore the mark of a wound from some heavy blow; close to her lay the fragments of a child's skeleton and near by those of two young men. Flint implements and perforated shells were found with these skeletons.

In May, 1868, the material was first described by Broca,(16) his excellent account being later reprinted and amplified in the _Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ_ of Lartet and Christy.(17) Broca referred to these skeletons as incontestable proofs of the contemporaneous existence of man and the mammoth. The associated mammalian life was that of the reindeer and the industry is now known to be of the Aurignacian stage. In his classic original description of this type Broca remarks upon the high stature, the face very broad in relation to its height, with very long and very narrow orbits; the large and markedly dolichocephalic skull, with an unusually large brain capacity, noting that the brain capacity of the Crô-Magnon woman surpasses that of the average male of to-day; the forehead correspondingly broad, vertical, convex on the median line; the bones of the limbs robust, and the shin-bones flattened transversely; altogether a very high racial type of skeleton belonging to the species _Homo sapiens_.