Chapter VII: Part 7

One or two Days before we arrived at the Mountain which was the boundary of our Journey, we met a Petty King very aged, who returned from accompanying the Emperor, he seeing us stayed with all his Retinue, and enquired by his Interpreter, which of us was called _Nauboaij_; one of our Servants having made a sign that it was I, this Prince accosted me with a great deal of Civility, and told me that for a long time he had known my Name, and that he had desired to know me. He spoke also to Father _Grimaldi_, with the same marks of Affection. The favourable Entertainment he gave us in this Re-encounter, gave some Reason to hope that our Religion might find an easie Entrance to those Princes, particularly if care be taken to insinuate into the Minds of those Princes, by the means of the Mathematicks: Which if there should at any time be a design to penetrate into their Country, the most sure way for divers Reasons, (which I have not the leisure to explain here) will be to begin the entrance with the other _Tartars_ more remote, which are not all Subjects of this Empire, from whom we may pass on to these, advancing by little and little towards _China_.

During the whole Journey, the Emperor has continued to give us singular Tokens of his good Will, shewing us Favours in the sight of his Army, which he shewed to none besides.

One time meeting us in a great Valley, where we were measuring the height and the distance of some Mountains, he made a stay with the whole Court; and calling to us from a great distance, he demanded of us in the _Chinese_ Language, _Hao-mo?_ that is to say, are you well in Health? And then asked us several Questions in the _Tartarian_ Language, concerning the heighth of these Mountains, to which I answered also in the same Language; after which, turning to the Lords that were about him, he discoursed with them concerning us in very obliging Expressions, as I learned the same Night from the Prince his Unkle, who was then by his side.

He testifyed also his Affection to us, by causing often Meat to be carry'd to our Tents from his own Table, willing also that on some Occasions we should eat in his; and every time he did us this Honour, he had a regard to our Days of Abstinence, and of Fasting, sending us only such Meats as we could use.

The eldest Son of the Emperor, after the Example of his Father, gave us marks also of his Bounty, for having been constrained to stay more than 10 Days, by reason of a fall from his Horse, by which he was hurt in his right Shoulder; and one part of the Army in which we were, having attended, whilst the Emperor with the other, continued his Hunting, he was not wanting in sending to us daily, and sometimes twice a Day, during this space, Food from his own Table. In fine, we look'd on all these Favours of the Royal Family, as the effects of a particular Providence which watched over us, and over Christianity, for which we had so much the more occasion to thank God, for that the affection of the Emperor, was never so constantly shewn to the Grandees of the Empire, nor to the Princes of the Blood.

As to what relates to the other particularities of our Journey, they are like to those which happened to us the last Year, in the Journey to the Eastern _Tartary_, which I have fully described in my last Letter; that is to say, that we made use of the Emperor's Horses, and of his Litters, that we lodged in the Tents, and eat at the Table of the Prince his Unkle, to whom he had particularly recommended us.

During more than 600 Miles, which we had passed in going and returning (for we did not return by the same Road) he caused to be made a great High-way cross the Mountains and the Vallies, for the Queen Mother, who went in a Chariot; he caused also an infinite number of Bridges to be made over the Torrents, as also the Rocks to be cut, and the Points of the Mountains, with incredible Pains and Expences: Father _Grimaldi_ shall describe the other particulars in his Letters.

As to the benefit which the Religion may draw from our Journey, I have spoken elsewhere; it sufficeth to say that the Emperor, to whose Will we cannot make the least resistance, without exposing all this Mission to a manifest Danger, has order'd us to follow him. I ceased not however to speak twice to that Lord of the Court, who is our particular Friend, to excuse us for the time to come from these long Journeys, and especially me, _who am not of an Age fit for it_: I tried to obtain at least that they would be contented to take only one of us; the Letters of our Fathers were daily brought us during the Journey, and I had the convenience of writing to them, by means of the Couriers which continually went to and came from the Royal City: I write all this in haste, that I may continue to give you an account of our Affairs.

_An Explanation, necessary to justify the _Geography_ supposed in
these Letters._

It may seem wonderful, that the Author of these Letters makes mention in his former, of a kind of War between the _Oriental Tartars_ and the _Muscovites_, notwithstanding the extream distance these People appear to be from one another in our Geographical Charts; but those who know how much the _Muscovites_ have extended the Bounds of the Empire along the _Tartarian_ Sea, will judge the thing less difficult, besides those who have seen these Countries, have made Discoveries much differing from those which our Geographers have informed us of hitherto. Very lately _Monsieur D'Arcy_, who commands one of the King's Ships, in the Fleet of _Monsieur Le Marescal d'Estrees_, informed us, that having served in _Poland_, and having been made Governor of a Place towards _Moscovy_, the _Moscovite_ Ambassadors in their return having pass'd by him, and being by him treated in such a manner as put them into a very good Humour; one of them shewed him a Chart of the Countries between _Moscovy_ and _China_: and told him, that from three Cities which he shewed him, whose Names were _Lopsla_, _Abasinko_, _Nerginsko_, all three under the Government of the great Dukes, tho' situated in the great _Tartary_, there was a way to _Pekin_, which was not more than 25 or 30 Days Journey. This Map it seems must be kept very secret in _Moscovy_: For the next Day the _Moscovite_ was in despair, for having given it, saying that if it should be known, he should come to great Damage. The Officer being come back since into _France_, has given a Copy to the King, and another to _Monsieur Le Marquis de Signelay_. To confirm this, it may be added, what a _French_ Man has writ from _Moscovy_ within this two Months, that they are actually raising Troops to go to War with the _Chinese_.

_Some Observations and Conjectures concerning the _Chinese_
Characters. Made by _R. H._ R. S. S._

Whether there ever were any Language natural, I dispute not: But that there have been, are, and may be, artificial Languages 'tis not difficult to prove. The _Chinese_ Court Language is said to be of this kind, invented and spoken by the _Literati_ and _Mandarines_ throughout the whole Empire of _China_, differing from all the other Languages spoken in it, and I conjecture it to be nothing else but the Names of the Character by which they write and express their meaning, arbitrarily imposed by them, as we in _Europe_ set names to Arithmetical Figures, not as we pronounce Words written with a litteral Character. This I Judge by comparing the Characters with the Names, Monosyllables or Words they pronounce and read them with. Nor do they ascend above a Monosyllabical Name, tho' the Character be composed of many single Characters, each of which hath its proper Sense, and Monosyllabical Name, and though the meaning of each Character, be an ingredient in the Notion of that compounded Character.

I might give an Instance also in the Artificial Language Invented by the Late Reverend Bishop of _Chester_ Dr. _Wilkins_, which in all the accomplishments of Language doth excel any one yet extant; to which is also annexed a real Character, Legible into that or any other Language Spoken. By which Language the Character and every additional Mark is effable, and yet the Character is not Literal but Real, which is more curious and useful than the _Chinese_ way. Great pity it is that Discourse is not published in Latin, that the Learned of _Europe_, may think of further Improving it, and bringing it to Use.

But whatever we may judge of Language, 'tis past dispute that Writing was ever Artificial, how Antiently so ever it were in Use, and was the Invention of some thinking and Studious Men. 'Tis also evident that there have been various ways thought of for Expressing Significancy, according to the several _Genii_ of the Persons that were the Inventors. As may be guessed by the _Ægyptian_ Hieroglyphicks, the _Chinese_ Characters, the _Mexican_ Chronology, and the Literal Characters of several Nations, each of which seem to proceed upon differing methods, and from differing thoughts of Invention.

Which of these ways is the most Antient, is hard to prove. The _Ægyptian Mummies_ and _Obelesks_ prove a great Antiquity of the Hieroglyphicks, but yet the _Chinese_ Chronology (if to be credited) outstrips the _Ægyptian_ in pretence to Antiquity. For the _Chinese_ make _Fohi_, the first King of _China_, to be the inventer of their Character: And account him to have lived 2950 Years before the time of Christ, during all which time they pretend to have a certain and written Account in their Books: But their Account of the times preceding, they esteem more Hypothetical and Fabulous; depending chiefly upon Fiction and Oral Tradition: As you will easily believe, when you understand how many Years they make it since the Creation of the World to the present Year 1686. which by the Account thereof in Mr. _Graves_'s Translation of _Vulg. Beig._ will be found to be no less than eighty eight millions six hundred and forty thousand one hundred and two Solar Years, there having been run out since the Creation 8864 _Ven._ of Years (every _Ven._ containing ten thousand such Years) and of the present _Ven._ this Year 1686. is the 102d. Which Account is abundantly more extravagant than the _Ægyptian_: But this need not invalidate their History since _Fohi_; by which it appears that their Character was invented before the time of _Moses_ about 1400 Years, and even before _Menes_ the first King of _Ægypt_ about 500 Years. So that the _Chinese_ Invention of Writing or Characters, seems to be the most ancient of that kind. And the Book _Yekim_ said to be written by _Fohi_, the most antient Book.

These Accounts made me the more desirous to understand somewhat of the Reality and Truth, of what is related concerning the Knowledge of Literature and manual Arts, which these People of _China_ are said to have possessed so long a time in so great Perfection, and without Alteration from the primitive Institution, especially upon the Account of their Art of Printing, which gave a hint to the Inventors of that admirable and most useful of all Inventions (for the Common Wealth of Learning) the way of Printing here in _Europe_. For _Paulus Jovius_ affirms that the first occasion of that Invention in _Germany_, was a _German_ Merchant, who returning out of _China_ into his own Country, related what he had observed concerning the Practice of it as used in that Country. And tho' the _Chinese_ way be wholly differing as to the method of composing, from what was invented and perfected here: Yet such an intimation was enough to an ingenious Artist to improve the first Contrivance, and make it more accomodate to the literal way of Writing with us: And as our way may possibly be now brought to the greatest Perfection for exactness and expedition, so without doubt must be their way of Printing any thing just as it is written, since I find, that they can engrave their Stamps for a Sheet, as soon as one of our Compositers can set and correct a Sheet of our literal Character, and when so done, one Man alone will print off 1500 Sheets in one Day. And though 'tis generally believed to be much the same with our Wooden Cuts for Printing, yet from some Observations I have made, I believe it to be much another way; of which I shall hereafter say more when I describe their other Arts of Pottery, Staining, Varnishing, _&c._

By a _Chinese_ Manuscript, out of which I transcribed the Lord's Prayer in the Year 1666 (when it was lost) I found that the Pronunciations had no affinity with the stroaks of the Character. Whence I conceived it was either a numeral Character consisting of Numbers, or else a real Character, but not a literal, unless it were a literal Character of some other Language than that by which it was pronounced, whose pronunciation is lost though the significancy be retained, as if one should read what is written in _Hebrew_ בראשיהברא into the _Latin_ or _Roman_ Language, _In Principio Cræavit_ instead of _Brasit bra_, or _Beresith Bara_ according to the _Masorethæ_.

Since that time I procured from _China_, a Dictionary of the Court Language, (as I found it written upon by the Person that sent it me from thence) but this whole Book (which I found was Printed) consisted only of the _Chinese_ Characters without any Interpretation, or Pronunciation; however by the help of the Pictures of that, and a _Chinese_ Almanack, I quickly found out their Characters for Numbers, and their way of Numeration, together with the Figure and Use of their _Abacus_ or counting Board, for performing the Operations of _Arithmetick_, which I find pretty near to agree with that of the antient _Romans_ (a Description and Picture of which is given by _Ursinus_, _Pignorius_ and _Velserus_) save only, that, instead of Pins and sliding Groves of the _Roman_, the _Chinese Abacus_ hath Strings or Wires and Beads, to slide upon them; and that, instead of four Pins for Digits or Units, the _Chinese_ hath five Beads: So that it may seem to argue that the _Chinese Abacus_ was designed for a _Duodecimal_ Progression: Whereas that of the _Romans_ was design'd for the _Decimal_.

One thing is remarkable in the _Chinese_, that I find the _Abacus_ to lie Horizontal, and their first place to be that next the left Hand, which I judge was also the first in their old way of reading, much the same with ours, though their other Characters are erected (as I shall by and by shew) from the posture of Writing and Reading, which I conjecture they did at first make use of; and what does yet further agree with this conjecture, is remarkable in the newly mentioned Treatise of _Vulg. Beig._ That whereas the way of Writing and Reading used by the _Arabs_, was from the right to the left, the first place or the place of Units in their Numeration, was that next the right Hand; and so came first to be read: As did that of _China_, who as I conceive read the contrary way, from the left to the right.

It appears therefore by this Remark that we received this way of expressing Numbers from the _Arabians_, for that we keep the same posture or position of places with them, tho' our progression in Writing and Reading be the contrary way. And though we now read them also in the order they are set, twenty one, twenty two, thirty six, forty eight, _&c._ yet we retain also the other way of Pronouncing, _viz._ one and twenty, two and twenty, six and thirty, eight and forty, _&c._

Now as the _Chinese_ and _Roman Abacus_ do much agree save only that they proceed contrary ways, so doth their way of expressing Numbers by Letters or Marks, one stroke or line signifying one; two lines two; three lines three; a cross ten; two crosses twenty; three crosses thirty; and so onwards to a hundred, which they expressed by a square Mark, and a cross with a stroak added for a thousand, as will appear by the Table annexed. And though the Characters are not all the same; yet the order and method of one agrees very near with that of the other, especially if I may be allowed my supposition, that the primitive way of Writing and Reading with the _Chinese_ was Horizontal, and like the _Greek_ and _Latin_ or _European_ way. Now that these are properly numeral Figures, or Characters, is manifest from this, that they have also word Characters for every Number, and they can (in the same manner as the _Romans_ could) express a Number by their numeral characters or Marks, and by their literal or word Characters; for as one single stroak signifies one or the first, so does the Character (_in the Plate marked with E_) signify the same thing, that is one or the first.

Having thus discovered their Characters for Numbers, and their way of Numeration, I was next desirous to understand something concerning their Language and Character.

Upon perusing all the Accounts I could meet with in Books, I found very little satisfaction as to what I principally inquired after, which was first concerning the method of the Character, whether it consisted of a certain number of Marks methodically disposed like Letters in a literal, or like Numbers in a Numeral, or like Radicals in composite and decomposite Derivations? 'Tis said to be legible into a great many Languages considerably different one from another, but how this is effected is not related, only 'tis said that the Marks are of the nature of our Arithmetical Figures, (which are become almost Universal at least to us here in _Europe_,) and 2dly, concerning the number of these Characters? to which I found as little satisfaction; for, by some Relations I found that there were 120000, by others 80000, and by others 60000. And that a Man must be able to remember to Write and Read at least 8000, or 10000, before he will be able to express his meaning thereby, and that it is the business of a Man's whole Life to be throughly understanding in the whole Character; seeming to intimate that the Characters are immethodical, and there are as many primitive Characters as Words. Others tell us of various kinds of Characters which have been in use in several Ages. The first they say were _Hieroglyphical_ like the _Ægyptian_ or _Mexican_, consisting of the Pictures of Animals and Vegetables. But that the last are made up of Lines and Points, that they have no such thing as Letters or Syllables, but every distinct Word and Notion has a distinct Character, and that all are primitive or in composite, so that if _Calepines_ Dictionary were to be translated into the _Chinese_, 'twere necessary to have as many distinct radical Characters as there are Words therein to be found, which accounts do seem to insinuate that this Character is the most difficult, and the most perplexed piece of Learning in the World, and depends wholly upon the strength of the Memory, in retaining the form and signification of a perplexed scrawl. But whether they who gave us these Accounts did do it knowingly, is much to be doubted, my own Observations, at least, make me think otherwise.

I have not yet been able to procure sufficient helps to inform my self of the whole Art of Writing and Reading the _Chinese_ Character, and I fear the Relations I have hitherto met with concerning it, were written by such as did not well understand it, however from such helps as I had, what I collected or do conjecture, I shall here relate. The best help I had, was the perusal of some Books Printed in _China_, with the pronunciation and signification of the Character in Latin Letters. By these Books then I observed, first, that every one of their Characters, whether consisting of more or fewer strokes or marks, were comprised within a certain square space, which is proportion'd according to the bigness of the size or manner of Writing, they design there to make use of, not that the whole Square is filled with every Character, but that no part of that Character does exceed the limits of that Square, so that tho' the Character have but one stroak, it takes as much room in the line as another that hath 20 or 30 several Marks, so that their Characters are most exactly ranged in Rank and File, not unlike our Numbers in Arithmetick.

Notwithstanding which I find they do vary the bigness of the Character upon several Occasions, as in the Titles of Books, in the Titles of the Chapters or Sections, in the Comments, Explications or Notes, and upon several other occasions of variety, which they do at Pleasure with their Pencil, as we use variety of Letters in the Printing of a Book. The Titles of Books are generally in very large Characters, 6 or 8 times as big as those of the Book, the explication Notes ½ of the bigness, the Contents usually twice as big, and the like variety on several other occasions. I have met with also three several kinds of Characters, the most usual is the fixed or set square form. The second sort is the running Hand, in which the orders of the Courts are written by their Secretaries, of which I have seen 3 or 4 kinds, in which the Pencil is never taken off, till the whole Character be finished, and sometimes two or three are all written without break. The third seems to be somewhat like the flourishing great Letters, used by Scriveners at the beginning of Deeds, and by the _Germans_ in the beginning of Chapters and Sections. They are compounded of the same strokes as the set Character, but modulated and shaped a little otherwise to make them appear the more beautiful and regular. A Specimen of each of these three are in the Plate. This third is made use of for Epitaphs, and other Inscriptions on Buildings or Monuments. These three sorts I may call the three general kinds of Writing, but there is to be found an almost infinite variety of forms which Men use. This will be the more easie to be believed, when we consider that the Printed Characters are exactly the same with the Written, insomuch that every variety in each stroke, line or point, that is or can be made with the Pencil, is perfectly expressed in the Impression, and the Form, Mode, or Hand, as we call it, of every Writer is exhibited so curiously, that I think it hardly possible to be performed after the way of wooden Cuts, as Authors affirm it is, but must be done after the method of our Copper Cuts, Printed by a Roll-press, which the way of expressing the Running or Court-Hand, does, I conceive, most evidently demonstrate, and from divers circumstances, I could evidently make appear from the Book it self, which I cannot so well express in Writing. Their Paper is generally very thin and fine, and very transparent, but brown, so that whatever is Written or Printed on it, is almost as legible on the back, as on the foreside, which is of great use in the cutting of their Stamps. And thence they never Write or Print on both sides of the same Leaf, but only on one, and to make the Leaf appear Printed on both sides, they double the Sheet with the Printed sides outwards, and putting the folded part forward, they Sew, Bind, or Stitch together, all these Sheets with the cut Edges, and upon whole Sheets instead of single Leaves; just in the same manner as the Plate annexed to this Discourse is Printed. They begin the Book on the top of the right Hand side of the Page that is next the right Hand, and they read downwards to the bottom, then begin the next Line towards the left Hand at the top, and so read to the bottom, and so proceed to the end of the Book. But this I suppose not to be the primitive or first way of Writing or Reading. The Title of the Book is set first upon a whole Leaf, usually of a thicker Paper, and some Title is likewise Written upon the folding or edge of every Sheet, where is set also the Number of the Book, and the Number of the Sheet, half of which appears on one side, and half on the other side of the fold.

As to the Character it self, (I find by all the Books and Writings I have yet met with of that kind) that each of them is made up of a certain number of Strokes, Lines or Marks, which are very distinct from each other in their shape and position, and by reason that these are single Strokes, and as I conceive uncompounded, I think they may be called the Letters, Elements or Particles, out of which the more compounded Characters are constructed or contexed. These are the first kind of which there are but a very few, and I think those I have described in the thirteenth Line of the Plate are all.

Two, three, four, or more of these joined together in a certain order and contexture (in the doing of which there is a great Regularity and Order observed, which is not varied from, and all within the regular square Space) I conceive do make Syllables or primitive radical Characters, each of which have a primitive, single or distinct Notion or Signification as well as Sound, which is made much use of in the more compounded Characters or Words. Of this kind I take the Figures of the Numbers to be: If at least they are not single Letters like the way of expressing Numbers in the _Hebrew_, _Greek_, _Arabick_, &c. Languages, for though there may be two or three of the single strokes joyned together into a compound Character, it hinders not, but that it may still signify a Letter, as in the _Greek_ ΛΑ.Δ.Ι.Γ.Π.Γ. In the Runick; where every Letter hath one upright Line and some other additional Marks: In the _Roman_ I.L.F.E.O.Q.V.Y: Or it may signify a Syllable as in the _Æthiopick_, and in the _Hanscret_, and _Sunscrit_ Languages and Characters: The first of which being the _Brackmans_ Character we find in _P. Kircher_'s _China Illustrata_, described by _P. Roth_ who studied it seven Years; and the second (being a literal Character used over all _India_ by the Merchants) I have seen in a Transcript, brought lately out of _India_ by a very Worthy Gentleman who lived there many Years, and had the Curiosity to cause to be Transcribed and Translated also into English, a Dictionary of their Language in their own Character: who did me the favour to let me peruse it.

In which Characters or ways of Writing a Vowel is always join'd with a Consonant into one compound Character to make it effable. And then the single Strokes may be taken for single ineffable Letters as are the Consonants, and the composition of two or three (of which one at least may be a Vowel) will make Syllables.

Of this kind, there are not so many in the whole _Chinese_ Character, but that it will be easie enough to assign each a proper Monosyllable which shall only have 1 or 2 Consonants, and one or two Vowels; that is, the Consonants together, and not separate, either both behind the Vowel or Vowels, if it be a Diphthong or both after it or them.

Of this kind, I understand there are about 500, probably 8×8×8, or 512. I could enumerate a great many, and give you also the Name or Words by which they are pronounced as also their signification, but (as I said before) first, I conceive the present _Chinese_ Language to have no affinity at all with the Character, the true primitive, or first Language, or Pronunciation of it, having been lost. And secondly, I want some further help to make a full and compleat Discovery: What I have learn'd from the Book of _Fohi_ I shall give the next opportunity; which will explain the reason of the multiplication of 8. and the order and method of places in the Letter or Word square.

The third sort of Characters, is a decompounded sort being made up of two, three or more of those of the second kind, diminish'd proportionably in their size, either as to their length, or breadth, or both, from what they have in the same Writing when they are single and fill up the whole Letter square or Words square. For there being several of them to be crouded together within the same square, according as there are more in number, so they are always more squeezed together. In this decompound sort, there is a regular Order observed in the placing of the several Characters of the 2d sort; there being some that are always on the left side, some always on the right, some at the top, some at the bottom. Of which I doubt not but that they have a certain regular Method, which had we Dictionaries explained, would be easie enough to be discovered.

This method alone of crouding together all the Characters (how many soever go to make up the decompounded Character) into one square (which is of the same size for the most Simple and for the most Compound) seems to be the great singularity, by which the _Chinese_ Characters differ from those of all the rest of the World. And this I conceive has been the reason why all People, and possibly even the very _Chinese_ themselves have, and do believe it to be a real and not a literal Character: For if the primitive Language, or pronunciation of the Characters be lost (as I conceive it is) and that the disposition, order, method, texture, or manner of placing the more simple in the more compound Characters be also lost, forgotten, or not understood; then the whole Characters becomes a real and not a literal Character: And an immethodical one to such as want a method, that must be learned by rote, and depend wholly upon the strength of the Memory to retain it. But I conceive it might be at first either a literal Character, and so the whole square Character was composed of so many distinct Letters or Syllables, which composed the Word signified thereby; and so there might be a regular Order of placing these Letters in the Character, that is, that the whole square being divided into so many parts, there was a Rule which was the first, second, third and fourth place: so that there being placed in those the several Letters that made up the Word, according to the order they had in the Word, it was easie by that Rule to Decipher the said Character, and thence to find the Word and the Signification, as regularly as if the Letters had been written one after another, as most other literal Characters we know are at this Day written.

Or Secondly, it might be a real Character consisting of divers Marks or Letters, that expressed so many simple Notions, several of which joined together might make up the more compounded Characters, of which I have added some Examples in the Plate, which may be also made literal and pronounceable, tho' that consideration were not made use of, when they were first invented. What things I have observed in my _Chinese_ Books that seem to respect this Method, I will give more particulars of by the next opportunity, by Printing a Specimen of the Book _Ye-kim_ which explicated by these Notions will I conceive appear more intelligible, than by the Accounts we find given of it by the _Chinese_ Commentators, and those that have Translated them into _Latin_, who seem not to have understood the true design thereof: For both the _Chinese_ and _European_ Commentators assert it to be a Conjuring Book, or a Book to tell Fortunes by, and to be made use of by the _Chinese_ for that purpose; whereas by the small Specimen I have seen of it, I conceive it to contain the whole Ground, Rule or Grammar, of their Character, Language and Philosophy, and that by the understanding of it, the Foundation and Rule of their Language and Character may be without much difficulty Deciphered and Understood.

The present use of this Character, I conceive to be differing from what it was at first, both as to the position of Writing and Reading it, and as to the Expression and Pronunciation thereof.

For the way of Writing and Reading it, I conceive might at first be exactly the same with that of the _Greeks_, _Romans_, _English_, and all other _European_ Nations, and also the _Æthiopick_ and _Coptick_. That is, they began at the top of the Page towards the left Hand, and so proceeded towards the right in the _Horizontal_ Line to the end of it, and then began at the left end of the next Line under the first and proceeded with that in the same manner, and so with the next under that and all the remaining. Continuing to Write the Words of the Line towards the right Hand, and the Lines of the Page one under another till the whole Discourse were compleated, joyning Leaf to Leaf one under another, after the same manner as the Rouls are at present Writ, and as the _Volumina_ were of the Ancients. And to make the parts of the Volume to be the more easily to be come at, without the trouble of rolling and unrolling as the Ancient _Romans_ did, and we do with our Rouls, they contrived to fold them, like the folds of a Fan, forwards and backward: And so stitching them together, that the Written sides might lie outwards, and open freely one from another, and the fair sides might meet together, it came to make the present form of their Book, which being laid as we generally place our Books before us, they seem to begin at the top of the Page on the right Hand, and to proceed to the bottom, and then at the top of the next Line towards the left Hand, and descend as in the former; proceeding in this order with all the rest, which way must needs be very inconvenient for Writing, however they may use their Pencil differing from our Pen. Though there be a way of Writing from the top to the bottom of the Page, which is very convenient for Writing the _Syriack_, as also for Writing _Latin_, _English_, or _Greek_, where the Writing is to be used for cutting the Stamps of Wood, or graving of Copper Plates with the same Character for Printing, in which Cases the Letters must be written backwards.

Secondly, as to the Pronunciation of this Character, by the Court Language, or by any other now used, I conceive it to be wholly differing from that of a literal Character, that is from being pronounced or spoken according to the Marks or Figures thereof, whether they be simple or compounded, and made up of simple Characters (though there are some Instances of affinity in Characters and Words.) The reason of which differing pronunciation I conceive may have proceeded, partly from the loss of the primitive Language, for which it was made, partly from a most inconvenient affection of Monosyllabical Words in this Court Language, to help the Poverty of which, they are fain to make one Syllable to signifie many differing Notions, to do which they have introduced a kind of Musical toning or accenting of each of them, and not single but compound of two or three Tones to each signification of every one of these Monosyllables: Partly from the using of this way of Writing, by divers Nations of differing Languages, who minding only the Figure and Signification, read it into their own Mother Tongues, as we in _Europe_ do Arithmetical Figures: And partly, also from the omission of most Grammatical Distinctions, the same Character serving for Substantive and Adjective, Singular and Plural, in all Cases, (save only they have some Characters for Particles, as _of_ and _to_ in English) for the Verb in all Tenses, and Numbers, _&c._ for the abstract and the concrete Signification, and for divers Metaphorical; if at least the Interpretation I have met with in the Books I have perused be exact: Partly, also from the _Syntaxis_ of them, it being necessary to consider the whole Sentence, to discover which part of Speech each Character is of, in that Sentence, wherein the Order and Positions of the Characters to one another, for which they have Rules, hath its signification: And lastly, from the loss of the very Notion of a literal Character, whence for the expressing of proper Names, they are fain to make use of several Characters, whose Sounds or Words come nearest to the Sounds of the Syllables of that Name, as in the Plate _tam. jo, van_, for _Adam. Jovan_.

Now, though I conceive this Character is not effable properly as a literal Character by any of their present Languages: And though possibly it might be at first a real Character, that is each of them compounded of such Strokes or Marks as by their Figures, Positions and Numbers in the square, denoted the several Philosophical Ingredients, that made up the Notion of the whole Character, as the Book _Ye-Kim_ seems to shew by giving Rules as I conceive for the Order and Significancy of places in the Square, _&c._ Yet I think it not difficult to make it a Literal, or at least a Syllabical Character, and legible into a Language somewhat after the manner of the Universal Character I mentioned before. And tho' this would not be the primitive Language for which it was made, yet for the present uses of it (the chiefest of which is the assisting and refreshing the Memory, and helping the Imagination by proper Sounds) it might be as good: Wherein the single Characters might be Monosyllables and the compounded Dissyllables, Trissyllables, _&c._ According to the Numbers and Order of simple Characters in the square of the Compounded. And I am apt to think that the present pronunciation of Languages, as of _Hebrew_, _Syriack_, _Arabick_, _Greek_ and _Latin_, or any other Language that has been so long Written, may be as much differing from what it was 2000 Years since, as an Arbitrary one now invented, and grounded on the Letters, might possibly be. And such an arbitrary Pronunciation if generally agreed upon might serve _as well_ for a help to learn the signification of Words, or _Word Combinations_ of Characters, as if we now knew the exact primitive Pronunciations, as critically as the _Masorethæ_ are said to have done that of the _Hebrew_; and possibly also a _much better_, for that by such a one a great many irregularities and difficulties of Pronunciation (which are to be found in all Languages now spoken) might be omitted, and the whole made exactly regular and easie, as might be shewn in the _Hebrew_ and _Greek_, and especially in the _Arabick_, whose difficulties are sufficiently manifested by _Alphabetum Arabicum_, Printed at _Rome_ 1592. Now as by such a Language the Character might be made effable without Musical Tones or difficult Aspirations, so had we Dictionaries of the signification of the Characters, we might as soon learn the _Chinese_ Characters, as we can _Latin_, or any other Language to be learn'd by Book, and not by speaking.

IMPRIMATUR,

_John Hoskyns_ Vice P. R. S.
_July_ 17_th._, 1686.

_The Chinese Abacus from the Chinese Dictionary containing nine places or degrees_

一二三四五六七八九

I 一 yĕ̇
II 二 th́
III 三 san̄
IV 四 sú
V 五 v̀
VI 六 lŏ̇
VII 七 ziĕ̇
VIII 八 pă̇
IX 九 kièn
X 十 xĕ̇
XI 十 xĕ̇
一 yĕ̇
X 十 xĕ̇
II 二 lh́
X 十 xĕ̇
III 三 san̄
X 十 xĕ̇
V 五 v̀

XX 廾 lh́xĕ̇
XX 二 lh́
十 xĕ̇
XXX 卅 san̄xĕ̇
XXX 三 san̄
十 xĕ̇
XXXX 四 sú
十 xĕ̇
L 五 v̀
十 xĕ̇
LX 六 lŏ̇
十 xĕ̇
LXX 七 ziĕ̇
十 xĕ̇
LXXX 八 pac
十 xĕ̇

100 白 pĕ̇
100 百 pĕ̇
200 二 lh́
白 pĕ̇
300 三 san̄
百 pĕ̇
400 四 sú
百 pĕ̇
1000 千 zien̄
2000 二 lh́
千 zien̄
3000 三 san̄
千 zien̄
10000 萬 ván
30000 三 san̄
萬 ván

CIↃ 千 zien̄
DC 六 lŏ̇
百 pĕ̇
LXXX 八 pă̇
十 xĕ̇
VI 六 lŏ̇
añus 年 nien̂
V 五 v̀
mensis 月 yuĕ
XIII 十 xĕ̇
die 三 san̄
日 gĕ̇

正
E

年 nien̂
五 v̀
人 gin̂
大 ta
先 sien̄
仁 gin̂
八 pă̇
之 chī̇

湯 tàm̄
若 jo
望 vàm
天 tìen̄
原 yuên
又 yéu

_I Senex Sculpsit_]

_A Letter from _F. A._ Esq; R. S. S. to the Publisher, with a Paper
of Mr. _S. Flowers_, containing the Exact Draughts of several
unknown Characters, taken from the Ruins at _Persepolis_._

_SIR_,

I here send you some Fragments of Papers put into my Hands by a very good Friend, relating to antique and obscure Inscriptions, which were retrieved after the Death of Mr. _Flower_, Agent in _Persia_ for our _East-India_ Company, who, while he was a Merchant at _Aleppo_, had taken up a Resolution to procure some Draught or Representation of the admired Ruins at _Chilmenar_, pursuant to the third Enquiry for _Persia_, mention'd in the _Philosophical Transactions_, pag. 420. _viz._ _Whether there being already good Descriptions in Words of the Excellent Pictures and _Basse Relieves_ that are about _Persepolis_ at _Chilmenar_, yet none very particular, some may not be found sufficiently Skilled in those parts, that might be engaged to make a Draught of the Place, and the Stories there Pictur'd and Carved_. This Desire of the Royal Society, as I believe, it hinted at a Summary Delineation, which might be perform'd by a Man qualifi'd in a few Days, taking his own opportunity for the avoiding much Expence, (which you know they are never able to bear:) So I cannot but think Mr. _Flower_ conceived it to be a Business much easier to perform than he found it upon the Place, where he Spent a great deal of Time and Mony, and dying Suddainly after, left his Draughts and Papers dispersed in several Hands, one part whereof you have here, the rest its hoped may in some Time be recovered, if Sir _John Chardin_'s exact and accurate Publication of the entire Work do not put a period to all further Curiosity, which I heartily wish.

_An Exact Draught or Copy of the several Characters engraven in
Marble at the Mountains of _Nocturestand_ and _Chahelminar_ in
_Persia_, as they were taken in _November 1667._ By Mr. _S.
Flower_._

_N_ 1. _N_ 2. These two Characters are engraven on the Breast of two Horses cut out of the Mountain of Black Marble at _Nocturestand_, distant a League from _Chahelmanare_, or the Ancient _Persepolis_, one whereof is said to be _Alexander_'s, the other _Rustram_'s, (a Famous Hero supposed to have lived about the time of _Cambises_.) Mr. _Fl._

_N_ 1. This Character hath some Similitude with the Ancient Hebrew, but the _Persians_ would have it their own, tho' they understand not a Letter. Mr. _F._

ΤΟΥΤΟΤΟ ΡΟΣUΥΟΝ ΜΑΣΛΑΣΝΟΥ
ΘΕΟΥΑΡΖΑ......ΣΙΑΩΣΒΑΣΙΑΕΩΝ
ΑΡΙΑΝΩΝ....ΣΘΣΩΝΥΙΟΥ
ΘΕΟΥΠΑΠΑ..ΥΒΑ..ΕΩΣ

ΤΟΥΤΟΤΟ ΠΡΟΣΩΠΟΝ ΔΙΟΣΘΕΟΥ

_I Senex Sculpsit_]

_N_ 2. In these Lines the places are prickt where the Letters were defaced and not Perceptible. Mr. _F._

_N_ 3. This is the (_Arabick_) _Persian_ Character engraven at _Persepolis_ not above 500. years since, and is little different from the Writing us'd at this day. Mr. _F._

_N_ 4. These two Lines were writ entire on _Rustram_'s Horse. Mr. _F._

_N_ 5. This Character, whether it be the Ancient Writing of the _Gaures_ or _Gabrees_, or a kind of _Telesmes_, is found only at _Persepolis_, being a part of what is there engraven in white Marble, and is by no Man in _Persia_ legible or understood at this Day.

A Learned Jesuit Father, who deceased Three Years since, affirmed this Character to be known and used in _Ægypt_. Mr. _F._

It seems written from the Left Hand to the Right, and to consist of Pyramids, diversly posited, but not joined together. As to the Quantity of the Inscriptions, _Herbert_ reckon'd in one large Table Twenty Lines of a Prodigious Breadth. Of this sort here are distinct Papers each of several Lines.

_N_ 6. This Character is likewise Engraved at _Persepolis_, of the like Antiquity with the former. It has some Affinity with the _Syriack_ and _Arabick_, and has been pretended to be understood by some of the _Padrees_. Mr. _F._

_A Letter from Monsieur _N. Witsen_ to Dr. _Martin Lister_, with
two Draughts of the Famous _Persepolis_._

This Ingenious and Inquisitive Gentleman having already often obliged the World with Communications of his Discoveries, lately sent the following Letter with the Draughts to Dr. _Lister_, who was pleased to permit their Publication in these Tracts: The greatness of the Curiosity we hope will recommend them to the Lovers of Antiquity, little of those famous Remains having been yet publish'd, and those that have been, but ill designed or graved. Monsieur _Witsen_'s Letter, translated from the _French_, is as follows.

* * * * *

_SIR_,

Since I had the Honour of receiving your last, there came to my Hands several curious _Shells_ from you, with a piece of _English Agate_, and the Transactions of the Royal Society for the Month of _June_ last, for which Favours I return my humble Thanks. As to the Cockles of the _Caspian_ Sea, and from the Mouth of _Wolga_, I have advice from _Moscou_, that they are expected there this Winter: Mean while I herewith send you some _Snail-Shells_, taken out of the River _Jaute_, not far from the City of _Moscou_. Our Apothecaries make use of them powdered, and probably for the same purpose as _Crabs-Eyes_. There are some others likewise which are found in the Rivers of _Moscou_ and _Neglina_, and in the _Wolga_. Since you have been pleased to communicate to me an Inscription found at _Persepolis_, I thought it would be acceptable to send you the Draughts of part of the Ruins of the Stone-work of that proud Palace, given me by the Person himself that drew them upon the place. I should be much satisfied had I any thing worthy of your Curiosity and the Publick, which you so often oblige with your Discoveries, which justly merit mine and the Thanks of all that esteem them as much as my self, who am the Cherisher of your Friendship, and desirous to shew that I am,

_SIR_,

_Your most Humble and Obedient Servant_,

N. Witsen.

_Amsterdam_,
_Jan. 1. 1694._

_A Description of the Diamond-mines, as it was presented by the
Right Honourable the Earl Marshal of _England_, to the _R.
Society_._

The parts of the World known to contain _Diamonds_, are the Island _Borneo_, and the Continent of _India extra & intra Gangem_: _Pegu_ is likewise reported to have several; but the King not potent, his Country being but thinly inhabited, contents himself with his Mines of _Rubies_, _Saphires_, _Topasses_, _Emeralds_, _Gold_, _Silver_, _Brass_, _Tinn_ and _Lead_, and several other Commodities his Country affords, in great plenty, rather than to suffer new enquiries to be made, lest the Discovery of such an additional Treasure should invite some of his Neighbours, more potent to invade him. But leaving the description of other Places to those that know them better, I shall only keep my self to the Coast of _Coromandel_, with which I am acquainted, and having visited several of its Mines, am able to say something thereof Experimentally.

The Diamond-Mines in these parts are generally adjacent to Rocky-hills, or Mountains, whereof begins a great Ledge or Range near _Cape Comorin_, extending in Breadth about 50 _English_ Miles, some conjoyning, others scatter'd: and running thence in length quite through _Bengula_. In, among, and near these Hills, in several places, are known to be (as its believed most of them have) Mines; many of them are possessed by petty Princes, or _Rajaes_, of the _Hundues_; some driven thither for shelter by the _Mores_, who have taken the greatest part of their Country from them; others never overcome, as the _Rajaes_, on the Hills in and near _Bengala_, who admit of little or no Commerce with their Neighbours, or passage through their Country, which (being Barren, in few Places affording good Water, the ways craggy and very toilsome, especially to an Army) the _Moors_ covet not, but let them enjoy it peaceably; yet to prevent danger, they forbid digging (as the King of _Pegu_ does) or dig some few Mines only very privately, so that a great part of the Mines are unsearcht and concealed. But the Kingdoms of _Golconda_ and _Visiapore_ contain in them scope enough of ground, known to have Mines sufficient to furnish all the World plentifully with Diamonds; but their Kings permit digging only in some Places appointed, lest, as it is imagined, they should become too common; and withal for fear of tempting the threatening greatness of _Aurenge Zebe_; forbidding also those Places that afford the largest Stones, or else keeping workmen in them for their own private uses: So that but a very small quantity (in Comparison of what might be) and those only of ordinary Size, are found.

In the Kingdom of _Golconda_ (as near as I can gather from the best acquainted) are 23 Mines now employed, or that have been so lately, viz. _Quolure_, _Codawillicul_, _Malabar_, _Buttephalem_, _Ramiah_, _Gurem_, _Muttampellee_, _Currure_, _Ganjeeconeta_, _Luttawaar_, _Jonagerree_, _Pirai_, _Dugulle_, _Purwillee_, _Anuntapelle_, _Girrogeta_, _Maarmood_, _Wazzergerre_, _Munnemurg_, _Langumboot_, _Whootoor_, _Muddemurg_, and _Melwillee_ or the New Mine.

_Quoloure_ was the first Mine made use of in this Kingdom. The Earth is something Yellowish, not unlike the Colour of our Gravel dried; but whiter in some Places where it abounds with smooth Pebbles, much like some of those that come out of our Gravel-pits in _England_. They use to find great quantities in the Vein, if it may properly be so called, the Diamonds not lying in continued Clusters as some imagine, but frequently so very scattering that sometimes in the space of ¼ of an Acre of Ground, digged between two or three fathoms Deep, there hath been nothing found; especially in the Mines that afford great Stones, lying near the superficies of the Earth, and about three Fathoms deep; deeper they could not dig for Water; it being in a Vale near a River. In other places the Earth is mixt with rugged Stones, where they seldom mine deeper, though in higher ground, before the Colour of the Earth alters, and the Vein ceases; which they give a guess at by the small Stones they find in the Earth, the principal Guide they have in the discovery of the Mines.

The Diamonds found in these Mines are generally well-shaped, many of them pointed, and of a good lively white Water; but it also produces some _Yellow_ ones, some _Brown_, and of other colours. They are of ordinary sizes, from about six in a _Mangelin_[18] (of which they find but few) to five or six _Mangelins_, each; some of 10, 15, 20. they find but rarely. They have frequently a bright and transparent skin, inclining to a greenish Colour, though the heart of the Stone be purely white; but the Veins of these Mines are almost worn out.

The Mines of _Codawillicul_, _Malabar_, and _Buttepallam_ consist of a reddish Earth, inclining to an Orange-colour (with which it stains the Cloaths of the Labourers that work in it) they dig about four Fathom deep. They afford Stones generally of an excellent Water and crystaline Skin; smaller sizes than those of _Quoloure_, _Ramiah_, _Gurem_, and _Muttampelleo_; have a Yellowish Earth, like _Quolure_; their Stones like those of the two former Mines, but mixt with many of a blue Water. These five Mines being under the same Government with _Melwillee_, where the Governour resides; He to draw the Adventurers and Merchants near him, that he may be better informed of the Actions and Advantages, and know the better how to Fleece them, the general practice of Governours in these parts, has very lately forbid their use; and commanded all to repair to his Residence, which they must obey, or fly into another Government.

The next Mine in our way is _Currure_, the most famous of them all and most Ancient.