Chapter XVIII: Appendix: Calculating Instruments (1)

The instruments to which references are made in Chapter IV. as having come into use in some of our leading mercantile shipyards by which the calculations undertaken there are rendered greatly more simple, and are more expeditiously made, seem not to be generally known amongst shipbuilders, and as they undoubtedly save much of the labour and time of calculation, without any sacrifice of accuracy, illustrations of them are here given, together with brief notes of their construction and use. For anything, however, like a satisfactory account of the mathematical principles on which these several instruments are based, readers must consult the authoritative sources to which references will be made.

Assuming that the reader appreciates the advantages of shortened calculation, due to the slide rule, or the use of logarithms, the first instrument that may be noticed is one embodying an application of the principle of the slide rule in a remarkably handy and compact form. This is the calculating slide rule invented by Professor Fuller, of Queen’s College, Belfast, equivalent to a straight slide rule 83 feet 4 inches long, or a circular rule 13 feet 3 inches in diameter. From the illustration given it may be seen that the rule consists of a cylinder which can be moved up and down upon, and turned round, an axis, which is held by a handle. Upon this cylinder is wound spirally a single logarithmic scale. Fixed to the handle of the instrument is an index. Two other indices, whose distance apart is the axial length of the complete spiral, are fixed to an inner cylinder, which slides in like a telescope tube, and thus enables the operator to place these indices in any required position relative to the outer cylinder containing the logarithmic scale. Two stops—one on the fixed and the other on the outer or movable cylinder—are so placed that when they are brought in contact the index points to the commencement of the scale.

FULLER’S RULE.]

Regarding the manner of using the instrument a few general notes may be given. As in the ordinary slide rule the operations of multiplication and division are performed by the addition or subtraction of the parts of the scale that represent in length the logarithm of the numbers involved in the operations.

For example, suppose the following calculation is to be worked out

(6248 × 5936 × 4217)/(7963 × 4851) = 4049

To do this in the ordinary way would keep the smartest arithmetician busy for a considerable time, whereas by means of the instrument under notice the result is attained in little over one minute’s time. The motions in the operation are as follows:—Hold the rule by the handle in one hand and move the scale cylinder by the other until the number 6248 is opposite the index attached to the handle portion. Now, move the inner cylinder (by the top) until one or other of the indices (according to the distance of the number from the bottom of the instrument) on the index arm is opposite the number 7963. The scale cylinder is again moved till the number 5936 is opposite one of the indices just referred to, and the inner cylinder carrying the index arm is then moved till one or other of the indices is opposite 4851. Finally, the scale cylinder is moved till the number 4217 is opposite one of the indices on the arm; and the result of the whole operation—4049—is found opposite the index first-mentioned, _i.e._, that attached to the handle portion of the instrument.

It may be further explained that the sliding of the scale cylinder until the new number is opposite the index point really involves two operations: one sliding it till the end of the scale is opposite the index point—which subtracts the logarithm of the divisor; and the other sliding it till the next multiplier is opposite the index point—which adds its logarithm to the previous result. Hence, when the operations end with division the scale cylinder must be moved till the end of the scale is opposite the index point.

The second scientific instrument to be noticed is the Polar Planimeter, invented by M. J. Amsler-Laffon, Schaffhausen, Switzerland, the object of which is to find the area of any figure by simply tracing the outline with a pointer, the instrument—of which the pointer is a part—doing all the rest; the results read off from it having to undergo only a very simple and elementary calculation to attain the desired result.

AMSLER’S POLAR PLANIMETER—(FIXED SCALE).]

Planimeters are made of several forms, the two kinds illustrated by Figs. 25 and 26 being the most usual.[34] The planimeter shown by Fig. 25 represents the instrument as made to one scale only, for square inches of actual measurement. By its means the areas of, say, cross sections of ship’s hull can be ascertained in an extremely short time and with almost perfect accuracy, the readings taken from the instrument having simply to be multiplied by a multiplier consisting of the square of the number of units to the inch, corresponding to the scale on which the sections are drawn, as 4 for ½-inch scale, 16 for ¼-inch, 64 for ⅛-inch, etc.

AMSLER’S PLANIMETER—(VARIOUS SCALES).]

The Planimeter shown by Fig. 26 is the instrument in a form adaptable to various scales, but does not possess any very marked advantages over the simpler form for the purposes of the naval architect or marine engineer, so that notice of it must be brief. In this form of the instrument the unit can be changed by altering the length of the arm which carries the tracer to any of the scales for which the instrument may be made available, and which are found divided upon the variable arm. The scales which are usually provided for are as follows:—

10 sq. in. = 10 square inches }
0·1 sq. f. = 0·1 square foot }
1 sq. dcm. = one square decimetre } Every total
0·5 sq. dcm. = 0·5 square decimetre } rotation of
2000 sq. m. } = 2000 square metres on a } the roller.
1 : 500 } scale 1 : 500 }
1000 sq. m. } = 1000 square metres }
1 : 500 } scale 1 : 500 }

Describing the simple planimeter more in detail, and referring to Fig. 25, it may be said the outline of the figure to be dealt with is travelled round by a pointer attached to a bar moving on a vertical axis carried by another bar, which latter turns on a needle point slightly pressed into the drawing surface. The bar with the pointer is provided with a revolving drum having a graduated circumference and a disc counting its revolutions. The drum is divided into 100 parts, reading into a vernier, which gives the reading of the drum’s revolution to the 1/1000 part of its circumference. Upon the same axis as the drum an endless screw is cut, working into a worm wheel of ten teeth connected with the counting disc, which records the revolutions of the drum.

To use the planimeter, place the instrument upon the paper so that the tracing point, roller, and needle point, all touch the surface at any convenient position. Press the needle point down gently, so that it just enters the paper, and place the small weight supplied with the instrument over it. Make a mark at any part of the outline of the figure to be computed, and set the tracing point to it. Before commencing read off the counting wheel and the index roller. Suppose the counting wheel marks 2, the roller index 91, and the vernier 5, then, the unit in this case being 10 sq. ins., write this down 29·15 (for the proportional or variable-scale planimeter this reading would be 2·915.) Follow with the tracing point exactly the outline of the figure to be measured in the direction of the movement of the hands of a watch, until you arrive at the starting point; now read the instrument. Suppose this reading to be 47·67, then by deducting the first reading (29·15) the remainder (18·52) indicates that the measured area contains 18·52 units—i.e., square inches—which is the final result, so far as the instrument is concerned. To obtain the actual area in feet, however, this result must be multiplied by the number before explained corresponding to the scale on which the figure that has been measured is drawn.[35] Assuming the scale to have been ¼-inch per foot, then 18·52 inches multiplied by 16—the appropriate multiplier for that scale—gives 296·32 square feet, the exact area.

Several important points remain to be noticed in connection with the use of the instrument. As a rule, the areas to be measured in connection with ship designing are on a small scale, and the fixed or needle point about which the instrument moves can always be placed _outside_ the figure measured, in which case the process remains as above stated. It should be mentioned, however, that by placing the needle point _inside_ the figure, in such a position as to enable the operator to follow its contour a larger figure can be measured at one operation—the reading, however, being less than the true area by a constant number which varies slightly with the construction of each instrument, and which is found engraved on the small weight already referred to (on the top of the bar in the proportional planimeter). Adding this constant number to any reading taken by the instrument placed as described, gives the true area.

The counting disc may go through more than one revolution forwards or backwards. If the needle point be _outside_ the figure traversed the counting disc can only move _forwards_ (as 9, 0, 1, 2, &c.): that is, provided the figure has been traced in the manner directed—in the direction of the hands of a watch. Then as many times as the zero mark passes the index line add 10·000 to the _second_ reading. If the needle point be _inside_ the figure, the disc can move either forwards or backwards. If moving backwards, as 2, 1, 0, 9, &c., then add 10·000 to the _first_ reading.

Before passing from the subject of the planimeter it may be both interesting and useful to give an example of a calculation involving its use. Subjoined is a specimen displacement and longitudinal centre of buoyancy calculation, and any one familiar with the prodigious array of columns and figures pertaining to a “displacement sheet” of the ordinary kind cannot fail to appreciate the advantages of the specimen, both with respect to simplicity of arrangement and curtailment of the amount of calculation ordinarily involved:—

EXAMPLE OF SHIP DISPLACEMENT, WORKED OUT BY PLANIMETER.

+--------+----------------------+------+---------+-------+---------+
| No. of |Area of Half Sections.| | |Multi- | |
|Sections+----------------------+ Simpson’s |pliers | Moments |
| for |Successive |Difference| Multipliers. | for | for |
| Disp- |Readings of| between | | |Centre | Centre |
| lace- |Planimeter.| Readings | Functions.| of | of |
| ment. | | = Area in| | | Buoy- |Buoyancy.|
| | | sq. ins.| | | ancy. | |
+--------+-----------+----------+------+---------+-------+---------+
| | 52·73 | | | | | |
| 1 | 52·73 | 0·0 | 1 | 0·0 | 0 | 0·00 |
| 2 | 54·55 | 1·82 | 4 | 7·28 | 1 | 7·28 |
| 3 | 58·98 | 4·43 | 2 | 8·86 | 2 | 17·72 |
| 4 | 64·61 | 5·63 | 4 | 22·25 | 3 | 67·56 |
| 5 | 70·73 | 6·12 | 2 | 12·24 | 4 | 48·96 |
| 6 | 77·05 | 6·32 | 4 | 25·28 | 5 | 126·40 |
| 7 | 83·37 | 6·32 | 2 | 12·64 | 6 | 75·84 |
| 8 | 89·64 | 6·27 | 4 | 25·08 | 7 | 175·56 |
| 9 | 95·75 | 6·11 | 2 | 12·22 | 8 | 97·76 |
| 10 | 01·45 | 5·7 | 4 | 22·8 | 9 | 205·20 |
| 11 | 06·09 | 4·64 | 2 | 9·28 | 10 | 92·80 |
| 12 | 08·57 | 2·48 | 4 | 9·92 | 11 | 109·12 |
| 13 | 08·57 | 0·0 | 1 | 0·0 | 12 | 0·00 |
+--------+-----------+----------+------+---------+-------+---------+
| (mult. for) } |
| (Com. int.) (¼th scale) (both sides) } 168·12 168·12) 1024·20 |
| 28·6 × 16 × 2 } = 8·716 ) ------- |
| ------------------------------------ } ------ 6·09*|
| (Simpson’s Mult.) (cub. ft. to ton.) } 100872 |
| 3 × 35 16812 |
| 117684 |
| *6·09 × 28·6 (Com. Int.) 134496 |
| = 174·2 Centre of Buoy. --------- |
| forward of No. 1 Ordinate. 1465·33392 tons m’l’d dis’p’t.|
+------------------------------------------------------------------+

The integrator, another and still more ingenious instrument, by M. J. Amsler-Laffon, was invented theoretically shortly after the planimeter just described (in the year 1855), but was first constructed for practical use in the year 1867, the first instrument made being exhibited in the Paris International Exhibition in the year named. It was not introduced into England till the year 1878, and although adapted for other uses than those involved in scientific calculations connected with shipbuilding it was in this connection that attention was first seriously directed towards it. In 1880 the late Mr C. W. Merrifield described the instrument, and traced the mathematical principles upon which it is based, before the Institution of Naval Architects, and in 1882, before the same body, Mr J. H. Biles, naval architect for the firm of Messrs J. & G. Thomson, called attention to the usefulness of the instrument in stability investigations, showing by specimen calculations and other particulars its great adaptability to this class of work, even in the hands of youthful and untrained operators. A still more recent and exhaustive paper devoted to the claims of the integrator upon naval architects was read before the same Institution by Dr A. Amsler, the son of the inventor, at its last meeting. This paper was chiefly concerned with demonstrating the advantages of the integrator in respect of time saved, as well as in respect of its great accuracy.

AMSLER’S MECHANICAL INTEGRATOR.]

The object of the integrator is to find at one operation the area, the statical moment, and the moment of inertia of any closed curve or figure by simply tracing out the curve with a pointer, the results being read off directly from the instrument, as in the case of the planimeter, and with a correspondingly small amount of after calculation. As shown by Fig. 25, the essential parts of the integrator are a rail =L=, having groove with which to guide the wheels _p_ and _q_ of a carriage provided with rollers =D_{1}= =D_{2}= =D_{3}= moving on the surface of the drawing. The contour of the figure to be dealt with is traced—in the direction of the movement of the hands of a watch—by the pointer =F=, this pointer being attached to an arm moving on the vertical centre of the instrument while the whole mechanism runs to and fro on the rail =L=. Under these conditions the rollers =D_{1}= =D_{2}= =D_{3}= execute movements partly rolling, partly sliding, and by readings taken from the divisions engraved upon their circumferences at the beginning and the end of the whole movement, together with simple arithmetical processes, the nature of which may be inferred from the explanations given of the planimeter readings, the three quantities sought are arrived at.

In a valuable appendix to the paper read by Dr Amsler, before the Institution of Naval Architects, specimen sheets are given of several calculations, of a vessel of about 4000 tons, the forms in which the figures are entered being so arranged as to avoid all unnecessary trouble in measuring and calculating, and to contain at the same time a check on the results. The accuracy and the speed of working depend, of course, to a considerable extent on the person using the integrator, but as showing what can be obtained with the instrument after some practice, the specimens given in the paper referred to are certainly remarkable. For the calculations of the data necessary for the construction of the curves of displacement and vertical position of centre of buoyancy, the complete integrator and arithmetical work took only two hours; for the data requisite for the curve of displacement per inch immersion, and transverse metacentre one hour was taken; and for the complete calculation, affording data to construct a stability curve, the time taken was only eight hours. A similar calculation done in the ordinary arithmetical method, and giving results far less reliable, would have taken as many days. All the work, it should be added, was done without the aid of an assistant. Amongst other calculations besides displacement and stability in connection with which the integrator is greatly advantageous, are those concerned with the strength of vessels and with the longitudinal strains to which they are subject at sea through unequal distributions of weight and buoyancy, already fully referred to in the chapter on scientific progress.

BENNETT & THOMSON, PRINTERS.

PORTRAIT
AND
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.

JOHN BURNS.

JOHN BURNS, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.

CHAIRMAN OF THE CUNARD STEAMSHIP COMPANY.

Born at Glasgow and educated at the University in that city. At an early age became a partner in the firm of G. & J. Burns, which was founded in 1824 by George Burns (his father) and James (his uncle), also in the Cunard Steamship Company, of which gigantic concern, as is well known, his father, with Samuel Cunard and David M‘Iver, were the founders in 1839. From the first Mr BURNS earnestly addressed himself to the responsibilities of his important position, and finding able coadjutors in his other partners in the Cunard Company, has carried on the concerns of that great Steamship Line so as to enhance its reputation and maintain first place in the Atlantic Mail Service. In 1880, forty years after its formation, the Company was transformed into a public corporation, with Mr BURNS as chairman. The fleet now consists of 37 steamers, representing over 110,000 tons, or a money equivalent of nearly £3,000,000, and giving employment to an enormous number of persons. While everything is done on board to ensure speed and comfort, the main consideration, to which all others are made subservient, is _safety_. First-class vessels, unstinted equipment, carefully-selected officers and men, combined with close personal supervision, are the means used to attain this end, and that it is attained marvellously is matter of world-wide fame. Apart from his able management of the Cunard fleet, Mr BURNS has not allowed the affairs of his Home Services between this country and Ireland and elsewhere, to suffer in any particular, but in his hands these concerns have flourished and the trade greatly increased. The services are conducted by a splendid fleet of mail steamers, now belonging exclusively to Mr BURNS, quite irrespective of the Cunard fleet, and which, for speed, safety, and unfailing regularity of departure and arrival, are probably unsurpassed. As representing the Cunard Company, and also as a private shipowner, Mr BURNS has taken frequent and conspicuous part in the discussion of those great matters which concern the maritime interests of this country. Has often been called upon to give evidence before Select Committees of the House of Commons on shipping affairs. Was amongst the first to recommend to Government the desirability of fitting merchant steamships so as to be available in times of war. Is Deputy-Lieutenant of Lanarkshire, and Magistrate for the counties of Lanark and Renfrew. Evinces unbounded interest in the commercial and social well-being of his native city, numerous benevolent institutions in great measure owing their existence to his hearty munificence. His residence of Castle Wemyss, on the Clyde, is frequently the abode of the famous of this and other countries.

INK-PHOTO, SPRAGUE & C^o. LONDON.]

PORTRAIT
AND
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.

NATHANIEL DUNLOP.

NATHANIEL DUNLOP.

MEMBER OF THE GLASGOW PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY; MEMBER OF THE CLYDE NAVIGATION TRUST; AND TRUSTEE OF ANDERSON’S UNIVERSITY, GLASGOW.

Born at Campbeltown, Argyleshire, in 1830, and educated at the Grammar School of that town. In 1845 removed to Glasgow, and in 1847 entered the counting-house of Mr George Gillespie, where he was chiefly employed in connection with the Allan Line service of clipper ships between Glasgow and Canada, for which trade Mr Gillespie was then agent. In 1853 transferred his services to the Allan Line firm, where, for several years, was principal clerk and cashier, subsequently becoming partner. During the year 1853 the Messrs Allan resolved to add a fleet of steamers to their already well-known line of clipper ships, and contracted for the building of four screw vessels, the first of which—the _Canadian_—was launched in July, 1854. The growth of the business may be inferred from the fact that the Allan fleet at the present time consists of twenty-eight steamers, of 87,078 tons, and fifteen sailing vessels, of 21,225 tons. Mr DUNLOP, since joining the firm, has taken an active part, along with Mr Alexander Allan, its senior member, in the building arrangements of the Allan Line. When mild steel was beginning to take the place of iron in the construction of steamers, and before any of the Atlantic companies had ventured on its use, Mr DUNLOP and his partners evinced ready confidence in the new material, their adoption of it being elsewhere referred to in this work. From an early period Mr DUNLOP has taken an active interest in shipping legislation. In 1874 gave evidence before the Select Committee of the House of Commons upon the Measurement of Tonnage Bill, and again in 1882 before the Royal Commission on the same subject. During the Plimsoll agitation, and the consideration of the proposed legislation resulting from it, was a witness before the Select Committee of the House. In 1879 was deputed by the Shipowners Association of Glasgow to give evidence before the Select Committee upon the Merchant Seamen Bill then before the House. In connection with Mr Chamberlain’s recent efforts at legislation on Merchant Shipping, issued a pamphlet which very fully discussed the questions raised, and exhibited an analysis of the losses of life in merchant shipping. Gave evidence during the present year before the Load Line Committee, on which body Mr DUNLOP had been invited to serve; business duties, however, preventing him accepting.

INK-PHOTO, SPRAGUE & C^o. LONDON.]

PORTRAIT
AND
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.

THOMAS HENDERSON.

THOMAS HENDERSON,

CHAIRMAN OF THE GLASGOW SHIPOWNERS’ ASSOCIATION; OF THE LOCAL MARINE BOARD OF THE PORT OF GLASGOW AND OF THE CLYDE LIGHTHOUSE TRUST; DIRECTOR OF THE GLASGOW CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, AND OF THE CHAMBER OF SHIPPING OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.

Mr Thomas Henderson, senior member of the firm of Henderson Bros., managing owners of the Anchor Line of Steamships, is a native of Fifeshire, but was educated in Glasgow. He entered, at an early age, the mercantile marine service as an apprentice, and rapidly rose through the different grades of the profession to the command of various sailing ships and steamers belonging to the port of Glasgow. In 1853 he was admitted a partner in the shipping firm of Handyside, & Co., which, five years afterwards, was changed to Handyside & Henderson. Some years later, on the retirement of the Messrs Handyside and the assumption of Mr John Henderson and other partners into the business, the firm became Henderson Brothers, under which designation the greater part of the steam shipping business now carried on by the Anchor Line steamships has been developed and extended. The fleet as now constituted consists of forty-five steamships of an aggregate measurement of over 124,000 tons, with an engine power of above 25,000 horses nominal. These vessels are employed severally in the Transatlantic, Indian, and Mediterranean services, in all of which they are well known and appreciated by the public as in all respects first-class, and second to no other competing line for safety, speed, comfort to passengers, and careful delivery of goods carried. One branch of the extensive services of the Anchor steamships, specially noteworthy as forming one of the modern “express” lines which have given such impetus to ocean travel, is the express service between Liverpool and New York, in which the magnificent steamships _City of Rome_ and _Austral_ are engaged. In connection with their head office in Glasgow, Messrs Henderson Bros. have established branch offices of their own in London, Liverpool, Manchester, Barrow-in-Furness, Queenstown, Londonderry, Dundee, New York, Boston, Chicago, Paris, Marseilles, and Palermo, at all of which the agency business of the several lines of steamers is attended to by their own employees. In addition to his responsible share in the concerns of the Anchor Line, Mr HENDERSON is a partner in the extensive shipbuilding and engineering works of D. & W. Henderson & Co., at Meadowside, Partick, and Finnieston Quay, Glasgow. The estimation in which Mr HENDERSON is held as a shipping and commercial authority may be inferred from the enumeration of important offices at the head of this note; most of which he has worthily occupied for many years.

INK-PHOTO, SPRAGUE & C^o. LONDON.]

PORTRAIT
AND
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.

WILLIAM PEARCE.

WILLIAM PEARCE,

MEMBER OF COUNCIL OF THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS; MEMBER OF THE IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE, AND OF THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS AND SHIPBUILDERS IN SCOTLAND.

Born at Brompton, in Kent, in the year 1835. Learned practical shipbuilding in Her Majesty’s Dockyard at Chatham, and was at the same time engaged in the office of the master shipwright there, the late celebrated Mr Oliver Lang. When the Government in 1861 determined upon the construction of iron ships in the Royal Dockyards, was the first officer selected to carry on that work, and superintended the building of H.M. _Achilles_ in the dockyard at Chatham. In 1863 left the Government service to become a Surveyor to Lloyd’s Registry in the Clyde district, and in 1864 was appointed General Manager in Messrs R. Napier & Sons’ shipbuilding establishment, where, in 1865, his ability as a naval architect was first brought into prominence through the designing of the _Pereire_ and _Ville De Paris_, built for the Compagnie General Transatlantique, which vessels maintained for several years a foremost place amongst the fast ships on the Atlantic. After the death of Mr John Elder, in 1869, joined by request the late Messrs John Ure and J. L. K. Jamieson in carrying on and extending the gigantic shipbuilding and engineering business at Fairfield, under the title of John Elder & Co. In 1878 Mr Ure and Mr Jamieson retired from the firm, and Mr PEARCE became sole partner, which position he has occupied up to the present time. Has constructed many steamships that are amongst the most celebrated in existence, of which it may suffice simply to name the _Arizona_, _Alaska_, and _Oregon_; the _Orient_, _Austral_, and _Stirling Castle_; also the _Umbria_ and _Etruria_, just being completed for the Cunard Steamship Company. Another vessel built by Mr PEARCE, the construction of which excited, perhaps, a greater amount of interest than any of the above named, was the yacht _Livadia_, for the late Emperor of Russia. The design, which was a fantastic one, was by Admiral Popoff. Mr PEARCE’S enterprize has not been confined to shipbuilding and engineering, having projected or become largely interested in several lines of steamers, amongst which are, the Pacific Mail Steamship Co.; the New Zealand Shipping Company; the Guion Line; and the China Line of the Scottish Oriental Steamship Company. In 1880 Mr PEARCE gave the opening lecture in the course delivered in connection with the Marine Exhibition held in the Corporation Buildings, Glasgow. In 1881 was appointed a member of the Royal Commission on Tonnage, and in October of the present year was appointed a member of the Royal Commission on Merchant Shipping.

INK-PHOTO, SPRAGUE & C^o. LONDON.]

PORTRAIT
AND
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.

JAMES ANDERSON.

JAMES ANDERSON, F.R.G.S.

CHAIRMAN OF THE ORIENT STEAM NAVIGATION COY., LIMITED; CHAIRMAN OF THE LONDON BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF THE SCOTTISH PROVINCIAL INSURANCE COY.; DIRECTOR OF THE HOME AND COLONIAL INSURANCE COY., DIRECTOR OF THE BANK OF BRITISH COLUMBIA, ETC.

Born at Peterhead, Aberdeenshire, on 17th May, 1811, his family then being—and having been since 1780—extensively engaged in shipowning and shipbuilding there. Removed to London in 1831, and entered the counting-house of Mr James Thomson, a considerable shipowner, whose vessels were principally engaged in the West Indian trade. Assumed partnership with Mr Thomson in 1847, carrying on business as James Thomson & Co., a connection which, unfortunately, was soon thereafter broken, in the removal by death of Mr Thomson. In 1849 the business was extended to the Australian trade, by the commencement of a line of sailing vessels to Adelaide, which soon became well-known and favourite traders. Some time after Mr Thomson’s death, the name of the firm was changed to Anderson, Thomson & Co., and in 1869 it underwent a second change to Anderson, Anderson & Co., its present designation. In 1876 the feasibility of running a direct line of steamships to Australia occurred to Mr ANDERSON and his partners, and was practically tested at their sole risk in that year. Notwithstanding the predictions that severe loss would result, the experiments encouraged Messrs Anderson, Anderson & Co. to promote the formation of a company to work such a service. Early in 1877, Messrs F. Green & Co. joined Messrs Anderson, Anderson & Co. in the enterprize, and on the 7th March, 1878, the steamer _Garonne_ left England for Australia, flying the flag of the ORIENT STEAM NAVIGATION CO., LIMITED, the designation “Orient” having been adopted through the high reputation of the clipper ship of that name belonging to Messrs Anderson, Anderson & Co. Anticipations were at first confined to the hope that sufficient trade might be found to justify monthly sailings, but almost at once it was seen that a fortnightly service was requisite. At the outset four steamers—the _Chimborazo_, _Lusitania_, _Cuzco_, and _Garonne_—were purchased by the Company, and one—the _Orient_—built. In January, 1880, the Pacific Steam Navigation Company entered, as it were, into partnership, by supplying, in ready and admirable working order, the additional vessels required. The further additions to the fleet, and the nature of the service done, are referred to elsewhere in this work.

INK-PHOTO, SPRAGUE & C^o. LONDON.]

PORTRAIT
AND
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.

ALEXANDER C. KIRK.

ALEXANDER C. KIRK, M.I.C.E.

MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS; OF THE INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, AND OF THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS AND SHIPBUILDERS IN SCOTLAND.

Born in the year 1830, at the Manse of Barry, Forfarshire, of which parish his father was minister. Received his education at the Burgh School of Arbroath, and subsequently at the University of Edinburgh. After serving the customary term of apprenticeship, as an engineer, with Mr Robert Napier of the Vulcan Foundry, Glasgow, was for several years in the drawing office of Messrs Maudsley Sons & Field, London. Removed from London to Bathgate as manager of Young’s Parafin Oil Works, first at Bathgate and then at West Calder, during which period he introduced many improvements in the apparatus employed, notably in shale breaking and cooling machinery. About 1870 became manager of the Engineering Department in the works of Messrs John Elder & Co., Glasgow, a post which he held till 1877, when, along with his present partners, he purchased the celebrated Shipbuilding & Engineering Works, Govan, established and so long carried on by the Napier family, and still conducted under the old designation of Robert Napier & Sons. While with Messrs Elder & Co., Mr KIRK introduced the principle of triple expansion in marine engines, a departure which has since been followed with notable success in several of the larger vessels turned out by Messrs R. Napier & Sons, fuller reference to which is made in the body of this work.

INK-PHOTO, SPRAGUE & C^o. LONDON.]

PORTRAIT
AND
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.

BENJAMIN MARTELL.

BENJAMIN MARTELL.

CHIEF SURVEYOR, LLOYDS’ REGISTER OF BRITISH AND FOREIGN SHIPPING; MEMBER OF THE IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE, AND MEMBER OF COUNCIL OF THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS.

Mr Martell served the term of apprenticeship and was educated as a Naval Architect in the Royal Dockyard, Portsmouth, during a portion of which time he was engaged under Mr John Fincham, Master Shipwright, in preparing designs of war ships for the Royal Navy. Subsequently he became manager for a private shipbuilding firm, and in 1856 was appointed a surveyor to Lloyds’ Register of British and Foreign Shipping, for which important Society he has been Chief Surveyor during the last twelve years. Is a Member of Council of the Institution of Naval Architects, and takes an active part in the annual proceedings of that Institution, being the author of several papers on important professional subjects read before its members. Is the author of Rules and Tables for determining the Freeboard of Merchant Steamers and Sailing Vessels, which, issued under the authority of Lloyds’ Register, have met with pretty wide acceptance amongst shipowners. Was deputed by the Committee of Lloyds’ Register to represent them on the Government Departmental Committee appointed to enquire into the Load Line of Vessels.

INK-PHOTO, SPRAGUE & C^o. LONDON.]

PORTRAIT
AND
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.

WILLIAM H. WHITE.

WILLIAM HENRY WHITE.

FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SCHOOL OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE; MEMBER OF THE COUNCIL OF THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS; MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS; AND OF THE ROYAL UNITED SERVICE INSTITUTION; LATE CHIEF CONSTRUCTOR OF THE ROYAL NAVY.

Born at Devonport in 1845. Entered the Royal Dockyard, Devonport, in 1859. Appointed to an Admiralty Scholarship in the Mathematical School there in 1863, and received a preliminary training in shipbuilding, ship-drawing, and applied mathematics. In 1864 appointed an Admiralty student in the Royal School of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, South Kensington, standing first in the competitive entrance examination, and maintaining the first place throughout the course of training. Received his diploma of Fellowship (first class) of the Royal School of Naval Architecture in 1867, and was at once appointed to the Constructive Department of the Admiralty. From 1867 to 1883 continued in the Royal Navy Service, and attached to the Admiralty Department, rising to be Secretary to the Council of Construction in 1873, Assistant Constructor in 1875, and Chief Constructor in 1881. Was appointed Professor of Naval Architecture at the Royal School of Naval Architecture in 1870, and continued to hold that position at South Kensington, and at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, until 1881, concurrently with his appointment at the Admiralty. Resigned his position in the public service in March, 1883, in order to assume the office of Naval Constructor to the firm of Sir W. G. Armstrong, Mitchell & Co. (Limited), Newcastle-on-Tyne. Is the author of “A Manual of Naval Architecture,” well known and highly valued by all classes in the profession, and of numerous papers on professional subjects separately published, or read before the Institution of Naval Architects, the Royal United Service Institution, and kindred Societies.

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JOHN INGLIS, Jun.

JOHN INGLIS, JUN.,

MEMBER OF COUNCIL OF THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS; MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS AND SHIPBUILDERS IN SCOTLAND, ETC.

Born in Glasgow in 1842, where his father, Mr Anthony Inglis, and Mr John Inglis, his uncle, were marine engineers, subsequently also becoming iron shipbuilders. Under the designation of A. & J. Inglis the combined businesses—the engineering works at Warroch Street, and the shipyard at Pointhouse—have been conducted with marked success. Having for some years attended the Glasgow Academy, Mr INGLIS, at the age of fifteen, entered the University, where for several sessions he studied under such teachers as the late Professors Ramsay, Blackburn, and Rankine, and also under Sir William Thomson. Of Professor Blackburn’s mathematical and Professor Rankine’s engineering classes Mr INGLIS was a distinguished student; in the former—although the youngest on the roll—carrying off several prizes, and in the latter acquiring a sound knowledge of applied mathematics as concerned with engineering and naval architecture. This experience was afterwards supplemented by a term’s apprenticeship in the practical work of the engine shop. The art of naval construction, however, had always irresistible attraction for Mr INGLIS, and in 1867 he seriously applied himself to the concerns of the shipyard, taking an active share in its management ever since. Mr INGLIS’ career, though uneventful, has been one of assiduous devotion to the profession of Naval Architecture, especially as directed to scientific investigation and analysis. The fruits of this are reflected in many noteworthy and specialized steam vessels produced by his firm. Was the first shipbuilder on the Clyde to follow the practice of inclining vessels to ascertain their stability, and was one of the earliest on the Clyde to apply the correct method of estimating longitudinal strains to the hulls of steamers. His firm have been noted for the careful and elaborate trials of steamers on the measured mile, and the digesting of such data. Is the author of several papers read before the societies with which he is connected, one of which fully described the system of speed trial and analysis above referred to. The designing and sailing of yachts are favourite pursuits of Mr INGLIS; and the system of yacht ballasting by means of a lead keel forming portion of the hull structure was first instituted by him in one of the many yachts built for his own use. Under the title of “A Yachtsman’s Holidays,” he published, some years ago, a volume giving a racy account of yachting experiences in the West Hebrides. He wields a forcible pen, and it is not unfrequently employed anonymously in the interests of shipbuilding and naval science.

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SIR EDWARD J. REED.

SIR EDWARD J. REED, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.P.

VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS; MEMBER OF COUNCIL OF THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, AND MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.

Born at Sheerness, September 20th, 1830. Educated at the School of Mathematics and Naval Construction, Portsmouth, and served in the Royal Dockyard, Sheerness. Leaving the Government service, he became the editor of the “Mechanics’ Magazine,” in which position he first became known as an authority on Naval Architecture. Was one of the originators of the Institution of Naval Architects in 1860, and for a number of years acted as Secretary to that body. Submitted proposals to the Admiralty concerning the construction of iron-clad ships, which were adopted in practice, and were so highly approved by the Board of Admiralty that their author was appointed Chief Constructor of the Royal Navy in 1863. During the time he held that office, designed iron-clad ships and vessels of war of every class for the British Navy, and also—with the consent of the Government—some iron-clad frigates for the Turkish Navy. In consequence of his objections to rigged sea-going turret ships with low freeboard, of the “Captain” class, and of the favour that type of ship found with the Board of Admiralty, resigned his office in July, 1870—a step rendered remarkably significant by the lamentable capsizing of the “Captain” two months later. Since his resignation, has designed iron-clad vessels and other classes of war ships for various Foreign Powers; numerous steam yachts, and smaller vessels. Has recently devised and patented a method of construction for war ships which will reduce to a minimum the destructive effect of marine torpedoes, and which promises to revolutionise present structural systems. Is the author of “Shipbuilding in Iron and Steel,” “Our Iron-clad Ships,” “Our Naval Coast Defences,” “Japan: Its History, Traditions, and Religions,” as well as of several papers contributed to the Institutions with which he is connected. Since his retirement from the Admiralty has received numerous recognitions of his professional skill and ability, including various decorations from Foreign Powers. Was created a Knight Commander of the Bath, in 1880. In 1874 was returned to Parliament in the Liberal interest as Member for the Pembroke Boroughs, which he represented till 1880, when he was elected for the important constituency of Cardiff. During the summer of 1883 was deputed by the Government to investigate and report upon the “Daphne” catastrophe on the Clyde, the results of which are elsewhere referred to in this work. In February of the present year was entrusted with the Presidency of the Committee appointed to enquire into the subject of the Load Line of vessels.

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PROF. FRANCIS ELGAR.

PROF. FRANCIS ELGAR,

FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SCHOOL OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE AND MARINE ENGINEERING; MEMBER OF THE COUNCIL OF THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS; MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS; AND PROFESSOR OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW.

Born at Portsmouth in 1845. Received a preliminary training in practical shipbuilding, and in the drawing office, at the Royal Dockyard, Portsmouth, and studied in the Mathematical School there. Was appointed an admiralty student in the Royal School of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, South Kensington, in 1864. In 1867 was a draughtsman and assistant surveyor, in the Admiralty Service, and in 1870 was foreman of the Royal Dockyard, Portsmouth. Left the Admiralty Service at the end of 1871 to become the principal assistant of Sir E. J. Reed, K.C.B., M.P., in the designing and surveying of war-ships, building for various Governments. In 1874 was general manager of Earle’s Shipbuilding & Engineering Company at Hull. From 1876 to 1879 practised as a naval architect in London; and in 1879 went to Japan, by request of the Imperial Japanese Government, to advise upon matters relating to their navy. In 1880 visited the principal arsenals and workshops of China, and returned to this country in 1881. Since then has practised in London as a Consulting Naval Architect and Engineer, and designed and superintended the construction of numerous vessels. At the request of the builders and owners respectively, investigated the causes of the disasters which befell the “Daphne” and “Austral,” and gave evidence respecting the same at the official inquiries, held in 1883. Immediately upon the “John Elder” Chair of Naval Architecture being founded in Glasgow University, through the munificence of Mrs Elder, the University Court unanimously elected Mr ELGAR as the first Professor. In 1884 was nominated by the Council of the Institution of Naval Architects as their representative upon the Board of Trade Load Line Committee. Is the author of an illustrated work upon “The Ships of the Royal Navy,” and of papers read before the Royal Society and Institution of Naval Architects; and was formerly sub-editor of the Quarterly Magazine “Naval Science.”

INK-PHOTO, SPRAGUE & C^o. LONDON.]

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WILLIAM DENNY.

WILLIAM DENNY, F.R.S.E.,

MEMBER OF COUNCIL OF THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS, MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, OF THE INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, OF THE IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE, AND OF THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS AND SHIPBUILDERS IN SCOTLAND.

Eldest son of Mr Peter Denny, head of the old-established firm of William Denny & Bros., Leven Shipyard, Dumbarton. Mr DENNY was born at Dumbarton in 1847, and was educated at the High School of Edinburgh, under the late Mr John Carmichael, one of its most distinguished teachers. In his seventeenth year, he left the High School, and entered on a course of practical training as a shipbuilder in Leven Shipyard, serving for stated terms in the various departments. Since 1870 he has been a partner, and of late the managing partner, in the shipbuilding firm, and he has also shared in the partnership of the separate engineering business of Messrs Denny & Company. In addition to discharging the many arduous duties pertaining to his business position, Mr DENNY is enabled to take a prominent part in the proceedings of several of the professional societies with which he is connected. His whole theoretical training has been acquired in business, his previous education having been of a purely classical nature. In Mr DENNY this experience has been eminently fruitful of results, evidence of which may be seen in the part he has taken—both personally and as representing his firm—in various important movements dealt with in the present work. Early in the present year, on a Committee being formed by the Board of Trade to enquire into the subject of the Load Line of Vessels, Mr DENNY was appointed a member.

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WILLIAM JOHN.

WILLIAM JOHN,

FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SCHOOL OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE AND MARINE ENGINEERING; MEMBER OF COUNCIL OF THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS; MEMBER OF THE IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE.

Born at Narberth, Pembrokeshire, in July, 1845. Was educated in the Mathematical School at the Royal Dockyard, Pembroke, and received a practical training in shipbuilding in that dockyard. Was appointed an Admiralty student in the Royal School of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, South Kensington, in 1864, and passed out in 1867 with the diploma of Fellow of the First Class. In 1867 was appointed a draughtsman in the department of the Controller of the Navy at the Admiralty, and served in that capacity till 1872, when he left the Admiralty service for that of Lloyd’s Register of British and Foreign Shipping, in which Society he was shortly afterwards appointed Assistant Chief Surveyor. In 1881 he left Lloyd’s Register to become general manager to the Barrow Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. (Limited), at Barrow-in-Furness, which position he now occupies. While at the Admiralty, distinguished himself in original scientific work in naval architecture—notably in 1868, by constructing the first curve of stability which was ever produced; in 1870, by investigating the stability of H.M.S. “Captain,” and pointing out, only a few days before she was lost, the dangers to which she was liable; also by his calculations relating to the strength of war-ships, and constructing for them the first curves of hogging and sagging and sheering strains. Since leaving the Admiralty, has enhanced his high reputation for scientific skill through his investigations into the stability and strength of mercantile ships, and the numerous valuable papers upon these and other subjects, which he has read before the Institution of Naval Architects, and other scientific bodies. Has devoted himself largely and very successfully to the consideration of the principal causes of loss of ships at sea—both of sailing vessels and steamers; and has given most instructive evidence in some of the principal cases which have been enquired into in recent years. Several years ago, when sailing ships were being frequently dismasted, made a very lengthy and complete investigation of the circumstances in which these casualties happened, and of their causes; and the same is embodied in an elaborate report upon the subject to the Committee of Lloyd’s Register. Was selected by the Committee appointed to enquire into the loss of H.M.S. Atalanta to investigate the stability of that vessel as an independent check upon the official Admiralty calculations, and his report and evidence showed conclusively that she was capsizable, and probably did capsize at sea.

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CHARLES M. PALMER.

CHARLES MARK PALMER, M.P.,

CHAIRMAN OF THE PALMER SHIPBUILDING AND IRON COMPANY; MEMBER OF THE IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE, ETC.

Born at South Shields, on the Tyne, in 1822. Son of Mr George Palmer, who was in early life engaged in Greenland whaling, and was subsequently a merchant and shipowner at Newcastle-on-Tyne. Was trained for a mercantile life, and having completed his education in France, became, at an early age, partner with his father in the firm of Palmer, Beckwith & Co., export merchants, timber merchants, and sawmill owners: a firm since styled Palmer, Hall & Co., and of which he is now the senior. In 1845 assumed partnership with Mr John Bowes, the late Sir William Hutt, and the late Mr Nicholas Wood, in the Marley Hill colliery and coke manufacture, and subsequently acquiring the collieries of Lord Ravensworth & Partners, and of others, the concern known as John Bowes, Esq. & Partners, has become, under Mr Palmer’s sole management, one of the largest colliery concerns in the north of England. In 1852, in partnership at first with his elder brother George, commenced iron shipbuilding at Jarrow, in which year they launched the _John Bowes_, notable as the first screw collier. Through gradual extension the works at Jarrow have become the great establishment described in the body of this work. Many vessels of war have been built by Mr PALMER’S firm, and it was in the construction of the iron-clad _Terror_, in their works, at the time of the Crimean war, that rolled in place of forged armour plates were first used, the superiority of the change—since universally recognised—being then experimentally demonstrated at considerable cost by Mr PALMER’S firm. Among other enterprises which owe their existence wholly or partially to Mr PALMER may be mentioned the General Iron Screw Collier Company, the Tyne Steam Shipping Company, several of the great lines of Atlantic and Mediterranean steamers, the Bede Metal Company, the Tyne Plate Glass Company, and Insurance Clubs for Steamers. In politics Mr PALMER is a Liberal, and after unsuccessfully contesting his native town in 1868 he was, in 1874, elected M.P. for the northern division of Durham, a seat which he continues to hold. His country residence is at Grinkle Park, in Cleveland, but Parliamentary and other duties necessitate his being much in London, where he has a town house. The interest he has taken in behalf of the English shipowners has lately resulted in his appointment as one of the new English directors of the Suez Canal.

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JAMES LAING.

JAMES LAING,

EX-PRESIDENT OF THE CHAMBER OF SHIPPING OF THE UNITED KINGDOM; MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS; OF THE IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE; AND MEMBER OF COMMITTEE OF LLOYD’S REGISTER.

MR LAING was born at Deptford House, Sunderland, on 11th January, 1823, and is the only son of Mr Philip Laing, who, as early as 1793, in partnership with his brother John, commenced the business of shipbuilding which, nearly a century later, is still carried on, under greatly transformed conditions, by his son. Mr LAING’S earliest impressions and associations were connected with what was afterwards to become his life’s vocation, his boyhood having been spent in a home contiguous to his father’s yard. While a youth, he served as an ordinary workman in the shipyard, and in 1843, his father, on launching the “Cressy,” signalised the jubilee of a singularly successful career by handing over to him the care and titles of the business. Mr LAING continued to build wooden vessels until 1853, in which year the “Amity,” his first iron ship, was launched. In 1866 he entirely ceased building in wood, and since then has built a very large number of iron vessels for various owners, amongst others for such well-known companies as the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, the Royal Mail Company, the Union Steamship Company of Southampton, etc. In 1883, he built for the last-mentioned company the Mail Steamer “Mexican,” of 4669 tons. Besides the shipyard, he is the owner of graving docks connected therewith, as well as extensive copper and brass works, and is principal proprietor of the Ayres Quay Bottle Works, which are capable of turning out 33,000 bottles per day. For upwards of thirty years Mr LAING has served as a member of the River Wear Commission, and as chairman since 1868. For years he has taken a leading position among shipbuilders and shipowners, not only in his own district, but throughout the country. In 1883 he was chosen President of the Chamber of Shipping of the United Kingdom, and as official representative of that interest has performed signal service, both with reference to the Shipping Bill introduced to Parliament by Mr Chamberlain and the recent agreement come to between the shipowners and the Suez Canal Company, of which company he has since been appointed a Director. For twenty years Mr LAING has acted as a member of the Board of Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, and at present is Vice-President of the Load Line Committee, appointed by the Board of Trade for the settlement of a most important and intricate question. In the shipbuilding and other cognate businesses Mr LAING is now ably assisted by his three sons, Philip, Arthur, and James.

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FOOTNOTES:

[1] Since the above was written, the _Aurania_ and the _Oregon_ have resumed their services on the Atlantic, the results in the case of the latter vessel being extraordinarily successful. On Saturday, the 5th April, she arrived at Queenstown, having left New York on Saturday, the 29th March, making the trip in 7 days, 2 hours, 18 minutes, her daily runs being:—45, 407, 396, 400, 302, 410, 384, 412, and 60; total, 2816 knots. Leaving Queenstown on Sunday, the 13th April, she arrived at New York on Saturday, the 19th April, in the unprecedentedly short period of 6 days, 9 hours, 22 minutes.

[2] While these sheets were passing through the press, the _America_ was tried unofficially on the Clyde, and attained a speed of 17 knots, with about 6,500 indicated horse-power. On her passage from the Clyde to the Mersey she maintained, it is stated, 18¼ knots over the whole distance.

[3] This list with those which follow other chapters, have been compiled at considerable trouble in the hope that they may be of use to technical readers in directing them at once to accurate and detailed information. In this connection also, the excellent work by Mr A. S. Seaton, “Manual of Marine Engineering,” and that by Mr W. H. White, “Manual of Naval Architecture,” may be referred to with every satisfaction.