Chapter XXVI: Appendix

The following is the text of the decision, read by
Chief Justice Earl Warren, in the case of _Briggs
v. Elliott_ (in conjunction with cases from Kansas,
Virginia and Delaware) on May 17, 1954:

These cases come to us from the States of Kansas, South Carolina, Virginia, and Delaware. They are premised on different facts and different local conditions, but a common legal question justifies their consideration together in this consolidated opinion.

In each of the cases, minors of the Negro race, through their legal representatives, seek the aid of the courts in obtaining admission to the public schools of their community on a nonsegregated basis. In each instance, they had been denied admission to schools attended by white children under laws requiring or permitting segregation according to race. This segregation was alleged to deprive the plaintiffs of the equal protection of the laws under the Fourteenth Amendment. In each of the cases other than the Delaware case, a three-judge federal district court denied relief to the plaintiffs on the so-called “separate but equal” doctrine announced by this Court in _Plessy v. Ferguson_, 163 U.S. 537. Under that doctrine, equality of treatment is accorded when the races are provided substantially equal facilities, even though these facilities be separate. In the Delaware case, the Supreme Court of Delaware adhered to that doctrine, but ordered that the plaintiffs be admitted to the white schools because of their superiority to the Negro schools.

The plaintiffs contend that segregated public schools are not “equal” and cannot be made “equal,” and that hence they are deprived of the equal protection of the laws. Because of the obvious importance of the question presented the Court took jurisdiction. Argument was heard in the 1952 Term, and reargument was heard this Term on certain questions propounded by the Court.

Reargument was largely devoted to the circumstances surrounding the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868. It covered exhaustively consideration of the Amendment in Congress, ratification by the states, then existing practices in racial segregation, and the views of proponents and opponents of the Amendment. This discussion and our own investigation convinced us that although these sources cast some light, it is not enough to resolve the problem with which we are faced. At best, they are inconclusive. The most avid proponents of the post-War Amendments undoubtedly intended them to remove all legal distinctions among “all persons born or naturalized in the United States.” Their opponents, just as certainly, were antagonistic to both the letter and the spirit of the Amendments and wished them to have the most limited effect. What others in Congress and the state legislatures had in mind cannot be determined with any degree of certainty.

An additional reason for the inconclusive nature of the Amendment’s history, with respect to segregated schools, is the status of public education at that time. In the South, the movement toward free common schools, supported by general taxation, had not yet taken hold. Education of white children was largely in the hands of private groups. Education of Negroes was almost nonexistent, and practically all of the race were illiterate. In fact, any education of Negroes was forbidden by law in some states. Today, in contrast, many Negroes have achieved outstanding success in the arts and sciences as well as in the business and professional world. It is true that public education had already advanced further in the North, but the effect of the Amendment on Northern States was generally ignored in the congressional debates. Even in the North, the conditions of public education did not approximate those existing today. The curriculum was usually rudimentary; ungraded schools were common in rural areas; the school term was but three months a year in many states; and compulsory school attendance was virtually unknown. As a consequence, it is not surprising that there should be so little in the history of the Fourteenth Amendment relating to its intended effect on public education.

In the first cases in this Court construing the Fourteenth Amendment, decided shortly after its adoption, the Court interpreted it as proscribing all state-imposed discriminations against the Negro race. The doctrine of “separate but equal” did not make its appearance in this Court until 1896 in the case of _Plessy v. Ferguson_, _supra_, involving not education but transportation. American courts have since labored with the doctrine for over half a century. In this Court, there have been six cases involving the “separate but equal” doctrine in the field of public education. In _Cumming v. County Board of Education_, 175 U.S. 528, and _Gong Lum v. Rice_, 275 U.S. 78, the validity of the doctrine itself was not challenged. In more recent cases, all on the graduate school level, inequality was found in that specific benefits enjoyed by white students were denied to Negro students of the same educational qualifications. _Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada_, 305. U.S. 337; _Sipuel v. Oklahoma_, 332 U.S. 631; _Sweatt v. Painter_, 339 U.S. 629; _McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents_, 339 U.S. 637. In none of these cases was it necessary to re-examine the doctrine to grant relief to the Negro plaintiff. And in _Sweatt v. Painter_, _supra_, the Court expressly reserved decision on the question whether _Plessy v. Ferguson_ should be held inapplicable to public education.

In the instant cases, that question is directly presented. Here, unlike _Sweatt v. Painter_, there are findings below that the Negro and white schools involved have been equalized, or are being equalized, with respect to buildings, curricula, qualifications and salaries of teachers, and other “tangible” factors. Our decision, therefore, cannot turn on merely a comparison of these tangible factors in the Negro and white schools involved in each of the cases. We must look instead to the effect of segregation itself on public education.

In approaching this problem, we cannot turn the clock back to 1868 when the Amendment was adopted, or even to 1896 when _Plessy v. Ferguson_ was written. We must consider public education in the light of its full development and its present place in American life throughout the Nation. Only in this way can it be determined if segregation in public schools deprives these plaintiffs of the equal protection of the laws.

Today, education is perhaps the most important function of state and local governments. Compulsory school attendance laws and the great expenditures for education both demonstrate our recognition of the importance of education to our democratic society. It is required in the performance of our most basic public responsibilities, even service in the armed forces. It is the very foundation of good citizenship. Today it is a principal instrument in awakening the child to cultural values, in preparing him for later professional training, and in helping him to adjust normally to his environment. In these days, it is doubtful that any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if he is denied the opportunity of an education. Such an opportunity, where the state has undertaken to provide it, is a right which must be made available to all on equal terms.

We come then to the question presented: Does segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race, even though the physical facilities and other “tangible” factors may be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities? We believe that it does.

In _Sweatt v. Painter_, _supra_, in finding that a segregated law school for Negroes could not provide them equal educational opportunities, this Court relied in large part on “those qualities which are incapable of objective measurement but which make for greatness in a law school.” In _McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents_, _supra_, the Court, in requiring that a Negro admitted to a white graduate school be treated like all other students, again resorted to intangible considerations:

“... his ability to study, to engage in discussions and exchange views with other students, and, in general, to learn his profession.” Such considerations apply with added force to children in grade and high schools. To separate them from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely ever to be undone. The effect of this separation on their educational opportunities was well stated by a finding in the Kansas case by a court which nevertheless felt compelled to rule against the Negro plaintiffs:

“Segregation of white and colored children in public
schools has a detrimental effect upon the colored children.
The impact is greater when it has the sanction of the
law; for the policy of separating the races is usually
interpreted as denoting the inferiority of the Negro group.
A sense of inferiority affects the motivation of a child to
learn. Segregation with the sanction of law, therefore, has
a tendency to retard the educational and mental development
of Negro children and to deprive them of some of the
benefits they would receive in a racially integrated school
system.”

Whatever may have been the extent of psychological knowledge at the time of _Plessy v. Ferguson_, this finding is amply supported by modern authority. Any language in _Plessy v. Ferguson_ contrary to this finding is rejected.

We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of “separate but equal” has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. Therefore, we hold that the plaintiffs and others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation complained of, deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment. This disposition makes unnecessary any discussion whether such segregation also violates the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

Because these are class actions, because of the wide applicability of this decision and because of the great variety of local conditions, the formulation of decrees in these cases presents problems of considerable complexity. On reargument, the consideration of appropriate relief was necessarily subordinated to the primary question--the constitutionality of segregation in public education. We have now announced that such segregation is a denial of the equal protection of the laws. In order that we may have the full assistance of the parties in formulating decrees, the cases will be restored to the docket, and the parties are requested to present further argument on Questions 4 and 5 previously propounded by the Court for reargument this Term. The Attorney General of the United States is again invited to participate. The Attorneys General of the states requiring or permitting segregaion in public education will also be permitted to appear as _amici curiae_ upon request to do so by September 15, 1954, and submission of briefs by October 1, 1954.

INDEX

A

Adams, Sherman, 159

AFL-CIO, 51, 185, 187, 189, 141, 168, 164, 166

Agnew, E. H., 27, 84, 96

Allen University, 116-124

American Association of University Professors, 119-120

American Civil Liberties Union, 165

American Council of Education, 101

_American Dilemma_, 22, 27

American Educators, Incorporated, 88, 45

Americans For Democratic Action, 136, 138, 141

Anti-Defamation League, 89

Anti-Semitism, 40, 43, 86

Armstrong, Ben J., 74

Ashmore, Robert J., 26-27, 49, 101

Association for Preservation of Southern Traditions, 88

Association of School Administrators, 99

Atkins, Alford, 79

_Atlantic Monthly_, 80, 181

Atomic Energy Commission, 102

B

Bacoats, J. A., 124, 125

Ball, W. W., 2

Ballard, L. B., 179

Baptist Church, 60-61

Baruch, Bernard, 39

Bass, Jack, 177

Bates, Lester, 129-130

Bates, W. T. C., 53

Batista, Fulgencio, 149

Bellinger, G. Duncan, 37

Benedict College, 122, 124-125

Bethune, Mary McLeod, 110

Bickley, J. H., 39, 40, 41, 192

Blackman, Mrs. S. L., 182

Blake, C. E., 160

Blatt, Solomon, 95

Blease, Cole, 9, 189

Blease, Eugene S., 27

Boas, Franz, 182

Bob Jones University, 65

Bonner, I. H., 118, 119, 120, 121, 123

Booker, Harold, 139

Bostwick, Margaret, 67

Bowles, Bryant, 12, 42-43

Bowling, H. L., 193

Boyette, Luther E., 178

Boyle, Gaston, 64

Brabham, A. McKay, Jr., 57

Brabham, P. Eugene, 100

Bragg, W. W., 34

Brailsford, James M., 41

Brameld, Theodore, 27

Breeland, Richard, 103

Brown, Edgar, 128

Brown, Gary, 196

Brown, Giles G., 76

Brown, Millie Lewis, 41

_Brown vs. Baskin_, 4, 5-6

Brownell, Herbert, 19, 22, 25, 129, 142, 158, 159, 161

Bryant, Herbert, 177

Buchanan, George, 28

Bulganin, Nikolai A., 140

Bunche, Ralph J., 110

Byrd, E. L., 44, 56, 64

Byrd, Harry F., 187, 189

Byrnes, James F., 4, 8, 15-16, 17, 22, 27, 31, 33, 50, 83, 93, 96,
100, 101-102, 140, 141, 147, 161, 167, 170

C

Calhoun, John C., 1, 21, 38, 63-64, 79, 105, 109, 137, 143, 150, 184

Callison, T. C., 18, 19, 22, 25-26, 42, 86, 117, 126, 168

Cardozo, Benjamin N., 12

Carr, Robert K., 119-120

Carroll, David D., 128-129

Catholic Church, 52

Central High School (Little Rock), 159, 160

Chalmers, Allen Knight, 110

_Cheraw Chronicle_, 172, 208

_Chicago Daily News_, 148-149

_Chicago Sun-Times_, 180

Childs, Margaretta P., 48

_Christian Advocate_, 169

Christian Council on Human Relations, 169

Citadel, The, 125, 178

Citizens Council, 32, 37, 38, 41, 45-53, 54, 55, 57, 58, 63, 64, 65,
75, 83, 84, 86, 89, 92, 98, 105, 132, 187, 188, 189, 164, 169,
170, 171, 192-193

_Citizens Council, The_, 48

Civil Rights Act (1957), 154-158, 163

Civil Rights Bill (1956), 154

Clarendon County Case (Briggs _et al_ vs Elliott, _et al_), 10,
12-20, 21, 28, 76-77, 81, 82, 90, 94, 95, 189

Clarendon County Civic League, 74

Clark, H. B., 29, 68

Clark, Mark, 125-126, 137

Clement, A. J., Jr., 71, 81, 90, 96

Clemson College, 11, 102-103

Cleveland, Grover, 137

Coker, Robert R., 27

Colvin, E. E., 38, 66, 79

Committee of 52, 27-28

Communism (including Communist Party), 24, 28, 39, 40, 43, 44, 45,
57, 62, 65, 67, 102, 111, 121, 122, 123, 124, 131, 132, 138,
140, 147, 168, 196, 200

“Concerned South Carolinians”, 170-173

Cook, Eugene, 112

Cook, Pierce E., 57-58

Corbit. Lynn. 62

Cousins. Norman, 110

Cousins, Ralph, 170

Crawford, Leon, 143

Criswell, W. A., 60-61

Crosswell, W. M., 193

Crow, E. Ryan, 93, 185

Cruell, Claude and Fannie, 40-41

Culbertson, John Bolt, 174

D

Dabbs, James M., 173-174

Dabbs, Mrs. James M., 170, 173

Daniels, G. G., 76

Davies, Ronald N., 109-110, 158, 161

Davis, Henry E., 86, 98

Davis, James B., 66

Davis, John W., 18

Debnam, W. E., 152

DeLaine, J. A., 86

Democratic National Convention (1936), 6, 7;
(1956) 113

Democratic Party, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 15, 22, 24, 80, 128, 130,
131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142,
143, 144, 161, 165

Dewey, Thomas, 25, 142

Dixiecrats, 131, 133, 134, 138

Dobie, Armisted M., 17, 20

Dorn, William Jennings Bryan, 6, 27, 49, 142, 146, 155, 156

Douglas, W. Ernest, 174

Dulles, John Foster, 25

E

Eastland, James O., 27, 50

Edisto Beach State Park, 88, 104, 127

_Education and Race Relations_, 34

Edwards, B. M., 124

Edwards, E. L., 26, 39

Eisenhower, Dwight D., 8, 23, 26, 39, 95, 105, 131, 138, 140, 142,
143, 154, 157, 158, 161, 164, 208, 204

Ellis, R. Archie, 124

Elmore, George, 5, 82

Episcopal Church, 61-62

Evans, J. Claude, 169, 170

Evans, J. Walker, 85

F

Faubus, Orval, 109, 158, 160, 161, 203

Federal aid to education, 99-100, 102-103, 198

Federal Bureau of Investigation, 121

Federation for Constitutional Government, 38, 45, 137

F.E.P.C., 134, 135, 139

Fielding-Reid, Francis, 185

Figg, Robert McC., 13, 14, 20

Fitzhugh, George, 79

Flemming, Sarah Mae, 126

For America, 45

Ford Foundation, 13

Ford, Henry, II, 40

Fort Jackson, 102, 157

Frazier, E. Franklin, 27

Fugitive Slave Law, 105

Fund for the Republic, 169

G

Gallup Poll, 72-73

_Gamecock, The_, 176-177

Garrett, Charles G., 89

Gaud, Henry, 143

Gentry, John T., 114

George, Walter, 136

Goebbels, Joseph., 186

Golden, Harry, 91

Grant, Ulysses S., 25

Grass Roots League, 24, 38, 44-45, 137

Graydon, Clint T., 155

Gressette, L. Marion, 17, 77, 79, 95, 107, 109, 122, 161-162

Gressette School Segregation Committee, 17, 93, 96-97, 103, 105, 115,
147, 161

Grimball, William H., Jr., 114

Grossman, Fred, 150

Guerry, Edward B., 27, 65

Guess, Dorothy Moore, 168, 180

H

Haigh, Charles D., 81

Hammerstein, Oscar, II, 110

Hammond, James H., 26

Hampton, Wade, 129, 143

Handlin, Oscar, 30

Harlan, John Marshall, 26

Harman, H. Odelle, 63

Harmon, Nolan B., 59

_Harper’s_, 29-30, 72

Harrell, George S., 26, 108, 115

Harrelson, D. M., 174

Harrigan, Anthony, 172

Harriman, Averill, 136, 149

Hart, John Calhoun, 103, 112, 113, 115, 116, 164

Hartford Convention, 92, 105

Hastie, William, 110

Hemphill, Robert, 157

Herbert, R. Beverley, 27, 124, 172

Hilton, Henrietta, 73

Hilton, Leroy, 73

Hilton, Morgan, 73

Hilton, William, 73

Hinton, James M., 6, 22, 74, 76, 77, 80, 81, 82, 87, 110, 129, 180

Hitler, Adolf, 62, 150, 181, 183, 186

Hoffman, Edwin, 117-128

Holler, J. C., 59

Hollings, Ernest F., 31, 77, 86, 95, 97-98, 163

Holmes, J. Arthur, 76

Horlbeck, John M., 108, 114

Horn, Joseph, 170

Hughes, Jerry M., 58

Hutchins, Guy, 86-87

I

_Independent_ (Anderson), 23-24, 25, 26, 35, 42, 50, 66, 75, 77, 85,
101-102, 103, 107, 109, 111, 128, 133, 135, 136, 139, 140, 152,
154, 158, 160, 168, 203

Interdenominational Ministerial Alliance (Columbia), 76, 124

Interposition, 105-110

_Island in the Sun_, 115

Ivey, G. L., 43, 86, 88, 96

J

Jackson, Larry, 170

James, F. C., 121

James, William, 77

Jefferson, Thomas, 136, 137, 145

Jenkins, Micah, 44, 45, 47, 48, 137, 138

Jerome, Emmette, 169

Johnson, Lyndon, 136, 155, 157

Johnston, Olin D., 4, 6, 22, 50, 136, 143, 154, 156, 157, 160, 203,
204

Jones, Bob, 65

Jones, E. S., 58

K

Keels, Thomas D., 193

Kefauver, Estes, 40, 135, 136, 139, 140

Kennard, J. Spencer, 124, 125

Kilpatrick, James J., 105

King, Arthur Locke, 172

Knights of Columbus, 89

Knowland, William, 157

Ku Klux Klan, 7, 12, 26, 38-42, 46, 51, 87-88, 111, 112, 165, 178,
174, 179, 192

L

Lamb, J. Harold, 162

Lane, J. M., 64

Latimer, Samuel, 110, 149-150, 158

Lawrence, David, 147, 153, 202

Le Clerq, Fred, 177

Lee, J. Bracken, 137

Lee, Robert E., 92, 148

_Life_, 147

_Lighthouse and Informer_, 129, 180

Lincoln, Abraham, 142

Lines, Stiles B., 86-87

Little Rock Affair, 109-110, 148, 158-162, 178, 208

_Living Church, The_, 62

Long, John D., 162

_Look_, 147

Lutheran Church, 68

Lyles, John, 170

M

Mance, R. A., 120

Mann, Woodrow Wilson, 159, 160

Manning, Wyndham, 27

Mansfield, Mrs. E. R., 182-183

Marshall, Thurgood, 13-14, 15, 18, 51, 83, 88, 90

Martin, E. M., 174

Martin, Robert P., 178

Mason, E. R., 65, 86

Maybank, Burnet R., Jr., 50

Maybank, Burnet R., Sr., 4, 9, 22, 180

Mays, Benjamin E., 71, 110

Mdodana, P. B., 82

Meany, George, 164

_Mein Kampf_, 181

Mellette, Billy, 177

Mencken, H. L., 49

Methodist Church, 50-51, 55, 56-59

Methodist Church, Southeastern Jurisdiction, 55

Miller, Thomas R., 181

Mitchell, Clarence, 113, 183

Moore, Charles, 179

Moore, Fred, 54

Morehouse College, 71

_Morning News_ (Florence), 24, 25, 30-31, 33, 41-42, 43, 50, 56, 58,
67, 68, 71, 77, 84, 85, 88, 92, 96, 99, 101, 102, 106, 111,
113, 119, 133, 134, 135, 136, 139, 141, 145, 155, 158, 160,
167, 177, 178, 179, 180, 203

Morris, John B., 170, 178

Morris, W. A., 182

Morse, Stanley F., 24, 41, 86, 137, 182

Morse, Wayne, 157

Murray J. B., 57

Myrdal, Gunnar, 22, 26, 27, 89

Mc

“McCarthyism”, 111, 121

McClary, Webster, 75

McClung, Carolyn, 176

McCord, L. B., 24, 47, 57, 64

McCray, John, 6, 80, 124

McFaddin, James H., 54, 203-204

McFaddin, T. H., 98

McKinley, Carlyle, 2

McLaughlin, Mr. and Mrs. Carl B., 172

McMaster, J. G., 33

McMillan, John L., 50

McMillan, Lewis K., 11

McNair, Robert E., 155

McQueen, Cleveland M., 11

N

_Nation, The_, 12

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, 3, 5, 9,
10, 12, 13, 14, 17, 19, 22, 28, 30, 32, 36, 39, 40, 43, 45, 46,
50, 51, 52, 53, 58, 64, 65, 67, 68, 71, 74, 75, 77, 79, 80,
81-91, 96, 104, 110-111, 113, 116, 129, 130, 135, 137, 141,
142, 149, 150, 152, 159, 160, 163, 170, 171, 174, 179, 182,
183, 196

National Association for the Advancement of White People, 12, 38,
42-43, 96

National Council of Churches, 40, 52, 69

National Education Association, 101

Neff, Lawrence, 67

Negro Baptist State Convention, 76

Negro Citizens Committee of South Carolina, 187

_New York Herald Tribune_, 147, 148

_New York Times_, 32, 73, 147, 148, 149

_News and Courier_ (Charleston), 2, 7, 22-23, 24, 25, 26, 27-28, 29,
30, 31, 32, 33-34, 35, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 49, 50, 54, 56, 57,
63, 64, 67, 68-69, 72, 75, 77-78, 79, 84, 86, 87, 88, 92, 93,
96, 98, 99-100, 101, 102-103, 107, 108, 109, 112, 114, 116,
126, 128, 130-131, 132, 134, 135, 136-137, 139, 140, 141, 143,
145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 158,
159, 163-164, 167, 168, 169, 172, 177, 180, 182, 183, 184, 185,
186, 187

Niebuhr, Reinhold, 65

Nixon, Richard M., 112, 138, 142, 158, 159

O

O’Dowd, Jack H., 24, 30-31, 56, 58, 77, 85, 96, 99, 111, 136, 155,
167, 177, 178-180

Orangeburg boycotts, 51-54

Ott, E. Mitchell. 153-154

Oxnam, G. Bromley, 40

P

Palmetto Education Association, 73-74, 96, 199

Palmetto State Voters Association, 80-81, 148

Parker, Barrington, 142-143

Parker, John J., 13, 14, 20, 126

Patrick, J. J., 64-65

Peale, Norman Vincent, 68

Petit, Harold A., 186

Pierce, Bob, 149

Pitts, Oscar, 142

_Plessy vs. Ferguson_, 3, 22, 26, 126

Poag, Fred V., 64

Pollock, William, 164

Poole, Robert E., 102

Pope, Thomas H., 27, 155

Powell, Adam Clayton, 139, 142

Powell, Joe B., 180

Pridgen, Paul M., 68

Pritchett, Carl, 64

Progressive Democratic Party, 6-7, 73, 75, 80, 124

R

Randolph, A. Philip, 110

Rankin, Henry, 63

Ravenel, Arthur, Jr., 153

Rayburn, Sam, 136

Rea, C. A., 42

_Record_, (Columbia), 23, 25, 26, 28, 30, 31, 32, 34-35, 50, 54, 72,
76, 77, 81, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 101, 106, 109, 111-112,
114, 126, 131, 134, 135, 141, 160, 184, 185

Record, Wilson, 196

Reid, Frank Madison, 75-76

_Reporter, The_, 52

Republican Party, 8, 24, 128, 130, 131, 134, 137, 138, 141, 142, 143,
163

Reuther, Walter, 139, 165

_Rice vs. Elmore_, 4

Richards, James P., 106, 161, 171, 172

_Richmond News Leader_, 105

Rideout, John G., 117-123

Riley, E. P., 142

Riley, John J., 49, 50, 121

Rivers, L. Mendel, 45, 49, 50, 106, 131, 154, 157

Rochester, A. Marshall, 41

Rockefeller, Winthrop, 203

Rogers, James A., 31, 33, 77, 135, 136, 139, 140

Rogers, S. Emory, 13, 20, 46, 48, 55, 89, 106, 138

Roosevelt, Eleanor, 39, 139

Roosevelt, Franklin D., 8, 39, 130, 131, 135, 188

Rowell, Robert, 67

Ruppert, C. H., 151

Russell, Donald S., 100, 151-152, 175, 176

Russell, Richard B., 142, 203

Rutledge, Archibald, 69

S

Sanders, Claudia Thomas, 172, 173

Sanders, Dr. James H., 172

Sass, Herbert Ravenel, 27, 30, 181

Sass, M. H., 144

_Saturday Evening Post_, 147

School Boards Association, 99

Secrest, Andrew McDowd, 172

Shean, Maurice, 169

Siceloff, Courtney, 169

Simkins, Francis B., 9, 181

Simkins, Mojeska, 129

Sinkler, Huger, 25

Smith, Edna M., 68

Smith, Ellison D. (“Cotton Ed”), 6, 46, 138, 187

Smith, Ellison D., Jr., 27

Smith, Farley, 27, 46, 138, 144, 161

Smith, Lewis, 124, 125

_Smith vs. Allwright_, 4

Somersett, W. A., 165-166

South Carolina Citizens Committee, 74

South Carolina Conference of Education, 100

South Carolina Council on Human Relations, 169

South Carolina Education Association, 99, 175

South Carolina Electric and Gas Co., 126, 186

South Carolina Farm Bureau Federation, 34, 96

South Carolina Federation of Women’s Clubs, 99, 169

South Carolinians for Independent Electors (South Carolina
Independent Democrats), 80, 138-144, 161, 165

Southern Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, 10

Southern Baptist Convention, 55, 60, 61

Southern Historical Association, 181

Southern Manifesto, 40, 169

Southern Methodist Church, 62-63

Southern Presbyterian Assembly, 55

Southern Regional Council, 169, 173

Spearman, Alice N., 169

Spingarn, Arthur B., 110

Spruill, James A., 155

Stafford, G. Jackson, 60, 174

Stalin, Joseph, 8

_Star_ (Marion), 130

_State_ (Columbia), 26, 102, 109-110, 127, 147-148, 149, 158, 160, 184

State Agricultural and Mechanical College for Negroes, 11, 53, 82,
95, 104, 111, 118, 128

State Board of Education, 116, 117-118, 120, 121, 123

State Law Enforcement Division, 53, 172-173

State Library Board, 104, 113, 114

States Rights League, 38, 43-44, 45

Stevens, Thaddeus, 25

Stevenson, Adlai, 131, 135, 139, 140, 143, 159

Stoney, Thomas P., 139

Strobel, Hydrick, 76

Stuckey, J. Henry, 114

Summers, S. J., Jr., 63

Supreme Court (United States), 3, 17-20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28,
29, 31, 32, 33, 35, 37, 38, 43, 44, 58, 60, 61, 62, 65, 72, 74,
76, 85, 86, 92, 93, 95, 96, 97, 98, 103, 104, 108, 111, 116,
123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 129, 131, 132, 134, 139, 144, 167,
169, 170, 171, 173, 175, 178, 183, 184, 185, 199

Surles, Flora Bell, 186

_Swimming Hole, The_, 113-114

Swinton, Sylvia, 117

_Syracuse Post-Standard_, 149

T

Taft, Robert A., 137

Taft-Hartley Act, 140, 188

Talmadge, Herman, 142

Textile Workers Union of America, 164

_Then My Old Kentucky Home Good Night_, 152

Thomas, Albert S., 27, 67

Thompson, Eldridge. 88, 192

Thurmond, J. Strom, 7, 8, 22, 26, 35, 50, 128, 134, 154, 155, 156,
157, 158, 203

Till, Emmett, 86

Tillman, Ben, 137

_Time_, 147, 148, 180

Timmerman, George Bell, Jr., 4, 31, 36, 42, 53-54, 60, 77, 80, 89,
90, 93-95, 100, 102, 106, 107, 108, 116-125, 129-130, 132, 133,
134, 147, 156-167, 158, 161, 171, 175

Timmerman, George Bell, Sr., 13, 14, 20, 60, 93, 126

Tobias, Channing, 83, 110

Toth, André, 117, 119

Travelstead, Chester C., 167, 175-177

Truax, Carlton, 25

Trujillo, Rafael Leonidas, 149

Truman, Harry S., 7, 8, 15, 29, 131, 139, 188

Turner, Benner C., 54, 95, 118

Turner, Sherwood, 40-41

Turnipseed, Barnwell Rhett, 59

U

Un-American Activities Committee, 27, 40, 110, 117, 124

United Church Women, 170

United Southern Employees Association, 165-166

University of Chicago, 180

University of South Carolina, 2, 11, 100, 118, 122, 123, 167, 174,
175, 176, 177, 202

_U. S. News and World Report_, 147, 158

V

Vanwright, James, 76

Veal, Frank, 117-118, 120, 121, 123

Victory Savings Bank, 52

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 105

W

Wallace, David Duncan, 7

Wallace, Lewis, 103

_Walterboro Press and Standard_, 111

Waring, George W., 45

Waring, J. Waties, 5-6, 7, 13, 15, 17, 188

Waring, Thomas R., 7, 23, 29-30, 46, 72, 126, 132, 148, 168, 183

Warr, O. L., 98

Warren, Earl, 19, 22, 23, 26, 142

Washington, Booker T., 77, 79

_Washington Post and Times-Herald_, 147, 204

Watson, Albert W., 114

Waugh, Alec, 115

We The People, 43

Wheeler, Paul, 124

_Weep No More My Lady_, 152

White, Walter, 14

Wiggins, Forrest O., 117-123

Williams, Norton, 28-29

Wilkes, Gilbert, 31-32, 79, 186

Wilkins, Roy, 84, 89

Williams, Ashton H., 88

Williams, G. Mennen, 136

Williams, John Bell, 139

Williams, Marshall, 79

Williams, Ransome J., 27

Wilson, Woodrow, 137

Woodson, M. A., 65

Workman, W. D., Jr., 24, 27, 28, 32, 35, 72, 77, 88, 93, 98, 108-109,
152-153

Wrighten, John, 11

Transcriber’s Note:

This book was written in a period when many words had not become standardized in their spelling. Words may have multiple spelling variations or inconsistent hyphenation in the text. These have been left unchanged unless indicated below. Misspelled words were not corrected.

Words and phrases in italics are surrounded by underscores, _like this_. Footnotes were renumbered sequentially. Obvious printing errors, such as backwards, upside down, or partially printed letters and punctuation were corrected. Final stops missing at the end of sentences and abbreviations were added. Duplicate letters at line endings were removed.

The following was changed:

“as” to “is”: ... is, in itself, unconstitutional,...