Chapter XXIII: Conclusion (3)

[404] W. W. A. Fitzgerald, _Travels in the Coastlands of British East Africa_, London, 1898, p. 111, quoting W. E. Taylor, _Vocabulary of the Giryama Language_, London, 1897. The name of these rest days—_jumwa_—is Arabic; see above, p. 107 _n._²

[405] P. B. Du Chaillu, _In African Forest and Jungle_, New York, 1903, pp. 96 _sq._

[406] Horace Waller, editor, _The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa_, New York, 1875, p. 273.

[407] J. Y. Gibson, _The Story of the Zulus_, London, 1911, p. 175.

[408] Gengnagel, “Volksglaube und Wahrsagerei an der Westküste Indiens,” _Ausland_, 1891, lxiv, 871 _sq._ Another observer declares that if a cow calves on the new-moon day, her milk, it is believed, will kill the owner (P. Kershasp, “Some Superstitions prevailing among the Canarese-speaking People of Southern India,” _Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay_, vii, 84).

[409] R. B. Bainbridge, in _Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, 1907, ii, 50.

[410] J. Wilson, in _Indian Antiquary_, 1897, xxvi, 308 (from _Punjab Notes and Queries_, 1883).

[411] M. Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria_, New York, 1911, pp. 214, 333 _sqq._; _idem_, _Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens_, Giessen, 1905-1912, i, 440, ii, 510 _sqq._ Compare L. W. King, _Babylonian Magic and Sorcery_, London, 1896, pp. 5 _sq._

[412] I. Goldziher, in _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, 1910, xiii, 44 _n._⁴ For the Abyssinian beliefs see E. Littmann, _ibid._, 1908, xi, 314 _sq._

[413] E. Rhode, _Psyche_,⁶ Tübingen, 1910, i, 234 _n._¹, 269 _n._²; E. Caillemer, in Daremberg and Saglio’s _Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines_, i, 332. G. F. Schoemann denies that the ἀσέλινοι were truly ill-omened, since there are instances of popular assemblies being fixed for these days (_Griechische Alterthümer_,⁴ edited by J. H. Lipsius, Berlin, 1897-1902, ii, 457 _n._⁴). It would seem, however, that the Athenians, like the Romans, sometimes distinguished between days popularly considered unlucky and those officially recognized as such in the state calendars. Friday is for us a most unlucky day, but, excepting Good Friday, it is not a _dies non_.

[414] Roscher, _Über Selene und Verwandtes_, pp. 46 _sqq._ The interlunar days were selected by the ancients for the celebration of the sacred marriages of the gods and goddesses and, particularly, of the sun and moon. At least from the time of Thales the conjunction of the two luminaries was indicated by the same term σύνοδος (_coitus_) which was applied to the act of procreation (_ibid._, pp. 76 _sqq._).

[415] T. F. T. Dyer, _English Folklore_, London, 1878, p. 41; Thomas Hardy, _The Return of the Native_, London, 1895, p. 29.

[416] H. A. Hazen, in _Journal of American Folk-lore_, 1900, xiii, 192. American folklore contains the injunction never to kill cattle or pigs, or even wild game, by the “dark of the moon”; it is most unlucky, and the meat will come to no good (Bergen, _Current Superstitions_, p. 121).

[417] W. Smythe and F. Lowe, _Narrative of a Journey from Lima to Para_, London, 1836, p. 230.

[418] Father G. Boscana, “Chinigchinich,” in _Life in California by an American_, New York, 1846, pp. 298 _sq._

[419] Jonathan Carver, _Travels through the Interior Parts of North America_,³ London, 1781, pp. 250, 252.

[420] W. Bartram, in _Transactions of the American Ethnological Society_, 1853, iii, pt. i, 26.

[421] Merolla, “Voyage to Congo,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, xvi, 273.

[422] Mungo Park, _op. cit._, i, 265.

[423] G. W. Stow, _The Native Races of South Africa_, London, 1905, p. 112. For further examples of new-moon and full-moon celebrations see P. Kolben, _The Present State of the Cape of Good Hope_, London, 1731, i, 96 (Hottentots); J. Bonwick, _Daily Life and Origin of the Tasmanians_, London, 1870, pp. 186 _sqq._; Seligmann, _Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p. 193 (Koita); Carl Ribbe, _Zwei Jahre unter den Kannibalen der Salomo-Inseln_, Dresden, 1903, p. 163 (Shortland Island); Taylor, _Te Ika A Maui_, p. 93 (Maori); Turner, _Samoa_, p. 67; A. E. Jenks, in _Ethnological Survey Publications_, i, 206 (Bontoc Igorot of Luzon); V. Solomon, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1902, xxxii, 213 (Nicobarese); W. Bogoras, in _Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History_, xi, 378 (Chukchi); J. v. Klaproth, _Reise in den Kaukasus und nach Georgien_, Halle, 1814, ii, 602 (Osetes); A. von Humboldt, _Vues des Cordillères_, Paris, 1816, ii, 244 (Muysca of Colombia).

[424] Frazer, _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_,³ ii, 140.

[425] The vice of seeking particularistic explanations of widespread social phenomena is illustrated by Nielsen, who, with misdirected ingenuity, has argued that the early Semites founded their Sabbaths on the observation that the moon (conceived as a divinity) rests four times in a lunation. Days on which the deity rested were to be likewise observed by his worshippers as days of rest (D. Nielsen, _Die altarabische Mondreligion und die mosaische Überlieferung_, Strassburg, 1904, pp. 63 _sqq._). It is true that the moon looks full for a day or two before and for a day or two after she is full; similarly, the changes in her form at the beginning of a lunation are scarcely perceptible. The moon, therefore, might be said to “rest” at these two periods. But neither astronomical science nor untutored observation lends any support to the idea that the moon “rests” at the close of each and every phase. Such a hypothesis, were it true, would not account for the other forms of abstinence, in addition to the cessation of labour, which occur in connection with the moon’s changes. And, as we shall see, the observance of lunar taboos may be quite dissociated from true moon-worship and probably long antedates the latter cult.

[426] Above, pp. 14 _sq._, 20, 32 _and_ _n._², 34 and _n._¹, 37, 52 _n._¹

[427] Lieutenant Farewell, in W. F. W. Owen, _Narrative of Voyages to explore the Shores of Africa, Arabia, and Madagascar_, London, 1833, ii, 397; compare Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_, London, 1904, p. 110.

[428] G. W. Stow, _The Native Races of South Africa_, London, 1905, p. 414.

[429] _Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa_,²⁵ New York, 1870, p. 255.

[430] John Campbell, _Travels in South Africa_, London, 1822, ii, 205.

[431] L. Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_, London, 1900, pp. 85 _sq._

[432] _Ibid._, p. 295.

[433] J. F. Cunningham, _Uganda and its Peoples_, London, 1905, p. 294.

[434] Above, p. 136.

[435] Hobley, _op. cit._, p. 104.

[436] John Roscoe, _The Baganda_, London, 1911, pp. 297, 299, 428; _idem_, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1902, xxxii, 76.

[437] Roscoe, _Baganda_, pp. 320 _sqq._; _idem_, “Python Worship in Uganda,” _Man_, 1909, ix, 88 _sqq._

[438] _Idem_, _Baganda_, pp. 249 _sq._

[439] Mrs. A. B. Fisher, _Twilight Tales of the Black Baganda_, London [1912], pp. 37 _sq._

[440] J. H. Speke, _Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile_, Edinburgh, 1863, p. 523.

[441] _Ibid._, p. 259. According to Speke this custom is also observed by the king of Uganda, who, on the first day after the appearance of the new moon, examines and arranges his _mapembe_, or fetishes (_ibid._, p. 372).

[442] The Mendi of the hinterland of Sierra Leone are said to hold a new-moon festival and at it to abstain from all work, “alleging that if they infringed this rule corn and rice would grow red, the new moon being a ‘day of blood.’” Ellis, who cites this instance without giving his authority, adds the further fact that the Mendi recognize no weeks (_Yoruba-speaking Peoples_, p. 146).

[443] _Ibid._ Ellis presented his arguments more fully in an article “On the Origin of Weeks and Sabbaths,” _Popular Science Monthly_, 1895, xlvi, 329-343.

[444] W. Crooke, _The Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_,² Westminster, 1896, i, 23.

[445] Gengnagel, “Volksglaube und Wahrsagerei an der Westküste Indiens,” _Ausland_, 1891, lxiv, 871 _sq._

[446] F. Jagor, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte_, 1876, p. (201) (bound with _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, vol. viii).

[447] Thurston, _Omens and Superstitions of Southern India_, p. 22.

[448] _Rig-Veda_, i, 9, 1, i, 94, 4 (transl. H. Grassmann, ii, 8, 95); _Atharva-Veda_, vii, 79, 3, vii, 80, 1-4 (transl. W. D. Whitney, pp. 444-446); Martin Haug, _The Aitareya Brahmanam of the Rig-Veda_, Bombay, 1863, ii, 5; A. Weber, “Zur Kenntnis des vedische Opferrituals,” _Indische Studien_, 1868, x, 329 _sqq._; H. Zimmer, _Altindisches Leben_, Berlin, 1879, pp. 364 _sq._; A. Hillebrandt, _Das altindische Neu- und Vollmondsopfer_, Jena, 1879; _idem_, in Bühler’s _Grundriss der indo-arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde_, Strassburg, 1901, ii, pt. ii, pp. 75 _sq._ The new-moon day was called _darśa_, the day of the full moon, _pūrṇamāsa_.

[449] The first day was called _upavasatha_, a fasting or fast day (compare Sanskrit _upa_, an adverbial adjunct, signifying to refrain from, abstain, hence, to fast). The second day’s ceremony was known as the _darśapūrṇamāsa_ sacrifice.

[450] _Satapatha-Brâhmana_, i, 1, 1, 1 _sqq._ (_Sacred Books of the East_, xii, 1 _sq._; compare also 374 _sq._).

[451] A. Hillebrandt, _Vedische Mythologie_, Breslau, 1891-1899, i, 267 _sqq._, 313, 366 _sqq._; ii, 209-240.

[452] A. Bergaigne, _La religion védique_, Paris, 1878, i, 157 _sqq._; A. A. Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, Strassburg, 1897, pp. 112 _sqq._; E. W. Hopkins, _The Religions of India_, Boston, 1895, pp. 112 _sqq._; J. Muir, _Original Sanskrit Texts_,³ London, 1884, v, 270 _sq._ Compare _Satapatha-Brâhmana_, i, 6, 4, 5 _sqq._ (_S. B. E._, xii, 176 _sqq._).

[453] _Grihya-sûtra of Gobhila_, i, 5, 1-26 (_S. B. E._, xxx, 25-28).

[454] _Institutes of Vishnu_, xlvii, 3 (_S. B. E._, vii, 152).

[455] _Laws of Manu_, xi, 217 _sqq._ (_S. B. E._, xxv, 474 _sq._).

[456] _Ibid._, iv, 128 (_S. B. E._, xxv, 149).

[457] _Vishńu Puráńa_, iii, 11 (the translation by H. H. Wilson, edited by F. Hall, London, 1865, iii, 132 _sq._).

[458] _Ibid._, ii, 6 (Wilson-Hall, ii, 219).

[459] J. A. Dubois, _Hindu Manners, Customs, and Ceremonies_,³ Oxford, 1906, p. 270.

[460] _Laws of Manu_, iv, 113 _sq._ (_S. B. E._, xxv, 147).

[461] _Ibid._, iv, 101 _sqq._ (_S. B. E._, xxv, 144 _sqq._).

[462] Gautama, xvi, 22, 35-37 (_S. B. E._, ii, 258 _sqq._). Compare Âpastamba, i, 3, 9, 28: “at the new moon (he shall not study) for two days and nights” (_S. B. E._, ii, 36).

[463] _Vishńu Puráńa_, iii, 12 (Wilson-Hall, iii, 143).

[464] Sir M. Monier-Williams, _Brāhmanism and Hindūism_,⁴ New York, 1891, p. 433.

[465] H. H. Wilson, “The Religious Festivals of the Hindus,” in _Essays and Lectures chiefly on the Religion of the Hindus_, edited by R. Rost, London, 1862, ii, 194.

[466] H. H. Wilson, “The Religious Festivals of the Hindus,” in _Essays and Lectures chiefly on the Religion of the Hindus_, edited by R. Rost, London, 1862, ii, 197.

[467] _Ibid._, p. 199.

[468] _Sûtrakṛtâṅga_, ii, 7, 17; compare, ii, 2, 76 (_S. B. E._, xlv, 428 _sq._, 383).

[469] _Uttarâdhyayana_, v, 23; compare ix, 42 (_S. B. E._, xlv, 23, 39).

[470] H. Jacobi, _Gaina Sûtras_, Oxford, 1895, pp. xix, 23 _n._² (_S. B. E._, vol. xlv).

[471] Margaret Stevenson, “Festivals and Fasts (Jain),” Hastings’s _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, v, 875 _sq._

[472] H. Kern, _Der Buddhismus und seine Geschichte in Indien_, Leipzig, 1884, ii, 256 _sqq._; _idem_, _Manual of Indian Buddhism_, Strassburg, 1896, pp. 99 _sq._; R. C. Childers, _A Dictionary of the Pali Language_, London, 1875, _s.v._ _uposatha_.

[473] _Mahâvagga_, ii, 1, 1-4 (_S. B. E._, xiii, 239 _sq._; compare p. x).

[474] _Ibid._, ii, 1, 4 (_S. B. E._, xiii, 240). This rule is to be understood as requiring an assembly to be held on the fourteenth _or_ the fifteenth of each half-month, according as the month had twenty-nine or thirty days. In other words an _uposatha_ service on the fourteenth day of a short month was to be followed by a celebration on the fifteenth of the following long month. Compare _ibid._, ii, 34, 1. The important word “half,” which has been inserted above, was omitted by an unfortunate oversight in the translation of this passage from the _Mahâvagga_, as given in the _Sacred Books of the East_. It appears, however, in Mr. H. C. Warren’s rendering of the same passage (_Buddhism in Translations_, Cambridge [Mass.], 1909, p. 404).

[475] _Sutta Nipâta_, ii, 14, 26 (_S. B. E._, x, pt. ii, 66).

[476] The eighth day of the waning moon (_áṣṭakā_) is distinctly mentioned in the Vedas, as forming with new moon and full moon the regular festival periods. Compare _Atharva-Veda_, xv, 16, 2 (transl. W. D. Whitney, p. 790); Zimmer, _op. cit._, p. 365; H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_, Berlin, 1894, p. 439. Of these, the full-moon day seems to have enjoyed most importance (Oldenberg, _loc. cit._), and similarly in Buddhism. Compare _Mahâ-Sudassana Sutta_, i, 11: “On the Sabbath day, on the day of full moon” (_S. B. E._, xi, 251 _sq._). Elsewhere the _uposatha_ service is referred particularly to the fifteenth day of the month, “it being full moon” (_Sutta Nipâta_, iii, 12), prœm. (_S. B. E._, x, pt. ii, 131 _sq._). In very early times the Hindus had named and deified as goddesses the four phases of the moon. See _Rig-Veda_, ii, 32 (transl. H. Grassmann, i, 41); _Satapatha-Brâhmana_, ix, 5, 1, 38 (_S. B. E._, xliii, 264); C. Lassen, _Indische Alterthumskunde_,² Leipzig and London, 1867-1874, i, 986.

[477] _Mahâvagga_, ii, 4, 1-2 (_S. B. E._, xiii, 246 _sq._). The _patimokkha_ is one of the oldest parts of the Buddhist canonical compositions. The Pali version has been translated in full by Professors Rhys Davids and Hermann Oldenberg (_S. B. E._, vol. xiii) and the part for monks, by J. F. Dickson (_Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, 1876, n.s., viii, 62-130). For a description of these ceremonies as witnessed March 27, 1893, at the Malwatta monastery in Kandy see E. M. Bowden, “The _uposatha_ and _upasampadâ_ Ceremonies,” _ibid._, 1893, n.s., xxv, 159-161. Mr. Bowden notes that at the Malwatta monastery the _uposatha_ service is held more frequently on the day which precedes the new and the full moon than on the new and full-moon days.

[478] _Sutta Nipâta_, ii, 14, 19-26 (_S. B. E._, x, pt. ii, 65 _sqq._). See also T. W. Rhys Davids, _Buddhism_, London, 1890, pp. 137 _sqq._; Childers, _op. cit._, _s.v._ _sīlaṁ_. The prohibition of drinking intoxicating liquors was directed against the ancient _soma_ sacrifice on the second day of the _upavasatha_ ceremony. See _Satapatha-Brâhmana_, 1, 6, 4, 5 _sqq._ (_S. B. E._, xii, 176 _sqq._). On the other hand the last precept is identical with one of the regulations for the _upavasatha_, where the celebrant is distinctly enjoined to sleep on the ground (or a shake-down of grass, a blanket). See _Satapatha-Brâhmana_, i, 1, 1, 11 (_S. B. E._, xii, 6).

[479] Mahony, in _Asiatic Researches_, 1803, vii, 40 _sq._; Edward Upham, _Sacred and Historical Books of Ceylon_, London, 1833, iii, 161 _sqq._; R. S. Hardy, _Eastern Monachism_, London, 1850, pp. 236 _sqq._; _idem_, _Manual of Buddhism_,² London, 1880, pp. 22, 50, 52; C. F. Köppen, _Die Religion des Buddha und ihre Entstehung_, Berlin, 1857-1859, i, 563 _sq._; D. J. Gogerly, “The Laws of the Buddhist Priesthood,” _Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, 1858-1859, iii, 253-261. By the Kandian, who occupy the interior of Ceylon, not only the _poya_ days, but all unlucky days (_vitti_) as well, are observed with abstinence from agricultural labour (P. Kehelpannala, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1896, xxv, 108).

[480] Michael Symes, _An Account of an Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava_, London, 1800, p. 335. See further Hiram Cox, _Journal of a Residence in the Burman Empire_, London, 1821, p. 241; Sangermano, _A Description of the Burmese Empire_, translated by W. Tandy, Rome, 1833, p. 92; C. J. F. S. Forbes, _British Burma_, London, 1878, pp. 169 _sqq._

[481] Shway Yoe [Sir J. G. Scott], _The Burman: his Life and Notions_,³ London, 1910, pp. 217-220. The Tungthu of Tenasserim have borrowed these “duty days” from the Burmese (_Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States_, edited by Scott and Hardiman, Rangoon, 1900, pt. i, vol. i, p. 558).

[482] F. H. Turpin, _Histoire civile et naturelle du royaume de Siam_, Paris, 1771, i, 45 _sq._ The “fourth day” of the moon must here be counted from the astronomical new moon. The _uposatha_ in Siam, as in Ceylon and Burma, falls regularly on the eighth and fifteenth days of the waxing moon and on the eighth and fourteenth or fifteenth days of the waning moon.

[483] J. B. Pallegoix, _Description du royaume Thai ou Siam_, Paris, 1854, i, 249.

[484] John Crawfurd, _Journal of an Embassy_, London, 1830, ii, 75; Sir John Bowring, _The Kingdom and People of Siam_, London, 1857, i, 158.

[485] J. G. D. Campbell, _Siam in the Twentieth Century_, London, 1904, p. 224 _n._¹; G. E. Gerini, “Festivals and Fasts (Siamese),” Hastings’s _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, v, 885.

[486] J. Moura, _Le royaume de Cambodge_, Paris, 1883, i, 321. The Malays of the Malacca Peninsula regard the fourteenth and fifteenth days of each lunar month as unlucky. On these two days no work in the rice fields is allowed, a prohibition which only increases the native tendency to laziness (C. O. Blagden, “Notes on the Folk-lore and Popular Religion of the Malays,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, 1896, no. 29, p. 6).

[487] E. Schlaginweit, _Buddhism in Tibet_, Leipzig and London, 1863, p. 237.

[488] L. A. Waddell, _The Buddhism of Tibet, or Lamaism_, London, 1895, p. 501; W. W. Rockhill, in _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, 1891, n.s., xxiii, 207 _n._³

[489] Marco Polo refers to five days or four days or three days in each month when the lamas or clergy of Tibetan Buddhism shed no blood and abstain from animal food (Sir Henry Yule, _The Book of Ser Marco Polo_,³ London, 1903, i, 220, 223). Compare N. Prejevalsky, _Mongolia_, London, 1876, i, 65.

[490] Köppen, _op. cit._, i, 564.

[491] P. S. Pallas, _Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs_, Frankfort, 1776, i, 295.

[492] Joseph Edkins, _Chinese Buddhism_,² London, 1893, p. 206. In Buddhist monasteries the _patimokkha_ is regularly recited at new moon and full moon. The ceremony is known as _posadha_ (J. J. M. de Groot, “Buddhism in China,” Hastings’s _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, iii, 554).

[493] J. H. Gray, _China_, London, 1878, i, 263 _n._¹; C. Pitou, _La Chine_, Lausanne and Paris [1902], pp. 27 _sqq._ See also W. Grube, _Religion und Kultus der Chinesen_, Leipzig, 1910, p. 66; J. D. Ball, _The Celestial and his Religions_, Hongkong, 1906, p. 25; J. Edkins, _Religion in China_,² London, 1878, pp. 48 _sq._

[494] E. Kaempfer, _History of Japan_, ii, 21 _sq._ (Glasgow reprint, 1906).

[495] R. Friederich, in _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, 1876, n.s., viii, 197 _sq._ Most priests also observe with prayer and fasting every fifth day (_kaliwon_) of the Javanese five-day market week, which has been introduced into Bali (Friederich, _loc. cit._).

[496] E. H. Man, in _Indian Antiquary_, 1897, xxvi, 269 _n._³⁰ According to this account the Nicobarese do not observe new-moon ceremonies. Other authorities, however, refer to sacrifices and celebrations at this time. See V. Solomon, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1902, xxxii, 204, 213; W. Svoboda, in _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, 1893, vi, 22.

[497] Above, pp. 40 _sqq._

[498] _Yasna_, i, 8 (so also _ibid._, ii, 8; compare _Yast_ vii, 4). See L. H. Gray, “Festivals and Feasts (Iranian),” Hastings’s _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, v, 872; L. H. Mills, in _Sacred Books of the East_, xxxi, 198, 205; W. Geiger, _Civilization of the Eastern Irānians_, London, 1885, i, 146 _n._¹ The term _vishaptatha_, here translated “the intervening seventh” refers to the seventh day between the new moon (on the 1st) and the full moon (on the 15th), that is, to the 8th day of the month (E. Bartholomae, _Altiranisches Wörterbuch_, Strassburg, 1904, col. 1472). The theories as to the meaning of _vishaptatha_, advanced by J. Darmesteter, have not won the acceptance of scholars (_Sacred Books of the East_, xxiii, 90 _n._⁵; _Le Zend-Avesta_, Paris, 1892-1893, i, 12 _n._³⁴).

[499] R. Roth, “Der Kalender des Avesta und die sogenannten _gahanbâr_,” _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, 1880, xxxiv, 710; L. H. Gray, “Der iranische Kalender,” Geiger and Kuhn’s _Grundriss der iranischen Philologie_, ii, 675 _sq._ There is extant a Pehlevi tract, said to have been composed in Persia during the fourth century A.D., which mentions among other matters five days in every month, namely, the 1st, 7th, 14th, 22d, and 30th, as times to be observed by abstinence from all worldly business. The manuscript sets forth in detail the peculiar virtues of all the days of one of the Zoroastrian months. “Some are best for beginning a journey or voyage, others for the regulation of matters of domestic economy, some again for social gatherings and festivities, and others again for the pursuit of learning, while not a few are reserved for rest and pious contemplation.” These precepts are no longer observed; in fact, their very existence is unknown to most Parsis at the present day. See D. F. Karaka, _History of the Parsis_, London, 1884, i, 132 _sqq._

[500] _Pyramid Texts_, § 521 (= Teti, l. 12); compare _ibid._, § 1453 (= Pepi, l. 657 = Mernere, ll. 763-764). Professor J. H. Breasted of the University of Chicago has very kindly furnished me with a translation of these passages, based on the monumental edition of the texts prepared by K. Sethe (_Die altägyptischen Pyramidentexte_, Leipzig, 1908-1910).

[501] _The Book of the Dead_ (Theban Recension), chs. cxxxv, cxl (_The Chapters of Coming Forth by Day_, translated by E. A. W. Budge, London, 1898, pp. 218, 230). See also H. Brugsch, “Über die Hieroglyphe des Neumondes und ihre verschiedenen Bedeutungen,” _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, 1856, x, 676.

[502] J. H. Breasted, _Ancient Records of Egypt_, Chicago, 1906, i, 285. See further E. Mahler, _Études sur le calendrier égyptien_, Paris, 1907, p. 128; _idem_, in _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, 1908, lxii, 35.

[503] Breasted, _op. cit._, ii, 184; for an earlier translation see S. Birch, in _Records of the Past_, ii, 43.

[504] H. Brugsch, _Thesaurus inscriptionum Ægyptiacarum_, Leipzig, 1883-1891, pt. i, 30 _sqq._, 49 _sqq._; _idem_, _Die Ägyptologie_, Leipzig, 1891, pp. 332 _sq._

[505] Brugsch, _Thesaurus_, pt. i, 52; _idem_, _Ägyptologie_, p. 332.

[506] Compare _idem_, _Ägyptologie_, p. 334; E. Meyer, “Ägyptische Chronologie,” _Abhandlungen der königlich-preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften_, 1904, p. 7.

[507] Herodotus, ii, 47; Plutarch, _De Iside et Osiride_, 8, 43, 52; Frazer, _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_,³ ii, 129-131; Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i, 384-396.

[508] J. Meursius, _Græcia feriata, sive de festis Græcorum_, Lugduni Batavorum, 1619, pp. 210-214; F. G. Welcker, _Griechische Götterlehre_, Göttingen, 1857, i, 554 _sq._; W. H. Roscher, _Über Selene und Verwandtes_, pp. 110 _sq._; _idem_, in _Philologus_, 1898, lvii, 216, 218; E. Saglio, “Noumenia,” Daremberg and Saglio’s _Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines_, iv, 108. The word νουμηνία occasionally was used in the sense of the true or astronomical new moon (Thucydides, ii, 28).

[509] _Odyssey_, xxi, 258 _sq._: νῦν μὲν γὰρ κατὰ δῆμον ἑορτὴ τοῖο θεοῖο ἁγνή· τίς δέ κε τόξα τιταίνοιτ’; Compare _ibid._, xiv, 158-162, xx, 156, 276-278.

[510] _Opera et dies_, 770.

[511] Aristophanes, _Nubes_, 615-619; _idem_, _Acharnenses_, 999; _idem_, _Vespæ_, 96; Demosthenes, _Adv. Aristogiton_, i, 99; Athenæus, _Deipnosophistæ_, xii, 76; Plutarch, _Quæstiones Romanæ_, 25; _idem_, _De vitando ære alieno_, 2; Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, ii, 16; Theophrastus, _Characteres_, 14; Lucian, _Icaromenippus_, 13; _idem_, _Lexiphanes_, 6.

[512] Aristophanes, _Vespæ_, 171; _idem_, _Equites_, 43 _sq._; Alciphron, _Epistolæ_, iii, 38; Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, ii, 129; Proclus, on Hesiod, _Opera et dies_, 780; Suidas, _s.v._ νουμηνία (ed. G. Bernhardy, Halle, 1853, ii, 1010).

[513] _Hymni Homerici_, xxxii, 11; Plutarch, _De gloria Atheniensis_, 7; _idem_, _Dion_, 23. Hesiod (_op. cit._, 819, compare 794 _sqq._) describes the 14th of the month as “above all a holy day” (περὶ πάντων ἱερὸν ἦμαρ).

[514] Above, p. 130.

[515] Macrobius, _Saturnalia_, i, 15, 9.

[516] Ovid, _Fasti_, i, 47; Plutarch, _Quæstiones Romanæ_, 24; Vergil, _Bucolica_, i, 43 _sq._; Horace, _Carmina_, iii, 23, 1 _sq._

[517] Macrobius, _op. cit._, i, 15, 15; Ovid, _op. cit._, i, 48 _sq._; Lydus, _De mensibus_, iii, 7.

[518] Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Römer_, p. 369; compare T. Mommsen, in _Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum_, i, pt. i,² 297.

[519] Above, pp. 80 _sq._, 94.

[520] Varro, _De lingua Latina_, 29; Ovid, _Fasti_, i, 59 _sq._; Livy, vi, 1; Plutarch, _Quæstiones Romanæ_, 25; Gellius, _Noctes Atticæ_, iv, 9, 5; Macrobius, _Saturnalia_, i, 16, 18. These days were also described as _atri vel vitiosi_. The greater number of them were available for judicial business, but not for meetings of the assemblies (_dies fasti non comitiales_). Many Romans also regarded as ominous the fourth day before the Kalends, Nones, and Ides; according to one account because the battle of Cannæ took place on the fourth day before the Nones of the month Sextilis (Gellius, _op. cit._, v, 17, 3).

[521] Verrius Flaccus, _ap._ Gellius, _op. cit._, v, 17; Macrobius, _op. cit._, i, 16, 21.

[522] On this point I am happy to find myself in agreement with Dr. W. Warde Fowler, who also regards the traditional explanation of the _dies postriduani_ as an ætiological myth. “The fact that the authorities of the state had made one or two days _religiosi_ as anniversaries of disasters, supplied a handy explanation for a number of other _dies religiosi_ of which the true explanation had been entirely lost; but that there was such a true explanation, resting on very primitive beliefs, I have very little doubt” (_The Religious Experience of the Roman People_, London, 1911, p. 40). Dr. Fowler in a letter (under date Dec. 9, 1911) tells me that he regards as “quite probable” the suggestion in the text that these days were originally tabooed in consequence of lunar superstitions attaching to them.

[523] _Geographica_, iii, 4, 16.

[524] _Germania_, 9, 11.

[525] Isidorus Hispalensis, _Etymologiæ sive origines_, v, 33.

[526] J. K. Fotheringham, “Calendar (Introductory),” Hastings’s _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, iii, 61-64; F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, Leipzig, 1906-1911, ii, 121-159; E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, Erster Band, Erste Hälfte, Berlin, 1907, pp. 231-243; R. Schram, “Jahrform und Zeitrechnung verschiedener Völker,” _Mitteilungen der kaiserlich-königlichen geographischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, 1884, xxvii, 481-498; M. Hubert, “Étude sommaire de la représentation du temps dans la religion et la magie,” in Hubert and Mauss, _Mélanges d’histoire des religions_, Paris, 1909, pp. 189-229.

[527] The lunar or synodic month, determined by the synodic revolution of the moon, is the time between two successive conjunctions of that luminary with the sun, and may be measured from new moon to new moon or from full to full. It varies about thirteen hours by reason of eccentricities of the moon’s orbit and of that of the earth about the sun, but its mean value is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, and 3 seconds. The length of the “light month,” or period of the moon’s visibility, though commonly taken at three days, is a variable quantity. It is the usual practice to assume that the moon becomes visible on the first evening when she is more than thirty hours old at sunset. Her mean age when first seen is, therefore, 30 hours + 24/2 hours = 1 day, 18 hours. See J. K. Fotheringham, “On the Smallest Visible Phase of the Moon,” _Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society_, 1910, lxx, 527-531.

[528] E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_, Oxford, 1892-1899, ii, 329, 331; E. Förstemann, in _Bulletin of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, 1904, no. 28, p. 523 (Maya pre-solar calendar).

[529] Horapollo, _Hieroglyphica_, i, 4; compare H. Brugsch, in _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, 1856, x, 676; C. R. Lepsius, _Die Chronologie der Ägypter_, Berlin, 1849, i, 156 _sq._, 219; E. Meyer, “Ägyptische Chronologie,” _Abhandlungen der königlich-preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften_, Berlin, 1904, pp. 5 _sqq._ Papyri discovered by Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie at Kahun, belonging to the age of Sesostris III, show that a lunar year of three hundred and fifty-five days was still recognized as late as the Twelfth Dynasty. These papyri relate to the temple revenues, which the priests, with characteristic religious conservatism, were accustomed to reckon according to lunar months (seven of thirty days and five of twenty-nine days). See L. Borchardt, in _Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache_, 1899, xxxvii, 92-95.

[530] Below, pp. 226, 247.

[531] O. Schrader, _Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples_, translated by F. B. Jevons, London, 1890, p. 306; _idem_, _Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_, Strassburg, 1901, p. 547.

[532] R. Andree, “Die Plejaden im Mythus und in ihrer Beziehung zum Jahresbeginn und Landbau,” _Globus_, 1893, lxiv, 362-366; Sir J. G. Frazer, _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, London, 1912, i, 307-319; E. Förstemann, “The Pleiades among the Mayas,” _Bulletin of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, 1904, no. 28, pp. 523 _sq._

[533] The lunar year of twelve synodic months consists, exactly, of 354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, and 36 seconds. The Maori have a legend to the effect that their ancient year contained ten months only, until a certain teacher, full of divine wisdom, instructed them to make their year twelve months long (E. Tregear, _The Maori Race_, Wanganui [N.Z.], 1904, p. 143). The Chinese have a similar tradition of a ten-month year (H. A. Giles, _A Glossary of References on Subjects connected with the Far East_,³ Shanghai, 1900, p. 183). The Roman “year of Romulus” consisted of ten months and (commonly) three hundred and four days (Censorinus, _De die natali_, xx, 2-3; Lydus, _De mensibus_, i, 16). Sceptical modern historians are inclined to dismiss the Roman tradition as a mere figment of the imagination.

[534] The thirteenth month is referred to in the _Rig-Veda_ (i, 25, 8; transl. H. Grassmann, ii, 25) as the “later-born month”; compare _Atharva-Veda_, v, 6, 4, xiii, 3, 8 (transl. W. D. Whitney, pp. 230, 729). This intercalary month bears a distinctly unfavourable character, being regarded as unfit for any religious undertaking (Haug, _Aitareya Brahmanam_, ii, 26). Among the Loango negroes the thirteenth month, inserted every three years, is likewise regarded as an evil time (E. Pechuël-Loesche, _op. cit._, pp. 138 _sq._).

[535] The old Roman arrangement of the months, though based on the lunar year, is _sui generis_. Four of the twelve months, viz., March, May, July, and October, had thirty-one days, and the rest twenty-nine days, except February, which had twenty-eight days. All the months thus had an odd number of days, save February, which was specially devoted to purificatory ceremonies and the cult of the dead. This peculiar arrangement appears to have been based on an old belief that odd numbers are of good omen, even numbers, of ill omen (T. Mommsen, _Die römische Chronologie bis auf Cæsar_, Berlin, 1858, p. 13; Marquardt-Wissowa, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii,² 284). The superstition, alluded to by Vergil in a famous line—_Numero deus impare gaudet_ (_Bucolica_, viii, 75)—is supposed to have been derived from Pythagorean speculations regarding the cosmic properties of numbers. It may better be considered a genuinely Italian notion, since like beliefs are found in the folklore of other peoples, notably the old Arabs and the modern Hindus. See I. Goldziher, in _Globus_, 1901, lxxx, 31; Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_,² ii, 51. The choice of 355 days, rather than 354 days, as the length of the Roman lunar year, was undoubtedly determined by the prevalence of the same superstition (Censorinus, _De die natali_, xx, 4).

[536] This custom explains the widespread practice of beginning the civil day at sunset or, more accurately, in the interval between the going-down of the sun and complete darkness. The necessities of a calendar system requiring that the first day of the month should be counted from the same moment that the month itself is supposed to begin, it follows that the other days of the month must also be calculated from evening to evening. The noctidiurnal cycle is widespread throughout the lower culture, being found, generally, among the North American Indians, the Melanesians and Polynesians, and in Africa. The same cycle obtained among many peoples of archaic civilization. The Babylonian day began with the evening, and this is still the custom among the Arabs and throughout the Mohammedan world. Modern Jewish communities, in beginning their ritual day in the evening, retain a practice illustrated by several Old Testament passages (_Genesis_, i, 5; _Psalms_, lv, 17). Various festivals and fasts, such as the Sabbath, the Day of Atonement, and the Feast of Unleavened Bread, were so arranged as to begin and end with the evening. Among most of the Indo-Germanic peoples the civil day, or nycthemeron, commenced at sunset; and the practice, which still survives in Iceland, was not abandoned in Italy and some other parts of Europe until about a century ago. Our English words “fortnight” and “sennight” are reminiscent of this ancient custom. See G. A. Wilken, “Het tellen bij nachten bij de volken van het maleisch-polynesische ras,” _Bijdragen tot de taal- land- en volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, 1886, fifth series, pt. i, 378-392; A. Fischer, “‘Tag und Nacht’ im arabischen und die semitische Tagesberechnung,” _Abhandlungen der philologisch-historischen Klasse der königlichsächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_, 1909, xxvii, 741-758; O. Schrader, _Reallexikon_, p. 845; S. Reinach, “Die,” in Daremberg and Saglio, _op. cit._, iii, 168 _sq._, G. Bilfinger, _Der bürgerliche Tag_, Stuttgart, 1888.

[537] Rivers, _Todas_, pp. 590 _sqq._

[538] J. Sechefo, “The Twelve Lunar Months among the Basuto,” _Anthropos_, 1909, iv, 931 _sqq._

[539] Below, pp. 184, 226 _sq._, 248 _sq._

[540] James Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, Melbourne, 1881, p. xcix.

[541] S. Gason, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1895, xxiv, 174.

[542] Spencer and Gillen, _The Native Tribes of Central Australia_, London, 1897, pp. 25, 564 _sq._

[543] B. Hagen, _Unter den Papua’s_, Wiesbaden, 1899, p. 244.

[544] George Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, London, 1910, p. 332.

[545] V. de Rochas, _La Nouvelle-Calédonie_, Paris, 1862, p. 191.

[546] Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._, i, 317.

[547] C. Bock, _Head-hunters of Borneo_,² London, 1882, p. 212.

[548] William Marsden, _The History of Sumatra_,³ London, 1811, p. 194; compare B. Hagen, _Die Orang Kubu auf Sumatra_, Frankfurt-a.-M., 1908, p. 154.

[549] E. Modigliani, _Un viaggio a Nias_, Milan, 1890, pp. 4, 484; A. Maass, _Bei liebenswürdigen Wilden_, Berlin, 1902, p. 93.

[550] E. H. Man, in _Indian Antiquary_, 1897, xxvi, 270 _sq._

[551] _Idem_, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1883, xii, 337.

[552] A. E. Jenks, in _Ethnological Survey Publications_, Manila, 1905, i, 219; O. Scheerer, _ibid._, ii, 158.

[553] F. W. Christian, _The Caroline Islands_, London, 1899, pp. 387 _sq._, 392 _sqq._; M. Girschner, in _Baessler-Archiv_, 1911, ii, 175 _sq._

[554] The Maori counted twenty-eight “nights” of the moon, including: 1. _noni hope_, the moon is in the _reinga_, or underworld; 4. _he oho ata_, the moon is visible; 5. _ouenuku_, it begins to rise a little way; 6. _maweti_, it rises still higher; 14. _he atua_, full; 19. _he ohika_, the moon begins to wane; 24. _tanagaroa a roto_, it sinks into the sea; 28. _he o mutu_, it disappears (Taylor, _Te Ika A Maui_, p. 177). To the Society Islanders the fifteenth day was _omarae_, or the moon with a round and full face; the thirtieth day, _oterieo_, was the time when the moon dies or is changed (Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, i, 87 _sq._). In the Hervey group several of the moon nights were sacred to the gods. The twenty-eighth day was called _mauri_—ghost; the twenty-ninth, _omutu_—ended; the thirtieth, _otire o avaiki_—lost in the depths of _avaiki_, or Hades (W. W. Gill, _Myths and Songs from the South Pacific_, London, 1876, p. 318). For a table of the days of the moon’s age in the Maori, Moriori, Hawaiian, Tahitian, Marquesan, and Rarotongan languages see Tregear, _Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary_, p. 666.

[555] Hollis, _Nandi_, pp. 95 _sq._

[556] Dennett, _At the Back of the Black Man’s Mind_, p. 186.

[557] J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_, Berlin, 1906, p. 556; L. Schultze, _Aus Namaland und Kalahari_, Jena, 1907, p. 370. The Hottentots now use the European week (Schultze, _op. cit._, p. 372).

[558] F. Krause, _In den Wildnissen Brasiliens_, Leipzig, 1911, p. 339.

[559] C. Thomas, “Calendar,” _Handbook of American Indians_, pt. i, 189 (_Bulletin of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, no. 30).

[560] _Koran_, ii, 185. Even at the present time the south Arabians determine the day of the month by observation of the moon’s phases, the first quarter being called, for example, the seventh day, and the last quarter, the twenty-first day (Nielsen, _Altarabische Mondreligion_, p. 85, referring to Dr. Glaser’s observations).

[561] The mean age of the moon when first seen being 30 hours + 24/2 hours = 1 day, 18 hours (above, p. 174 _n._¹), and the mean age of the moon when full being (29 days, 12 + hours)/2 = 14 days, 18 hours, it follows that the mean interval between the first appearance of the moon and the full of the moon is about 13 days. “In other words the moon becomes full on an average at the end of the thirteenth day and the beginning of the fourteenth night. Hence, where the days are reckoned from sunset, we should expect the fourteenth day of the month to be regarded as the day of the full moon. And it is in fact one of the days most commonly so regarded. The fifteenth is a date obtained more simply. Fifteen is half thirty and, as the middle of the month, should be the date of full moon. In calendars based on calculations the month is frequently reckoned from the actual new moon, and in these the fifteenth is more correct than the fourteenth for the mean date of full moon.” It should be noted, also, that, as a general rule, the nearer the autumnal equinox, the later the first appearance of the moon and the shorter the interval between the visible new moon and full moon. If the first appearance is late, as it often is in September, the moon might be full on the night following the eleventh day. See J. K. Fotheringham, in _Proceedings of the British Academy_, 1909-1910, pp. 283, 286.

[562] R. Thurnwald, _Forschungen auf den Salomo-Inseln und dem Bismarck Archipel_, Berlin, 1912-1913, i, 330 _sq._

[563] E. Tregear, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1890, xix, 114.

[564] L. H. Gray, “Calendar (Polynesian),” Hastings’s _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, iii, 130; J. v. Brenner, _Besuch bei den Kannibalen Sumatras_, Würzburg, 1894, p. 233; R. Friederich, in _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, 1878, n.s., x, 93 _sq._; Modigliani, _op. cit._, p. 464.

[565] A. Weber, in _Indische Studien_, 1853, ii, 166 _n._*; H. Zimmer, _Altindisches Leben_, Berlin, 1879, p. 364; G. Thibaut, “Astronomie, Astrologie, und Mathematik,” Bühler’s _Grundriss der indo-arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde_, iii, pt. ix, 12. This lunar fortnight of the Hindus attracted the attention of the Romans, and Quintus Curtius speaks of it as a noteworthy fact (_Historiæ Alexandri Magni_, viii, 9). References to it are also found in mediæval literature; compare Albîrûnî, _op. cit._, i, 359.

[566] G. E. Balfour, _The Cyclopædia of India_,³ ii, 981; Sewell and Dikshit, _The Indian Calendar_, London, 1896, p. 4.

[567] Childers, _Dictionary of the Pali Language_, _s.v._ _parācadasí_; A. Cabaton, in Hastings’s _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, iii, 136 (as to the Siamese); Shway Yoe, _The Burman_,³ p. 550; A. Cabaton, in Hastings’s _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, iii, 113 _sq._ (as to the Cambodians, Chams, and Laotians); H. Vámbéry, _Die primitive Cultur des turko-tatarischen Volkes_, Leipzig, 1879, p. 160; Carl Hiekisch, _Die Tungusen_, St. Petersburg, 1879, p. 94. In Tibet the fifteenth day of the lunar month receives a special name (A. Csoma de Körös, _A Grammar of the Tibetan Language_, Calcutta, 1834, p. 157).

[568] _Yašt_, vii, 2 (_S. B. E._, xxiii, 89).

[569] _Odyssey_, xiv, 162; xix, 307: τοῦ μὲν φθίνοντος μηνός, τοῦ δ’ ἱσταμένοιο; Hesiod, _Opera et dies_, 780: μηνὸς δ’ ἱσταμένου τριςκαιδεκάτην.

[570] G. F. Unger, “Zeitrechnung der Griechen und Römer,” Iwan von Müller’s _Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, i, 563. However, evidence is not wanting for the observance of the fourteenth day, and even of the sixteenth day, as that of the full moon. See A. Mommsen, _Chronologie_, Leipzig, 1883, pp. 99 _sqq._

[571] The Greeks never knew the exact mean measurement of a lunation and, owing to their neglect of the odd minutes and seconds in the lunar month, they were obliged occasionally to intercalate an additional day. From a passage in Aristophanes it would appear that this pious duty to the gods was not always performed (_Nubes_, 610 _sqq._).

[572] T. Mommsen, _Römische Chronologie_, pp. 13 _sq._, 215 _sq._; Marquardt-Wissowa, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii,² 282 _sq._

[573] Macrobius, _Saturnalia_, i, 15, 10; Varro, _De lingua Latina_, vi, 27.

[574] The _nonæ_, or Nones, were so called because, by the Roman inclusive reckoning, they fell on the ninth day (_nonus_) before the Ides (Varro, _loc. cit._). Plutarch’s derivation from _novus_, new or young, referring to the waxing moon, is without justification (_Quæstiones Romanæ_, 24). On the etymology of _idus_ see Walde, _Lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch_,² p. 375. The Romans had no name, corresponding to _nonæ_, for the last quarter of the moon. It has been argued, therefore, that the Nones never marked the first quarter and that they were introduced, quite artificially, during the regal period (R. Flex, _Die älteste Monatseinteilung der Römer_, Jena, 1880, pp. 5 _sq._, 24 _sqq._, 36, 42).

[575] Tacitus, _Germania_, 11: _cum aut inchoatur luna aut impletur_.

[576] J. Loth, “L’année celtique d’après les textes irlandais, gallois, bretons, et le calendrier de Coligny,” _Revue celtique_, 1904, xxv, 131; R. Thurneysen, “Die Namen der Wochentage in den keltischen Dialecten,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Wortforschung_, 1901, i, 191.

[577] The long inscription, engraved on a bronze tablet, which forms the Calendar of Coligny, was discovered in 1897 near the city of Lyons. See S. de Ricci, “Le calendrier gaulois de Coligny,” _Revue celtique_, 1898, xix, 213-223; R. Thurneysen, “Der Kalender von Coligny,” _Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie_, 1899, ii, 523-544; Sir John Rhŷs, “The Coligny Calendar,” _Proceedings of the British Academy_, 1909-1910, pp. 207 _sqq._

[578] Loth, _loc. cit._; Rhŷs, _Celtic Heathendom_,³ London, 1898, pp. 360 _sq._

[579] Horapollo, _Hieroglyphica_, i, 4; Brugsch, _Ägyptologie_, p. 331; E. Mahler, in _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, 1901, n.s., xxxiii, 55 _sqq._ Mahler’s hypothesis that the Egyptians looked upon the full moon as the completion of the lunation is not improbable; there are several passages in the Vedas where the full moon is indicated as the end of the month and at the same time as the beginning of the next month (Thibaut, _op. cit._, p. 12). The evidence yielded by the Calendar of Coligny has been thought to imply that originally the Sequani of Gaul counted the months from full moon to full moon (R. Thurneysen, in _Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie_, 1899, ii, 526). The Melanesians of New Georgia do not seem to calculate long periods of time at all: “one full moon to another is as far as they usually go” (B. T. Somerville, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1897, xxvi, 404).

[580] Payne, _op. cit._, ii, 310, 323 _sqq._, 355 _sqq._; J. de Acosta, _op. cit._, bk. vi, ch. 2 (ed. C. R. Markham, ii, 393); H. H. Bancroft, _The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America_, ii, 515 _sq._ For other and less plausible reasons leading to the choice of the number thirteen, see C. P. Bowditch, _The Numeration, Calendar Systems, and Astronomical Knowledge of the Mayas_, Cambridge (Mass.), 1910, pp. 266 _sq._

[581] V. Restrepo, _Los Chibchas antes de la conquista española_, Bogota, 1895, p. 162; Garcilasso de la Vega, _op. cit._, pt. i, bk. ii, ch. 23 (transl. C. R. Markham, i, 181).

[582] Ellis, _Yoruba-speaking Peoples_, pp. 143 _sq._ The Benin tribes are said to employ the same method of reckoning.

[583] _Idem_, _Tshi-speaking Peoples_, pp. 215 _sq._ The Ga tribes have an exactly similar mode of measuring time, though their names for the days of the week are not the same as those used by the Tshi. With both the Tshi and Ga the full moon marks the commencement of the third week of 7⅜ days and, with the Yoruba, the commencement of the fourth week of 5 days, in each case marking the lapse of half a month.

[584] R. Taylor, _Te Ika A Maui_, London, 1855, p. 177. When the Maori adopted the European week, they gave native names to three of the weekdays. Sunday they called “the week,” _te wiki_, because on that day the week began, Saturday was _te ra horoi_, or washing and cleaning-up day, a name derived from their observation of European customs at that time, and Friday was _te ra oka_, or bleeding day, so named because the missionaries killed their pigs on Friday in order to be able to cut them up on Saturday and dispose of them before Sunday. The remaining weekdays had naturalized names, viz., _manei_, _turei_, _wenerei_, and _tairei_ (_ibid._, pp. 176 _sq._).

[585] Malo, _Hawaiian Antiquities_, p. 54; N. B. Emerson, in _ibid._, p. 200; Fornander, _Account of the Polynesian Race_, i, 120 _sq._ On the Hawaiian Sabbaths see above, pp. 14 _sq._, 88.

[586] Christian, _Caroline Islands_, p. 394.

[587] _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States_, edited by Scott and Hardiman, pt. i, vol. i, p. 434; H. J. Wehrli, _Beitrag zur Ethnologie der Chingpaw (Kachin) von Ober-Burma_, Leiden, 1904, p. 68 (_Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, vol. xvi, Supplement).

[588] A. Cabaton, “Calendar (Indo-Chinese),” Hastings’s _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, iii, 110.

[589] T. L. Bullock and L. H. Gray, “Calendar (Chinese),” _ibid._, iii, 83. The names of the three decades are said to be _shang_, _chung_, and _hea_ (Robert Morrison, _A View of China for Philological Purposes_, Macao, 1817, p. 104).

[590] E. W. Clement, “Calendar (Japanese),” Hastings’s _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, iii, 115.

[591] Fitzgerald, _op. cit._, p. 111.

[592] De Faria, in Astley’s _A New General Collection of Voyages and Travels_, London, 1746, iii, 397. The eighth day of the new moon was considered most unlucky by the Sofalese. No one on that day was allowed to attend court or even speak to the king (_ibid._).

[593] E. Torday, in _Mitteilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, 1911, xli, 200.

[594] Ellis, _Yoruba-speaking Peoples_, p. 144. The first period, called _adai_, is considered lucky; the second, called _ajamfo_, is unlucky; while _adim_, the third period, has a neutral character (John Beecham, _Ashantee and the Gold Coast_, London, 1841, p. 187). An old writer asserts that the negroes living inland from the Gold Coast count in every month the “great fortunate time,” nineteen days in length, and the “lesser fortunate time,” of seven days’ duration. Between these periods come seven ill or unfortunate days which serve as “a sort of vacation to them, for then they do not travel, till their land, or undertake anything of consequence, but remain altogether idle” (W. Bosman, _A New and Accurate Description of the Coast of Guinea_, London, 1705, p. 160).

[595] Above, pp. 119 _sq._

[596] Mrs. M. C. Stevenson, in _Twenty-third Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, p. 108. It is only right to add that Dr. J. W. Fewkes, an eminent authority on the Pueblo Indians, expressed to me in conversation (July, 1912) his doubts as to the correctness of Mrs. Stevenson’s statement.

[597] Lepsius, _Chronologie der Ägypter_, i, 131 _sqq._; Brugsch, _Thesaurus_, pt. i, 488 _sqq._; _idem_, _Ägyptologie_, p. 364. On the astrological connection between the thirty-six decades of the twelve months and certain constellations see G. Daressy, “Une ancienne liste des décans égyptiens,” _Annales du service des antiquités de l’Égypte_, 1900, i, 79-90. The old and once popular theory, based upon a misunderstanding of certain passages in classical writers (Herodotus, ii, 82; Dio Cassius, xxxvii, 19), that the Egyptians originally possessed a week of seven days has now been entirely abandoned. For some monumental evidence, dating from the Twenty-second Dynasty, which may possibly refer to an hebdomadal cycle then used in astronomical speculations, see G. Daressy, “La semaine des Égyptiens,” _Annales du service des antiquités de l’Égypte_, 1909, x, 21-23, 180-182.

[598] Pollux, _Onomasticon_, i, 63; G. F. Unger, in Iwan von Müller’s _Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, i, 563 _sqq._; M. P. Nilsson, “_Die älteste griechische Zeitrechnung, Apollo und der Orient_,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, 1911, xiv, 432 _sq._

[599] Hesiod, _Opera et dies_, 765 _sqq._; compare A. W. Mair, _Hesiod_, Oxford, 1908, pp. 165 _sq._; A. Mommsen, _Chronologie_, Leipzig, 1883, p. 43.

[600] E. Curtius, _History of Greece_, New York, 1871, ii, 58; C. E. Ruelle, “Calendarium,” Daremberg and Saglio’s _Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines_, ii, 832.

[601] W. H. Roscher, “Die enneadischen und hebdomadischen Fristen und Wochen der ältesten Griechen,” _Abhandlungen der philologisch-historischen Klasse der königlichsächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_, Leipzig, 1903, xxi, no. 4, pp. 14 _sqq._; _idem_, “Die Sieben- und Neunzahl im Kultus und Mythus der Griechen,” _ibid._, 1904, xxiv, no. 1, pp. 54, 69, 83.

[602] K. Simrock, _Handbuch der deutschen Mythologie_,⁹ Bonn, 1887, p. 156; E. Siecke, _Die Liebesgeschichte des Himmels_, Strassburg, 1892, pp. 47 _sqq._; K. Weinhold, “Die mystische Neunzahl bei den Deutschen,” _Abhandlungen der königlich-preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften_, Berlin, 1897, pp. 40 _sqq._

[603] R. Thurneysen, “Die Namen der Wochentage in den keltischen Dialecten,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Wortforschung_, 1901, i, 191. J. Loth, however, regards the Celtic periods as having been employed as ordinary weeks (“L’année celtique d’après les textes irlandais, gallois, bretons, et le calendrier de Coligny,” _Revue celtique_, 1904, xxv, 136). He accepts Roscher’s theory of the sidereal month having furnished the basis for such nine-day periods as are found among the Celts, and argues that subsequently, when the sidereal month had been abandoned for the synodic month, the nine-day periods became artificial units, independent of any connection with the moon. But so strange a transition as that from the sidereal to the synodic month cannot be supported by any Celtic evidence and has no analogy among other peoples. For another theory see Sir John Rhŷs, _Celtic Heathendom_,³ London, 1898, pp. 361-366.

[604] Above, pp. 106, 109 _sqq._, 119 _n._³, 120 _sq._ The theory advanced by Theodor Mommsen that the Roman _nundinum_ originally represented a quadripartite division of the lunation (_Römische Chronologie_, pp. 240 _sq._) was afterwards abandoned by its author (_Römisches Staatsrecht_, iii, 373). Compare also R. Flex, _Die älteste Monatseinteilung der Römer_, Jena, 1880, pp. 18 _sqq._

[605] E. Littmann, “Sternensagen und Astrologisches aus Nordabessinien,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, 1908, xi, 302 _sq._, 319. In order to adapt the _‘sāmĕn_ to the imported hebdomadal cycle, Sunday is counted twice.

[606] Above, pp. 114 _and_ _n._³, 116 _n._¹

[607] A. Henry, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1903, xxxiii, 105. The Muhso, a Lao hill tribe, “have a twelfth-day Sabbath or sacred day, not very definitely marked” (Daniel McGilvary, _A Half Century among the Siamese and the Lāo_, New York [1912], p. 323). Did this “Sabbath” originate as a market day, which at first recurred every sixth day?

[608] E. Gottschling, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1905, xxxv, 382.

[609] Above, pp. 103 _sqq._, 108, 110, 113 _and_ _n._⁶, 114 _and_ _n._³, 116 _n._¹

[610] _The Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, edited by Grenfell and Hunt, London, 1903, pt. iii, 126-137.

[611] The data relating to the _khamushtu_ are found in some Cappadocian tablets discovered by Golénischeff and others in mounds not far from Kaisariyeh. This city was a colony of Assyria and the last outpost of Assyrian power in the northwest. The tablets are in Babylonian cuneiform script belonging to the age of Hammurabi. Professor A. H. Sayce in 1897 was the first to show that the term _khamushtu_ in these documents represented a continuous succession of five-day periods; and Professor Hugo Winckler later made, independently, the same discovery. See Sayce, in _Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archæology_, 1897, xix, 288; _idem_, in _Babyloniaca_, 1907, ii, 1-45; Winckler, _Altorientalische Forschungen_, Leipzig, 1898-1900, ii, 91 _sqq._, 354 _sqq._

[612] For references to the cuneiform evidence see P. Jensen, “Die siebentägige Woche in Babylon und Nineveh,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Wortforschung_, 1901, i, 150 _sq._; W. Muss-Arnolt, in _Journal of Biblical Literature_, xi, 94; A. Jeremias, _The Old Testament in the Light of the Ancient East_, London, 1911, i, 65.

[613] G. Vígfússon, _An Icelandic-English Dictionary_, Oxford, 1874, _s.v._ _fimt_; Vígfússon and Powell, _Corpus Poeticum Boreale_, Oxford, 1883, i, pp. cxx, 428; F. B. Gummere, _Germanic Origins_, New York, 1892, p. 418; T. F. Troels-Lund, _Livsbelysning_, Copenhagen, 1904, pp. 13, 198. For the translation of this last reference I am indebted to Mr. N. H. Debel.

[614] The Stseelis, an Indian tribe of British Columbia, have a singular tradition that their ancestors used to observe a kind of Sabbath ceremony long before the coming of the whites. The people assembled every seventh day for dancing and praying. It is impossible to explain this tradition apart from European influence at some remote time (C. Hill-Tout, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1904, xxxiv, 329).

[615] L. Dahle, “The Influence of the Arabs on the Malagasy Language,” _Antananarivo Annual_, 1875-1878, i, 205. In addition to the Arabic seven-day week with its numbered weekdays, the Malagasy also use, for astrological purposes, the planetary designations of the weekdays. Of these, three are good or lucky days, three are unlucky, and one has a neutral character. See J. Sibree, “Divination among the Malagasy,” _Folklore_, 1892, iii, 220 _sq._

[616] Soury-Lavergne and de la Devèze, in _Anthropos_, 1913, viii, 310 _n._⁴; James Sibree, _The Great African Island_, London, 1880, p. 281.

[617] O. Kersten, editor, _Baron Carl Claus von der Decken’s Reisen in Ost-Afrika_, Leipzig, 1869, i, 101.