Chapter X: Part 10

Many find that by using meat once a day their health is normal. Others find that by using meat but several times a week a more desirable condition is maintained. Doubtless many people would find themselves much benefited by using less meat. If the quantity of meat eaten is greatly lessened, care should be taken that protein is supplied by other foods, such as eggs, legumes, cheese, and the various meat-substitute dishes. Care should also be taken to see that complete proteins are included in diet. If foods containing incomplete protein such as some of the legumes and cereals are used for body-building, they should be supplemented by foods rich in complete protein such as milk and eggs. If much meat is eaten, a generous quantity of water and of fresh vegetables and fruits should be used.

While all the _mineral materials_ found in the body [Footnote 71: The ash constituents existing in the body in largest quantity are:

Sulphur Chlorine Calcium Iron Sodium Magnesium Potassium Phosphorus

] are necessary for its growth and maintenance, calcium, phosphorus, and iron are the elements most likely to be used in insufficient quantities (see Figures 78, 79, and 80).

Calcium is needed for building the hard tissues such as the teeth and bones. A diet deficient in calcium is sometimes the cause of poor teeth. Calcium is equally important for body-regulating functions. It is especially necessary that calcium-rich food be given to children.

_The most practical and effective way of obtaining calcium is to use a generous supply of milk._ Cheese, eggs, and the leaves and stems of plant-foods are also valuable sources of calcium.

_Milk, egg yolk, cheese, whole grains, and vegetables are the most satisfactory sources of phosphorus._ A free use of these foods is especially desirable since it has been found that phosphorus is quite as necessary as nitrogen. The whole grains are a very valuable source of ash. Many of the ash constituents in cereals are found next to the outer coat of bran, hence fine white flour is not so rich in ash as whole wheat flour.

In the formation of blood and for the welfare of the body as a whole, iron is needed. For this reason, it is often a constituent of "tonics." If foods rich in iron were more generally used, the body would not be so likely to get into a condition requiring such tonics. The iron found in eggs, milk, and vegetable foods is thought to be more completely assimilated than that found in meat. Spinach and prunes are valuable sources of iron. This is one of the reasons why they are most desirable foods for children. _The need of eggs, dried fruits, fresh vegetables, and whole grain in diet to furnish iron should be emphasized_.

_Sulphur_ is one of the necessary elements of the body. It is usually found, however, as a component of protein; hence if enough protein is supplied to the diet, sulphur will be present in sufficient quantity.

As mentioned, leafy vegetables not only supply calcium but _sodium_ and _chlorine_,--two of the needed minerals of the body. If fresh vegetables and fruits along with foods rich in calcium, iron, and phosphorus are used, and these foods are cooked and served so as to retain all their nutriment, one can be assured that the diet contains _all_ the necessary ash constituents.

C. _Food for Regulating_.--Although ash is needed for body-building, it also serves to regulate certain body processes as explained previously. Hence if the mineral matter valuable for building is used, the body is also supplied with regulating materials.

D. _Food for Promoting Growth_.--A discussion of vitamines,--the materials essential for growth of the body and the maintenance of health,--was given in a previous lesson. It is most necessary that foods rich in vitamines be included in diet.

E. _Food for Bulk_.--The use of foods containing cellulose, which adds bulk to diet, is needed by most persons. Many foods rich in mineral matter also contain much cellulose. Vegetables, fruits, and whole grains furnish both of these materials.

OTHER FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN MENU-MAKING.--For successful menu- making, a number of factors other than the selection of foods to meet the needs of the body should be considered. A discussion of these follows:

A. _Appetizing Foods_.--If the appetite needs stimulation, foods which have an appetizing effect may be used for the first course of meals. Fruit is very often served for the first course of a breakfast and sometimes for the first course of a luncheon. Soup may serve as the appetizer of either a luncheon or dinner. Cream soup being especially nourishing because of its milk content not only serves as an appetizing food, but as one of the nutritious foods of a meal.

B. _Foods of Contrasting Flavor_.--If beef or some other protein-rich food is chosen for the main dish of a meal (such as dinner), root vegetables or grains rich in starch, but bland in flavor, are good additions. By combining foods of decided flavor with those of less pronounced taste and those rich in one foodstuff with those abounding in another nutrient, combinations that are both pleasing and varied in flavor may be secured. A housekeeper needs to use "imagination" in selecting foods that will taste well together.

C. _Variation of Foods_.--The same food should not be used twice in the same meal, even though it is prepared in a different form. It would be monotonous to serve tomato soup and tomato salad, or bean soup and baked beans at the same meal. Neither would one care to have hash served for both breakfast and luncheon on the same day. Of course such foods as bread and butter may be used with every meal.

D. _Moist and Dry Foods_.--A combination of "moist" and "dry" foods is more pleasing than a combination of foods of equal dryness or moisture. This does not mean that dry foods should be "rinsed down" with liquids; that is unwise from a physiological standpoint. To the majority of persons, creamed potatoes are more desirable with broiled steak than plain boiled potatoes. The latter would be more pleasing with meat served with a sauce or gravy.

E. _Sweet Foods_.--A sweet food should not be eaten at the beginning of a meal. Such sugar-rich foods as preserves and jellies may be served with the main course of a meal or at its close. As explained previously, the sugar is then diluted with other food materials and proves less irritating. If desserts are included in a menu, the practice of serving them at the close of a meal is desirable from a dietetic viewpoint. When the appetite is partially appeased, there is less tendency to eat large quantities of sweet foods.

A dessert that is rich in both fat and sugar such as pastry should be served only with a light meal, while a light dessert such as fruit or gelatine may be used at the close of a heavy meal.

Very often dried fruits and nuts are used as accessories after a meal. They are then often digested with difficulty, because the meal itself has taxed the digestive organs. These foods should be considered as a part of the meal and should not be added after enough other nutrients have been eaten. There is no reason why a wholesome dessert should not be considered one of the nutritious foods of a meal.

F. _Milk and Beverages_.--Since milk is necessary for perfect nourishment it is well for adults to use it as a beverage for at least one meal each day. Children should use it at all meals. If milk is distasteful to any or all members of a family, cocoa made with much milk may be served in its stead. In meal planning, a housekeeper should see to it that the proper quantity of milk either as a beverage or constituent of such dishes as cream soup, vegetables, and custards is used by each member of the family.

When tea and coffee are included in meal plans, the fact that these beverages have no food value except the milk and sugar added to them, should be taken into consideration.

G. _Foods on Hand_.--When menus are made the thrifty housekeeper considers those materials she has on hand and especially those which would spoil if not used at once. Very often left-over material serves as a basis on which to plan one or more meals.

A housekeeper may drain from a vegetable the water in which it was cooked. But she sees in it for the next meal or for the next day several possible uses. The vegetable stock may be used in soup or it may be combined with milk or cheese and serve as a sauce for some left-over vegetable. Bread crumbs combined with milk, peanuts, or egg make a tasty meat substitute one week; or they may be utilized in making bread pudding the second week; a scalloped dish the third week; and a meat loaf the fourth. If several pieces of dry cake are on hand, a tasty dessert may be made by pouring over them some hot sauce such as apple or chocolate. Dry cake may also be crumbed and used in place of flour and sugar in a steamed pudding.

It is possible, of course, for a housekeeper to spend an undue amount of time in utilizing left-overs or to defeat her efforts in thrift and buy expensive supplementary foods in order to use food on hand. Often it is wise to cook just enough so that there are no left-overs. On the other hand, it is sometimes economical as far as fuel and time are concerned to plan to cook enough food at one time for more than one meal. This is especially true of foods requiring long cooking such as baked beans and other dried foods.

MENU PLANS.--Serving meals in a number of courses should be attempted only where the housekeeper is assisted in her work. For everyday living the meals of most families are served only in one or two courses.

Although there are a great many things to be considered in menu-making, it is not necessary to use a great variety of foods to meet the requirements of successful meal planning. A breakfast consisting of fruit, rolled oats, and top milk, for example, is simple, but it embraces all the factors involved in the planning of a desirable meal.

As previously mentioned, the groups of foods may serve as a basis for menu planning. After selecting foods from each group that are seasonable, economic, and that will "taste well" together it is wise to analyze the menu. See if it contains all the essentials of diet to meet the needs of the body as explained previously. Some housekeepers find it helpful to have lists of dishes found to be satisfactory for serving, such as lists of meat dishes, vegetables, salads, desserts, etc., and glance over these when planning meals.

The menu plans which follow are merely suggestive. Both simple and more elaborate menus are given for each of the three meals.

A breakfast may consist of:

Fruit Cereal or Eggs and Toast Beverage

_or_

Fruit or Cereal (or both) Meat, Egg, or Vegetable Bread and Butter Beverage

A luncheon or supper may consist of:

Cream Soup Bread and Butter Salad or fruit Beverage

_or_

Fruit or Cream Soup {Fish or Meat Substitutes {Vegetables {Bread and Butter Salad Dessert Beverage

A dinner may consist of:

{Meat {Vegetables {Bread and Butter Salad or Dessert Beverage

_or_

Clear Soup Fish {Meat {Vegetables {Bread With or Without Butter Salad Dessert Beverage

QUESTIONS

Mention several combinations of two or more foods that are varied in moisture, dryness, and composition, and that are of contrasting flavor. Give reasons for making the combinations.

Make out suitable menus in your home for a week. Compute the cost of the week's menus. If the cost does not come within the limit that can be spent for food in your home, change the menus so that the cost does not exceed the food allowance.

LESSON CVI

PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER

Plan a luncheon or supper, [Footnote 72: If the laboratory period is limited to 90 minutes, all this time will be required to cook and serve the meal and wash the dishes. Hence, it will be necessary to do the meal planning in a previous lesson.] making it a one-dish meal or using a meat substitute instead of meat. Also use seasonable food-materials and follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV . Compute the cost of the menu. If it exceeds 20 cents per person, change the menu so that its cost comes within this amount. Analyze the menu. Is food from each of the groups contained in it?

Cook and serve the luncheon or supper. Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the meal without a maid.

LESSON CVII

REVIEW: MEAL COOKING

MENU

Seasonable Vegetable Salad Salad Dressing Salad Rolls

See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.

LESSON CVIII

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 73: See Lesson IX]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Plan and prepare one-dish meals or meals containing meat-substitute,--at least one a week.

Plan and prepare meals containing meat,--at least one a week.

Compute the cost of these meals. Also note the time required to prepare them.

SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To determine the difference in time required to cook a one-dish meal and a meal containing several different dishes.

(2) To determine the difference in cost of a meal without meat and one containing a meat-substitute.

DIVISION TEN

QUICK BREADS: POUR BATTERS

LESSON CIX

LEAVENING WITH STEAM AND AIR. POPOVERS

When flour is to be moistened and baked to make bread or cake, other ingredients are usually added to improve the grain, texture, and flavor.

To understand some of the principles of mixing and lightening baked flour mixtures, try the following:

EXPERIMENT 64: LEAVENING WITH STEAM AND AIR.[Footnote 74: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--Experiments 64 and 65 can be performed most expeditiously by dividing the class into groups of two and having each group do the two experiments.]--Mix 1/8 cupful of flour and 1/8 cupful of cold water. Beat thoroughly with a Dover egg beater. Note the consistency of the batter. Pour at once into an oiled muffin pan. Bake in a hot oven for at least 20 minutes. Remove from the pan, break it open, and answer the following questions:

What happened during baking to the cold air inclosed in the mixture? With what material did the flour combine during baking? Into what form was a part of the water changed during baking? Explain fully how the mixture was made porous.

EXPERIMENT 65: COMPARISON OF THICK AND THIN QUICK BREADS--Repeat Experiment 64, using 1/2 tablespoonful of cold water instead of 1/8 cupful. After baking, examine and compare with the bread of Experiment 64. Which is the more porous? Explain how the difference in quantity of moisture accounts for the difference in grain. If a mixture is to be leavened with steam and air, what should be the consistency of the mixture?

Some simple flour mixtures are lightened by the method indicated above. In most cases, however, more air is introduced into the mixture by using lightly beaten eggs, or by using ingredients that produce gas, on being moistened and heated.

EXPERIMENT 66: PREPARATION OF FLOUR FOR QUICK BREADS.--Measure 1/4 cupful of pastry flour just as it comes from the can. Sift it, and return it carefully to the measuring cup, using a teaspoon. How much does the flour measure now? What does this experiment teach with regard to sifting flour before measuring? Of what advantage is it to sift flour not only before measuring, but when adding it to the other ingredients of a quick bread?

[NOTE.--Use this sifted flour for making Popovers.]

In preparing all quick bread mixtures, _pastry flour_ (see _Wheat Flour_) should be used. It should be sifted before measuring. Usually any other powdered ingredient, such as baking powder, soda, or spices, is added to the flour and mixed thoroughly (by sifting) into the other materials. Baking powder and soda need not be sifted before measuring, but should be stirred.

OVEN THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURES.--The ovens of a number of ranges are equipped with thermometers. Although it is possible to secure more satisfactory results with a thermometer than without, oven thermometers do not always indicate the temperature of an oven accurately. If a thermometer is fastened on an oven door, for example, and the door does not heat as quickly or to as high a degree as the interior of the oven, the true temperature of the oven cannot be ascertained by this device. By making allowance for the difference, however, such a thermometer may prove very useful. It is much more accurately and conveniently read than a thermometer which is hung or rests inside the oven unless the oven is provided with a glass door.

A device known as an "Oven Heat Regulator" (see Figure 81) may be attached to gas ranges. These devices do not merely measure the heat of an oven, but control it and keep the oven temperature constant. A "temperature wheel" (shown at B) is set for a desired temperature and the oven burner lighted. By the expansion or contraction of a sensitive copper tube placed in the top of the oven (shown at A) the gas valve (shown at C) is opened or closed. When the valve is opened the amount of gas burning is increased or decreased so that the temperature of the oven is kept constant, _i.e._ at the temperature at which the wheel is set. Insulated ovens, _i.e._ ovens which are constructed so as to retain heat and allow little to escape, are found on some of the modern gas, electric, and kerosene stoves. Some of the insulated electric ovens are provided with clocks or dials which may be adjusted so that the current is cut off automatically at the expiration of a certain length of time, or when a certain temperature is reached (see Figure 14). Because of the insulated walls on such ovens, the food continues to cook on "stored heat."

A chemical thermometer inserted in an oven is a fairly satisfactory means of obtaining oven temperatures. If one has the use of an oven provided with a chemical thermometer in the school kitchen, tests may be obtained so that the temperature of the oven in the home kitchen may be estimated. The tests are as follows: Heat the oven; when it reaches a temperature of 250 degrees F., [Footnote 75: See footnote 86, regarding the use of the Fahrenheit scale.] place a piece of white paper in the oven. After 5 minutes, remove the paper, note the color. Continue to heat the oven; place paper in the oven at 350 degrees F., 400 degrees F., 425 degrees F., 450 degrees F., 475 degrees F., 500 degrees F., 525 degrees F., and 550 degrees F. Note the color of each piece of paper.

Baking temperatures have been classified as follows: [Footnote 76: From Technical Education Bulletin, No. 22, "Some Attempts to Standardize Oven Temperatures for Cookery Processes," by May B. Van Arsdale, Teachers College, Columbia University.]

1. Slow oven (250 degrees to 350 degrees F.) for custards and meringues.

2. Moderate oven (350 degrees to 400 degrees F.) for bread, gingerbread, plain cake, [Footnote 77: The lower temperature should be used for loaf cakes and the higher temperature for layer cakes.] all molasses mixtures.

3. Hot oven (400 degrees to 450 degrees F.) for Parkerhouse rolls, and Popovers. In baking Popovers, the oven should be cooled to moderate heat after the first ten minutes.

4. Very hot oven (450 degrees to 550 degrees F.) for pastry. After the first 6 minutes, the temperature should be lowered to "hot."

Oven temperatures may be estimated also as follows: (_a_) note the number of minutes required to change white paper, flour, or bread to a light brown or to a golden brown; (_b_) note the number of "counts" (one count per second) that the hand may be held in the oven.

POUR BATTER.--All breads may be divided into two classes: (_a_) Quick Breads and (_b_) Yeast Breads. The former are so named because a much shorter time is required in their preparation. Quick breads are divided into several classes, depending upon the proportion of flour and moisture in the batter. A _pour batter_ is the thinnest quick bread mixture. It usually contains about equal parts of flour and moisture. A definite proportion cannot be stated, since the thickening quality of different flours varies, and the wetting quality of different moist materials varies. Many pour batters contain a little more flour than moisture. Popover mixture is. a typical pour batter.

POPOVERS

1 egg 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 cupful milk 1 cupful flour 1/3 teaspoonful fat (melted)

Oil iron gem pans; place them in the oven, heat until very hot. Put all the Popover ingredients in a mixing bowl, and beat the mixture with a Dover egg beater. Pour it into the hot pans and bake 35 to 45 minutes in a hot oven, at 425 degrees F. Earthen cups placed in a dripping pan may be used instead of iron pans.

Popovers may be served hot as a bread, for breakfast or luncheon; or may be used as a dessert with custard or lemon filling or sauce. Fruit makes a pleasing addition to Popovers. Before baking, drop a piece of apple, peach, or other fruit, into the batter in each cup.

QUESTIONS

What change, other than moistening the flour, takes place in the milk that helps to lighten the Popovers?

What changes take place in the eggs and in the air inclosed in them when they are heated quickly?

What is the purpose of beating the Popover mixture thoroughly? How many Popovers will the given recipe make?

LESSON CX

LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA AND SOUR MILK: SPIDER CORN BREAD

Besides the air that is beaten into the eggs and into the combined ingredients of quick bread mixtures, a gas--carbon dioxide--is often introduced into such mixtures. To find how this gas may be formed, try the following:

EXPERIMENT 67: ACTION OF BAKING SODA ON SOUR MILK.--Place a teaspoonful of sour milk in a test tube and add a pinch of baking soda. Do you notice any change in the ingredients? Apply heat to the contents of the tube. What kind of material (solid, liquid, or gas) is indicated by the bubbling (see Experiment 7)? What does this experiment teach with regard to the use of baking soda and sour milk, for lightening a mixture?

EXPERIMENT 68: CHEMICAL CHANGE.--Measure 1/4 cupful of thick sour milk. [Footnote 78: The amount of acid in sour milk varies slightly.] Dip the end of a piece of blue litmus paper in it. What change in color takes place in the paper? When blue litmus changes to pink, an _acid_ is present. The sour milk therefore contains acid. Measure 1/8 teaspoonful of baking soda. Mix this with a little water. Test with pink litmus paper. When pink litmus paper changes to blue, an _alkaline_ substance is present. Baking soda is therefore alkaline in reaction.

Pour the milk into a saucepan, add about 3/4 of the soda mixture, stir and heat until effervescence (bubbling) has ceased. Test the mixture in the saucepan with blue litmus paper. If the blue litmus paper changes color, carefully add a little more of the soda solution. Test with litmus again. If there is still a change in color, add soda solution until the litmus does not change. Then test with pink litmus. When neither pink nor blue litmus paper changes color a _neutral_ substance is present, i.e. a substance neither acid nor alkaline.

When this occurs, the mixture in the pan is no longer acid in reaction. Neither sour milk nor baking soda exists in the pan. A _chemical change_ has taken place. From the union of sour milk and soda, entirely different materials are formed; one is the neutral substance in the pan; another is the carbon dioxide gas which has escaped, and the third is water. When an acid and an alkaline material are mixed, a chemical change always occurs. Chemical changes are constantly taking place when certain food mixtures are cooked and digested.

EXPERIMENT 69: QUANTITY OF BAKING SODA TO USE WITH SOUR MILK.--To the contents of the saucepan of Experiment 68, add 1/8 teaspoonful more of baking soda. Stir, heat, and test with pink litmus. What is the reaction-- acid or alkaline? Has the last quantity of soda been neutralized as was the first quantity? Explain.

If more baking soda than is necessary to neutralize the acid of the sour milk is used, some _unneutralized_ soda will remain in the mixture. This is undesirable, since soda has a "bitter taste." An excessive quantity of unneutralized soda also discolors the mixture.

Experiments 68 and 69 indicate that the _approximate_ proportion of baking soda to sour milk is: _1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful of thick sour milk._

The following "equations" indicate the importance of using the proper amount of baking soda to neutralize the acid materials:

1 cupful of sour milk + 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda --> [Footnote 79: The plus sign is read "with"; the arrow is read "yields."] water + carbon dioxide gas + neutral material.

1 cupful of sour milk + 1 teaspoonful of baking soda --> water + carbon dioxide gas + neutral material + unneutralized "soda."

SPIDER CORN BREAD

3/4 cupful corn-meal 1/2 teaspoonful baking soda 1/4 cupful flour 1 egg 1 tablespoonful sugar 1 cupful sour milk 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute

Mix the dry ingredients. In a mixing bowl, beat an egg, add the sour milk, then the dry ingredients. Beat the mixtures until the ingredients are well blended.

Melt the butter or substitute in a hot "spider" or frying pan. Pour the corn-meal mixture into it. Bake in a hot oven until sufficiently baked, usually about 20 minutes (see tests below). Serve hot.

TESTS FOR SUFFICIENT BAKING OF QUICK BREAD.--Quick Bread is usually sufficiently baked: (_a_) when it is a golden brown in color; (_b_) when the mixture shrinks from the pan; (_c_) when the crust springs back into place, if pressed gently with the fingers; or (_d_) when no batter or dough clings to a wire skewer or knitting needle (see Figure 1) that has been inserted. Usually it is not necessary to apply this last test, unless the quick bread is baked in a loaf or in a very thick layer.

QUESTIONS

Mention the materials used in Spider Corn Bread to make it light. Explain their action.

Explain why satisfactory results could not be obtained by using 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking soda in this Spider Corn Bread recipe.

What is the price per half-pound of baking soda?

How many persons does this Spider Corn Bread recipe serve?

LESSON CXI

LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND MOLASSES: GINGERBREAD

EXPERIMENT 70: ACTION OF BAKING SODA ON MOLASSES.--Place a teaspoonful of baking molasses in a test tube and dilute with a little water. Test it with litmus paper. What is its reaction? Add a pinch of baking soda. Heat. What does effervescence indicate? What do we call the gas formed by the action of the baking soda and a substance having an acid reaction? Explain how baking soda and molasses could be used to lighten a quick bread.

EXPERIMENT 71: QUANTITY OF BAKING SODA TO USE WITH MOLASSES.--Carefully measure 1/8 cupful of molasses. [Footnote 80: The acidity of molasses may be due to fermentation or to the preservatives used in many brands. Its intensity varies.] Dilute it with much water. Carefully measure 1/16 teaspoonful of baking soda and mix it with water. Add about 3/4 of the soda mixture to the molasses solution. Stir and heat. Test with blue litmus. If it changes color, keep adding the soda mixture, until the litmus paper does not change, as in Experiment 68. When neither blue nor pink litmus paper changes color, what kind of substance,--acid, alkaline, or neutral,--is present? What change has taken place in the materials placed in the saucepan?

This experiment shows that the _approximate_ proportion of baking soda to molasses is:

1/2 _teaspoonful of baking soda to_ 1 _cupful of molasses_.

This "equation" expresses the chemical change in the experiment:

1 cupful molasses + 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda --> neutral material + carbon dioxide gas + water.

GINGERBREAD

2 cupfuls flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt 3/4 teaspoonful baking soda 1 teaspoonful cinnamon 2 teaspoonfuls ginger 1/8 teaspoonful cloves 1 egg 1 cupful thick sour milk 1/2 cupful molasses 1/2 cupful sugar 2 to 4 tablespoonfuls fat

Mix all the dry ingredients except the sugar. Beat the egg in a mixing bowl. Add the sour milk, molasses, and sugar. If solid fat is used, melt it. Add the fat to the molasses mixture. Through a sifter, add the dry ingredients to other materials. Beat thoroughly and turn at once into a shallow oiled pan. Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F. to 400 degrees F.) 20 minutes or longer (see _Tests for Sufficient Baking of Quick Bread_)

_Gingerbread without Eggs_ may be made. Omit the egg from the recipe above. To the dry ingredients, add 1 teaspoonful of baking powder.

_Water Gingerbread_ may be made by substituting 7/8 cupful cold water for the sour milk, and using 1/4 teaspoonful baking soda (instead of 3/4 teaspoonful) and adding 3 teaspoonfuls of baking powder.

QUESTIONS

Mention the leavening materials used in this Gingerbread, and explain their action.

What is the price per quart of molasses?

How many persons does this recipe serve?

LESSON CXII

LEAVENING WITH BAKING POWDER: GRIDDLE CAKES

EXPERIMENT 72: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON A MIXTURE OF CREAM OF TARTAR AND BAKING SODA.--Test a bit of cream of tartar with moistened litmus paper. Is it acid or alkaline in reaction?

Put 1/8 teaspoonful of baking soda and twice the quantity of cream of tartar in a dry test tube. Does any change take place? Add about 1 teaspoonful of cold water to the mixture and examine. What change takes place? What substance is being formed?

EXPERIMENT 73: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON A MIXTURE OF CREAM OF TARTAR AND BAKING SODA.--Repeat Experiment 72, using hot water instead of cold with the baking soda and cream of tartar. Which causes greater effervescence,-- hot or cold water? Is it desirable to have more of the gas formed before or after the mixture is placed in the oven? What, then, should be the temperature (hot or cold) of liquids and other materials used in the quick bread mixtures?

EXPERIMENT 74: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON BAKING POWDER.--Add about 1 teaspoonful of hot water to 1/4 teaspoonful of baking powder. Compare the effervescence with that of Experiment 73. From the comparison of Experiments 72 and 73, with Experiment 74, what two kinds of substances do you infer this baking powder contains?

(Save the contents of the tube for the following experiment.)

EXPERIMENT 75: STARCH IN BAKING POWDER.--Filter the contents of the tube used in Experiment 74 through filter paper (see Figure 30). Add a drop of tincture of iodine to the insoluble material left on the filter paper. What is the insoluble constituent of this baking powder?

COMPOSITION OF BAKING POWDER.--Baking powder consists of

(_a_) baking soda, (_b_) a substance having an acid reaction, (_c_) a starchy material.

The substance of acid reaction varies in different baking powders. Some powders in common use contain either cream of tartar, calcium or sodium acid phosphate, or alum [Footnote 81: Alums differ in composition. They are sulphates of various metals. The alum most commonly used in alum baking powder is sodium aluminium sulphate.] as the "acid" material. Certain baking powders contain a mixture of materials with acid reaction, such as cream of tartar with tartaric acid, and alum with calcium acid phosphate.

The starch is added to keep the other materials apart, and thus prevent the possible formation and consequent loss of carbon dioxide.

The trade name of a baking powder does not usually suggest its composition. But the latter is always stated on the label of the can.

EXPERIMENT 76: COMPARISON OF THE TIME OF ACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF BAKING POWDERS.--Put 1/2 cupful of water of the same temperature into each of 3 tumblers or glass measuring cups. To one tumbler add 1/2 teaspoonful of tartrate baking powder; to the second, the same quantity of phosphate baking powder; and to the third an equal quantity of alum (or alum and phosphate) baking powder. Stir each and note the length of time that chemical change occurs in each tumbler. Which type of baking powder reacts the longest time?

DIFFERENCE IN TYPES OF BAKING POWDERS.--Although there has been much discussion regarding the superiority of one type of baking powder over another, it is thought that one standard baking powder is as little harmful as another. But, as shown by Experiment 76, the action of certain types is slower than that of others, _i.e._ the formation of the gas continues for a longer time. Certain types of baking powders which react very quickly when moisture is added may react to some extent while still in the can and thus lose some of their effectiveness in leavening. It is well to buy those baking powders in such quantities so that a fresh can can be purchased often. The price of certain types of baking powders is much greater than that of others.

QUANTITY OF BAKING POWDER IN QUICK BREADS.--Since baking powder contains both acid and alkaline materials, the quantity of baking powder used in a quick bread is dependent not upon another leavening material, but upon the quantity of flour and eggs. _When no eggs are used, 2 tea-spoonfuls of baking powder should be used with 1 cupful of flour._ When eggs are added to a quick bread, the quantity of baking powder should be lessened 1/2 teaspoonful for each egg.

_Two and one half teaspoonfuls of baking powder should be used with 1 cupful of coarse wheat flour or flour or meal other than wheat._

SUGGESTIONS FOR PREPARING GRIDDLE CAKES.--The general rules for mixing quick breads apply also to griddle cakes. When the yolk and white of the egg are separated, the mixture will be somewhat lighter. Most housekeepers, however, beat the eggs together quickly, and find the result satisfactory.

The consistency of griddle cake batter is most important. As suggested in the recipe, the moisture should be added cautiously. Since the quantity of baking powder depends upon the amount of flour, it is better to change from a thick to a thinner batter by increasing the moisture, rather than to change from a thin to a thicker batter by increasing the flour. After mixing the batter, drop a small cake on the hot iron. The thickness as well as the grain of the browned cake depends largely upon the consistency of the batter. If too much moisture has been used, the cake is thin, "pasty," and coarse grained.

A griddle should be heated slowly, and should be hot when the cakes are mixed. If sufficient fat is used in the batter, it is not necessary to oil the griddle. The recipes for griddle cakes given in this book contain one and one half times the quantity of fat generally used in griddle cake batters. Hence oiling the griddle is unnecessary. It is well after each baking to wipe off the griddle with a cloth or paper.

Drop the batter by the spoonful (from the end of the spoon) on the hot griddle, brown on the under side thoroughly. When the cakes have risen, when the tops are full of bubbles, and when the edges are brown, the cakes should be turned and browned on the other side. Serve cakes at once after baking.

PLAIN GRIDDLE CAKES

2 cupfuls flour 1 egg 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 1/2 cupfuls milk 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 3 tablespoonfuls fat

Prepare according to the directions above. Add the milk cautiously. More or less (according to the absorbing property of the flour) than the given quantity may be required.

1/8 cupful of sugar or molasses may be added to the mixture. If desired, one more egg may be used in this recipe. Serve with maple or other sirup (see _Sirup_).

BREAD GRIDDLE CAKES

1 1/2 cupfuls bread crumbs 1 1/2 cupfuls hot milk 3 tablespoonfuls fat 1 to 2 eggs 1/2 cupful flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt 3 teaspoonfuls baking powder

Soak the bread in the hot milk until soft. Add the other ingredients in the order given.

1 cupful of cooked cereal may be used instead of bread crumbs. _Rice Griddle Cakes_ are especially pleasing.

QUESTIONS

Account for the quantity of baking powder used in each of these recipes.

What is the price per pound of cream of tartar? Of tartrate baking powder? Of phosphate baking powder? Of alum baking powder? Of alum-phosphate baking powder?

What would be the effect of exposing baking powder to moist air? How should baking powder be stored?

What kind of griddle cakes result when the batter is too thin? When too thick?

What indicates that the griddle is too hot? Too cool?

How should griddle cakes be served?

LESSON CXIII

LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND BAKING POWDER: SOUR MILK GRIDDLE CAKES

ADDITIONAL LEAVENING FOR SOUR MILK MIXTURES.--Some housekeepers maintain that a superior flavor and quality is given to quick bread by the use of sour milk. It has been found that most quick breads are sufficiently light and porous when made with sour milk and baking soda, provided they contain as much or almost as much sour milk as flour and provided they contain eggs. If _the quantity of sour milk is much less than that of flour_ and _no eggs are present_, it is often desirable to add leavening materials other than sour milk and baking soda.

From the results of Experiment 69 we know that an increased quantity of baking soda will not produce satisfactory results. Hence more carbon dioxide gas must be obtained by other means. Since baking powder consists of both baking soda and an "acid" material, it makes a desirable substance for additional leavening. A combination of baking soda, sour milk, and baking powder is therefore used for leavening some quick bread mixtures, especially those that contain only a small quantity of sour milk and no eggs. This involves a double reaction:

(_a_) Baking soda + sour milk --> neutral material + carbon dioxide gas + water.

(_b_) Baking powder (moistened and heated) --> neutral material + carbon dioxide gas + water.

About 1/4 of baking powder is baking soda. Hence 1/4 teaspoonful of baking soda (with the necessary quantity of "acid" material) is equivalent to 1 teaspoonful of baking powder in leavening. If 2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder are used to leaven 1 cupful of flour, 1/2 _teaspoonful of baking soda_ (with the necessary quantity of "acid" material) _should be used to leaven 1 cupful of flour_.

_Two thirds teaspoonful of baking soda_ (with the necessary quantity of "acid" material) _should be used to leaven 1 cupful of coarse flour or flour or meal_ other than wheat.

In determining the quantity of baking powder to use in materials leavened with sour milk and baking soda, note the quantity of baking soda and flour. Assuming that 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda (with "acid") or 2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder leavens 1 cupful of flour, determine the amount of flour that the given quantity of baking soda (with "acid") will leaven and then use sufficient baking powder to leaven the remainder of the flour. For example, if a recipe states (among other ingredients) 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda and 2 cupfuls of flour, the baking soda (with "acid") will leaven 1 cupful of flour. Hence baking powder sufficient to leaven 1 cupful of flour (_i.e._ 2 teaspoonfuls) should be used. Again, if a recipe states that 3/4 teaspoonful baking soda and 2 cupfuls of flour, the baking soda (with "acid") will leaven 1 1/2 cupfuls of flour. Hence baking powder sufficient to leaven 1/2 cupful flour (_i.e._ 1 teaspoonful) should be used.

SOUR MILK GRIDDLE CAKES (without eggs)

2 cupfuls flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful baking powder 7/8 teaspoonful baking soda 1 3/4 cupfuls sour milk 3 tablespoonfuls fat

Turn the sour milk into a mixing bowl. Melt the fat and add it to the sour milk. Add the dry ingredients (through a sifter) to the mixture. Mix thoroughly. If more moisture is needed, add water.

CORN-MEAL GRIDDLE CAKES

1 cupful corn-meal 2 cupfuls water 3 tablespoonfuls fat 1 cupful sour milk 1 cupful flour 1 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful baking soda [Footnote 82: The 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda (with "acid") is sufficient to leaven the 1 cupful of flour. Then 2 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder should be added, since 1 cupful of corn- meal is contained in the recipe (see _Quantity of Baking Powder in Quick Breads_).] 2 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder [Footnote 83: See footnote 82] 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar

Add the corn-meal to the water, mix thoroughly, and cook 5 minutes. Add the fat. Cool. Then add the milk and dry ingredients. Mix thoroughly. Drop at once on a hot griddle.

FRUIT SIRUP

Cook fresh fruit, or dried fruit that has been soaked in water, in a generous quantity of water until it is very soft. Press through a strainer. If it is not of the consistency of catsup, add more hot water. Add from one eighth to one fourth cupful of sugar for each cupful of sirup, or "sweeten to taste." Serve on griddle cakes, or use as a sauce for Bread Pudding or Rice Pudding.

Fruit butters, marmalades, or jams may be diluted with water, heated, and used in the same way.

QUESTIONS

If an egg or two were added to griddle cakes made with sour milk, how should the recipe be changed? Give reasons for the change.

Explain the action of the leavening agents in Sour Milk Griddle Cakes (without eggs).

In a quick bread leavened with baking soda, sour milk, and baking powder, upon what ingredient does the quantity of baking soda depend? Upon what ingredients does the quantity of baking powder depend? Explain your answers.

What is the purpose of cooking the corn-meal before adding the other ingredients? Why should the cooked mixture be cooled before adding the other ingredients?

LESSON CXIV

LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND CREAM OF TARTAR: STEAMED BROWN BREADS

ADDITIONAL LEAVENING FOR SOUR MILK MIXTURES.--Instead of using prepared baking powder as additional leavening for sour milk mixtures (see previous lesson) cream of tartar with sour milk and baking soda may be used. Enough baking soda must be used, however, to neutralize both the sour milk and the cream of tartar. This involves a double reaction:

(_a_) Baking soda + sour milk --> water + carbon dioxide gas + neutral substance.

(_b_) Baking soda + cream of tartar --> water + carbon dioxide gas + a neutral substance.

If molasses is used with the sour milk and baking soda, a third reaction occurs:

(_c_) Baking soda + molasses --> water + carbon dioxide gas + neutral substance.

It has been found that the following proportion of cream of tartar and baking soda is effective in leavening: 1 1/4 _teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar with _1/2_ teaspoonful of baking soda._ These quantities of materials are sufficient to leaven 1 cupful of flour. 1 1/2 _teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar with _2/3_ teaspoonful of baking soda are required to leaven 1 cupful coarse wheat flour or flour or meal other than wheat._

In determining the quantity of cream of tartar and baking soda to use with mixtures containing sour milk or other acid food, note the quantity of flour (or other cereal) in the recipe. Assuming that 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda (with the necessary "acid" material) leavens 1 cupful of flour, determine the total quantity of baking soda, which (with the necessary "acid" material) will leaven the flour. Then determine how much of the baking soda will be neutralized by the sour milk or other "acid" food. Assuming that l-1/4 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar are needed to neutralize 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda, use enough cream of tartar to neutralize the remainder of the baking soda. For example, if a recipe calls for (among other ingredients) 2 cupfuls flour and 1 cupful of sour milk, 1 teaspoonful of baking soda (with the necessary "acid" material) will be needed to leaven the flour. Since 1 cupful of sour milk will neutralize only 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda, enough cream of tartar (_i.e._ 1 1/4 teaspoonfuls) will be needed to neutralize the remainder of the baking soda.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR STEAMED QUICK BREAD MIXTURES.--A quick bread mixture that is to be steamed should be placed in a covered utensil. If the mold or the can used for steaming has no cover, an oiled paper should be tied over the top. As with all quick breads, the molds for steamed mixtures should be oiled. If the quick bread is a pour batter, the mold should be oiled and then sprinkled with flour. It should never be filled more than two thirds full.

A steamer placed over boiling water may be used for the steaming; or a kettle of boiling water containing a rack may be used. If the latter device is employed, the boiling water in the kettle should come halfway to the top of the molds. As the water evaporates, add more _boiling_ water. Less time is required in the steaming, if the mold is placed directly in the water.

At least one hour is required for steaming breads. The longer brown bread is steamed, the darker it becomes. A mixture in an earthen mold requires more time than does one in a tin or granite mold (see Experiment 46).

PLAIN BROWN BREAD

2 cupfuls graham flour 2/3 cupful white flour 3/4 cupful brown sugar 2/3 teaspoonful salt 1 2/3 teaspoonfuls baking soda 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls cream of tartar 2 cupfuls sour milk

Mix all dry ingredients thoroughly. Turn the sour milk into a mixing bowl. Add the dry ingredients; mix well. Turn at once into an oiled bread pan, and bake in the oven from 50 to 60 minutes; or fill one-pound baking powder cans (which have been oiled) two thirds full, and steam at least 4 hours. If the bread is steamed, remove it (after steaming) from the molds and dry in the oven for a few minutes.

BOSTON BROWN BREAD

1/4 cupful sugar 1 cupful corn-meal 2 cupfuls graham flour 3/4 teaspoonful salt 2 teaspoonfuls baking soda 2 teaspoonfuls cream of tartar 2 cupfuls sour milk 1/2 cupful molasses

Mix the dry ingredients (except the sugar) thoroughly. Turn the molasses, sugar, and sour milk into a mixing bowl. Add the dry ingredients; mix well. Turn at once into oiled molds, and steam at least 4 hours. Remove from the molds, and dry in the oven for a few minutes.

Rye meal or bread crumbs may be substituted for 1 cupful of graham flour.

If dried bread crumbs are used, moisten them with a little cold water before adding to the other ingredients.

1 cupful of raisins may also be added to the ingredients of the above recipe. If raisins are used, cut them in two and sprinkle flour over them.

BUTTER BALLS

Cut firm butter into half-ounce pieces and place in a pan of ice water. Scrub the butter paddles; place in boiling water for 10 minutes; and then in the pan of ice water until chilled. Place a piece of butter on one of the paddles and hold the paddle stationary. Shape the butter with the other butter paddle, moving it in a circular direction. Hold the paddle over the ice water while shaping. Place the butter balls in a cool place.

QUESTIONS

What gas is formed in these mixtures to leaven them? By what means is the gas formed in each mixture?

How much baking soda and cream of tartar should be used in a recipe containing 2 cupfuls of flour, 1 cupful of sour milk, and 1/2 cupful molasses?

Account for the quantity of baking soda used in each of the Brown Bread recipes.

Give two reasons why the paper used to cover a steamed quick bread mixture should be oiled. Why are molds for steamed mixtures filled only two thirds full?

Why should _boiling_ water be used to replenish the water in steaming kettle? Why is a longer time required for steaming than for baking quick bread mixtures?

Why should butter paddles be cleaned with a brush rather than with a cloth?

What is the purpose of placing butter paddles in boiling water before using?

Why hold the paddles over ice water while shaping the butter balls?

LESSON CXV

FORMULATING RECIPES--WAFFLES

LEAVENING FORMULAS.--A practical housekeeper needs to be able to formulate fundamental recipes. In preparing quick bread recipes, she should know the required consistency of flour mixtures, _i.e._ the approximate proportion of moisture and flour for each bread; and the proportion of leavening, seasoning, and "shortening" (fat) materials to use with flour.

In previous lessons, general statements have been made concerning the quantity of leavening materials to use under various conditions. The following is the approximate amount of leavening material to be used for quick breads that contain little or no sugar:

BAKING SODA AND SOUR MILK

1/2 teaspoonful baking soda to 1 cupful of sour milk

BAKING SODA AND MOLASSES [Footnote 84: See footnote 80.]

1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful molasses

FLOUR AND BAKING POWDER

2 teaspoonfuls baking powder to 1 cupful of flour when no eggs are used.

When eggs are used, reduce the entire quantity of baking powder by 1/2 teaspoonful for each egg.

COARSE WHEAT FLOUR, OR FLOUR (OR MEAL) OTHER THAN WHEAT, AND BAKING POWDER

2 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder to 1 cupful of coarse flour or meal.

FLOUR, CREAM OF TARTAR, AND BAKING SODA

1 1/4 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar and 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful of flour.

COARSE WHEAT FLOUR, OR FLOUR (OR MEAL) OTHER THAN WHEAT, CREAM OF TARTAR AND BAKING SODA

1 1/2 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar and 2/3 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful of flour.

Examine a number of recipes previously given, and note the quantity of salt and fat used with 1 cupful of flour.

In general, the following quantities of salt and fat are used for quick breads that contain little or no sugar:

FLOUR AND SALT

1/4 teaspoonful of salt to 1 cupful of flour

FLOUR AND FAT

1 tablespoonful of fat to 1 cupful of flour

While these data are helpful in formulating recipes, the pupil should remember that they are all approximate and for plain breads only. When recipes are modified by the addition of a cereal, a fruit, or a flavoring material, some of the quantities will need to be changed.

WAFFLES

2 cupfuls flour 3 to 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 to 2 eggs 1 1/2 cupfuls milk 2 tablespoonfuls fat

Mix according to the directions for Plain Griddle Cakes. The quantity of baking powder depends upon the number of eggs. The greater quantity should be used with one egg. Before using the waffle irons, they should be heated slowly on both sides and oiled thoroughly. Oleomargarine, oil, or lard may be used for this purpose.

Pour the batter quickly into the hot irons, close the irons at once, and brown the waffles on both sides. Serve with sirup or gravy.

QUESTIONS

Write a recipe for waffles, using sweet milk and baking powder and 3 eggs.

Write two recipes for waffles, using sour milk and soda (with additional leavening, if necessary) and 1 egg in the one, and 2 eggs in the other.

How many waffles does the given recipe make?

RELATED WORK

LESSON CXVI

MEASUREMENT OF THE FUEL VALUE OF FOODS

HOW FOOD IS ASSIMILATED.--The uses of the foodstuffs,--carbohydrates, fats, protein, ash, water, and vitamines,--were given. It was stated that these foodstuffs either (_a_) "burned" (_i.e._ united with oxygen) and produced energy, (_b_) built the body, or (_c_) aided in regulating body processes.

All parts of the body are composed of microscopic cells. By the process of digestion the foodstuffs are made entirely soluble (see _Solution and Digestion_); they are then further altered, _i.e._ split to their end products and absorbed through the walls of the alimentary canal. The blood carries the digestion products to all parts of the body. The blood also carries oxygen,--which has been breathed into the body from the air,--to all parts of the body. The body cells then select the foodstuffs that they need to carry on their work. Some cells pick out the fuel materials--carbohydrates, fat, or protein--and oxygen. Fuel foods when oxidized, produce energy. Other body cells select some of the body builders--protein or ash--and use these for building or repairing tissue. The cells which build bone choose ash and the other materials needed for building bones; the cells which build muscle choose protein and the other materials needed for building muscle.

Little is known regarding the use of vitamines by the body cells, other than that they are indispensable for the growth and maintenance of the body.