Chapter XI: Part 11

HOW ENERGY OR FUEL VALUE IS MEASURED.--It was stated that the human body could be compared to an automobile, _i.e._ the "burning" of the fuel foods in the body produced the ability to do work. The quantity of energy that fuel food is capable of giving off is termed the _fuel value_ of that food. Energy has been defined as the ability to do work. Since heat is energy, the fuel value of foods shows, in part, [Footnote 85: Although ash, water, and vitamines nourish the body, it is impossible to measure their nutritive value in terms of fuel value. Fuel value expresses the nutritive value only of the combustible foodstuffs,--carbohydrates, fats, and protein. However, according to Sherman, "the most conspicuous nutritive requirement is that of energy for the work of the body." Hence, the fuel value of a food is often spoken of as its nutritive value (see "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., p. 138).] their nutritive value. _If the quantity of heat that is produced by burning a food is measured, the measurement indicates the quantity of energy that the food is capable of giving to the body._

Heat cannot be measured by weight or length, but by the change in temperature which it produces in a given weight of a certain material. The heat unit is not a pound or yard, but a _Calorie_, or a definite quantity of heat, which, when applied to materials, will produce change of temperature in those materials. If the temperature of one pound [Footnote 86: NOTE TO THE TEACHER--The avoirdupois system of measurement and the Fahrenheit scale of temperature are used in this text. It is believed by the author that less than ten per cent of all pupils taking this course will enter college. Hence, the use of the measurements that are more in keeping with the pupils' practical needs. For the small minority who will enter college, a thorough drill in the metric system is urged. The following formula gives the necessary information for changing from the Fahreheit to the Centigrade scale: Subtract 32 and multiply by 5/9.] of water is 70 degrees Fahrenheit, and it is desired to increase the temperature of that water to 74 degrees Fahrenheit, a certain quantity of heat will have to be applied. It has been found that the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through any four degrees of the Fahrenheit scale is practically the same, _i.e._ the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water from 32 degrees to 36 degrees F. is about the same as the quantity of heat that must be applied to raise the temperature of one pound of water from 60 degrees to 64 degrees F. The unit of measurement of heat is taken as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through about 4 degrees F.

The Calorie, [Footnote 87: _I.e._ greater Calorie, distinguished from the lesser calorie by the capital C.] used for food calculation, _is approximately the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound (pint) of water through_ 4 degrees F. If one pint of water were placed over a lighted burner and heated until it increased four degrees in temperature, approximately one Calorie of heat would have been applied to the water (see Figure 82).

HOW THE FUEL VALUE OF A FOOD MATERIAL IS MEASURED.--Scientists have worked with care to obtain accurate data for the measurement of the heat produced by foods burning in the body. The data accepted to-day differ from those given by Rubner some years ago. [Footnote 88: See "Chemistry of Foods and Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., p. 143, "Physiological Fuel Values."]

1 gram protein yields 4 Calories 1 gram fat yields 9 Calories 1 gram carbohydrate yields 4 Calories Expressing grams approximately in ounces, these data become: 1 ounce of protein yields 113 Calories 1 ounce of fat yields 255 Calories 1 ounce of carbohydrate yields 113 Calories

In order to find the fuel value of foods, it is necessary to know their composition. For such data _United States Department of Agriculture_ Bulletin No. 28 is a valuable source.

_Flour_.--The fuel content of flour is (see _United States Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, p. 58, All Analyses Average):

10.6 per cent protein; 1.1 per cent fat; 76.3 per cent carbohydrates. Then, 1 ounce of flour contains, 0.106 ounce of protein; 0.011 ounce of fat; 0.763 ounce carbohydrates.

The protein in one ounce of flour yields (113 x 0106 =) 11.97 Calories.

The fat in one ounce of flour yields (255 x 0.011 =) 2.80 Calories. The carbohydrates in one ounce of flour yield (113 x 0.763 =) 86.21 Calories.

Total Calories furnished by 1 ounce of flour are (11.97 + 2.80 + 86.21 =) 100.98.

_Butter_.--The fuel content of butter is (see _United States Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, p. 54):

1 per cent protein; 85 per cent fat; no carbohydrates.

1 ounce of butter contains 0.01 ounce of protein, 0.85 ounce of fat, and no carbohydrates.

The protein in one ounce of butter yields (0.01 x 113 =) 1.13 Calories.

The fat in one ounce of butter yields (0.85 x 255 =) 216.75 Calories.

Number of total Calories furnished by one ounce of butter is (1.13+216.75=) 217.88.

_Sugar_.--The fuel content of sugar is (see _United States Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, p. 65) no per cent protein; no per cent fat; 100 per cent carbohydrates.

1 ounce of sugar contains no protein, no fat, and 1 ounce carbohydrates. 1 ounce sugar yields (113 x 1 =) 113 Calories.

HOW THE WEIGHT OF FOOD MATERIALS PRODUCING 100 CALORIES IS MEASURED.--For practical work in computing the fuel value of foods, it has been found more convenient to reduce all data to terms which express equal fuel value instead of equal weight as in the foregoing paragraph. One hundred Calories is the unit chosen. The weight of a food which, when "burned" in the body, will produce one hundred Calories is the desired data. This weight is termed a _standard portion_ or a _100-Calorie portion_ (see Figures 83 and 84).

From the previous work, it is a simple matter to compute in ounces the quantity of food materials which will yield 100 Calories.

If 1 ounce of flour yields 100.98 Calories and _x_ represents the number of ounces of flour which will yield 100 Calories, then _x_/1=100/100.98 or _x_=0.99, the number of ounces of flour which yield 100 Calories, _i.e._ a 100-Calorie portion of flour.

If 1 ounce of butter yields 217.88 Calories and _x_ represents the number of ounces of butter which will yield 100 Calories, then _x_/1=100/217.88 or _x_=0.45, the number of ounces of butter which yield 100 Calories, _i.e._ a 100-Calorie portion of butter.

If 1 ounce of sugar yields 113 Calories and x represents the number of ounces of sugar which will yield 100 Calories, then _x_/1=100/113 or _x_=0.88, the number of ounces of sugar which will yield 100 Calories, _i.e._ a 100-Calorie portion of sugar.

HOW THE FUEL VALUE OF A COMBINATION OF FOOD MATERIAL IS MEASURED.--It is possible to compute the fuel value of a food that is made up of several food materials. To do this one must know or find:

(_a_) Recipe for food. (_b_) Weight and measure of combustible food materials. (_c_) Number of Calories yielded by one ounce of each of the combustible foodstuffs.

The recipe for one loaf of bread is:

1 cupful water 1 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful sugar 3 1/2 cupfuls flour 1/2 tablespoonful butter 1/4 cake compressed yeast 1/4 cupful water

By weighing and measuring one finds:

1 pound sugar measures 2 cupfuls 1 pound butter measures 2 cupfuls 1 pound flour measures 4 cupfuls

Then,

1 teaspoonful sugar weighs 0.16 ounce 1/3 tablespoonful butter weighs 0.25 ounce 3 1/2 cupfuls flour weigh 14.0 ounces

(From data of _How the Fuel Value of a Food Material is Measured_.)

1 teaspoonful sugar yields (113 x 0.16 =) 18.08 Calories 1/2 tablespoonful butter yields (217.88 x 0.25 =) 54.47 Calories 3 1/2 cupfuls flour yield (100.98 x 14 =) 1413.72 Calories 1 loaf of bread yields (18.08 + 54.47 + 1413.72 =) 1486.27 Calories

For the practical method of calculating diet (which is more fully treated in Lesson CXXXI), it is convenient to have the 100-Calorie portion of a recipe, or a "made" food.

The 100-Calorie portion of bread is estimated from the result above in the following manner:

Since 1486.27 Calories are yielded by one loaf of homemade bread, then 100 Calories are yielded by (100/1486.27 =) .06 or 6 per cent of a loaf of homemade bread; hence, 1/16 (6 ) or 1 slice of homemade bread yields 100 Calories.

QUESTIONS

Find the number of Calories produced by one ounce of milk.

Find the number of Calories produced by one ounce of egg.

Weigh out 100-Calorie portions of flour, butter, and sugar.

Measure these quantities, using a cup for the flour, a tablespoon for the butter, and a teaspoon for the sugar.

Compute 100-Calorie portions of milk and the edible portion of eggs, then weigh these portions.

Measure this portion of milk in a cup. How many eggs make a standard portion?

Why are water, salt, and yeast not considered when the fuel value is computed?

Compute the fuel value of 1 pint of Soft Custard.

Find the 100-Calorie portion of Soft Custard.

NOTE.--Forms A and B given on the following pages will be found convenient in recording the results of these calculations.

LESSON CXVII

PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A DINNER

Plan a plain dinner. [Footnote 89: See footnote 72.] Use seasonable foods. Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV. Plan the menu so that the cost of the materials used does not exceed 25 cents per person. Analyze the menu and see that it meets the requirements stated in Lesson CV.

Cook and serve the dinner. Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the meal without a maid.

LESSON CXVIII

REVIEW: MEAL COOKING

MENU

Cereal Griddle Cakes Fruit Sirup Coffee

_or_

Butterscotch Apples Gingerbread Tea

See Lesson XIV regarding suggestions for the preparation of the lesson.

LESSON CXIX

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 90: See Lesson IX.]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Prepare a quick bread such as Popovers or Gingerbread in your home at least once a week.

If griddle cakes are served in your home, prepare cakes at least once a week.

Calculate the cost of these breads.

Suggested Aims:

(1) To use various leavens in quick breads. To compare results secured by using sweet milk or water with baking powder, and sour milk with baking soda, or sour milk with baking soda and baking powder.

(2) To use different liquids in Gingerbread, viz., sour milk, water, sweet milk. To compare results obtained by the use of each.

DIVISION ELEVEN

QUICK BREADS: DROP BATTERS

LESSON CXX

FINE AND COARSE FLOURS--MUFFINS

DIFFERENCES IN WHEAT FLOURS.--Examine white flour, whole wheat flour, and graham flour. Notice the difference in color, grittiness, and quantity of bran (cellulose).

As has been mentioned before, all cereals or grains have an outer hard covering of cellulose (see _Cellulose_). Cereals also contain a germ from which the young plant springs. In the preparation of fine flours, the germ and most of the cellulose covering are removed. Whole wheat (erroneously named) has part of the outer covering removed. Graham [Footnote 91: Graham flour is so called because Dr. Sylvester Graham advocated the use of the entire grain and devised a method of preparing it.] flour, properly made, contains all the materials of the wheat grain. The germ is rich in fat, protein, and ash. The outer part, called _bran_, contains more ash, fat, and protein than does the center of the grain. Hence with the removal of the germ and bran, much of the protein and ash is lost (see Figure 85). However, much graham flour is a mixture of inferior flour and bran.

THE MILLING OF FLOUR.--In the milling of fine flour, the wheat kernels are passed through a series of rollers and sifters that crush the wheat and separate the bran from the other materials. The greater the number of times the flour is subjected to the rolling and sifting process, the more thoroughly are the parts of the grain separated and the more finely are they crushed. When the separation is complete, the resulting fine flour consists almost entirely of the center of the crushed grains (called _middlings_). Flour made with fewer rollings and siftings contains more of the outer coats. In general, the term _patent_ is applied to flour made from the middlings. The flour containing more of the outer coats is called _baker's_ or family flour. Patent flour contains more starch than does baker's flour while baker's flour contains more protein than does patent flour. The terms _patent_ and _baker's_ vary in meaning, however, in different localities.

VALUE OF COARSE FLOUR.--Analyses show that graham and whole wheat flours contain more protein and ash than fine white flour. So it would seem that breads made from these coarser flours furnish more body-building material. But investigations have shown that the protein contained in the coarse flours is not entirely assimilated and that about the same quantity of protein is digested and absorbed from fine as from coarse flours.

The coarser grain products, however, have more available ash than the fine flours. Indeed, experiments show that the bran of coarse cereals is a valuable source of ash [Footnote 92: See "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition," Second Edition, H. C. Sherman, p. 306, "Grain Products," and p. 308.] and that whole wheat flour is a more complete food than fine or bolted wheat flour. [Footnote 93: See "The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition," E.V. McCollum, p.140.] Doubtless, for many persons, whole wheat foods are more beneficial than fine flour products.

PER CENT OF NUTRIENTS; NUTRITIVE VALUES.--The per cent of nutrients in a food does not always indicate the quantity of nourishment it will yield. The nutrient must be in a condition to be absorbed. Wheat grains contain as much protein when whole as when ground into meal, yet uncooked whole wheat grains yield little nourishment to the body. They pass through the system with much nutriment unextracted. Even if the unbroken grains are thoroughly cooked, they will not furnish as much nourishment to the body as they will when in the form of meal.

In the consideration of nutritive value, the personal factor enters, for some persons assimilate food much more easily or completely than others. In summing up what has been said, it will be seen that three factors determine the nutritive value of a food: (_a_) per cent of nutrients, (_b_) form of nutrients, and (_c_) personal digestive characteristics.

DROP BATTERS.--All batters can be stirred with a spoon. Drop batters are somewhat stiffer than pour batters. They contain, approximately, _two parts of flour to one part of moisture_. Compare the Plain Muffin recipe below with that for Popovers. Note how the recipes differ in the quantity of flour used. Why do muffins contain baking powder, while popovers do not? Muffin mixture is a typical drop batter.

PLAIN MUFFINS

2 cupfuls flour 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/2 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls fat 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 1 egg 1 cupful milk

Break the egg into a mixing bowl, beat it. Add the milk to it. Melt the fat, add it to the egg mixture.

Measure the dry ingredients thoroughly. Add them (through a sifter) to the other ingredients. Mix quickly and thoroughly, and drop into buttered muffin pans. Bake in a hot oven (400 degrees F.) from 25 to 30 minutes.

_Whole wheat_ flour may be substituted for fine white flour.

For _graham_ muffins, use 1 cupful of fine white flour and 1 cupful of graham flour.

1 1/8 cupfuls of _sour milk_ may be used instead of 1 cupful of sweet milk. If this substitution is made, use 1/2 teaspoonful baking soda and decrease the baking powder to 2 teaspoonfuls.

_Molasses_ may be substituted for sugar.

QUESTIONS

Account for the quantity of baking powder in the muffin recipes. What determines the quantity of baking powder?

Write a recipe for muffins, using sour cream instead of milk. What ingredients may be decreased in quantity if sour cream is used?

If all the cups in the muffin pan are not filled with batter, how should the empty cups be protected while in the oven?

How many muffins will the recipes above make?

From _U. S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of patent wheat flour, of graham flour, and of "entire" wheat flour. Which contains the most protein and ash? Which probably yields the most protein to the body? Account for the discrepancy (see _Value of Coarse Flour_).

Tabulate the percentage composition of baker's flour and of a high grade of wheat flour (patent roller process). Which contains the more protein? Which, the more carbohydrates?

What is the weight of a barrel of flour? Of an ordinary sack of flour?

What is the present price per sack of baker's and of high-grade patent flour?

How many cupfuls in a pound of flour?

In what quantity are whole wheat flour and graham flour usually purchased for home use? What is the price per pound of each?

LESSON CXXI

COMPARISON OF WHEAT AND OTHER GRAINS--MUFFINS

SUBSTITUTING OTHER CEREALS FOR WHEAT FLOUR.--A resourceful worker in foods is able to follow a standard recipe and make such substitutions as her available materials permit. Such ability is most desirable. It enables one to work more independently, to produce more varied foods, and to utilize all materials, allowing none to waste.

During the wheat shortage of the World War, many valuable investigations were made regarding the substitution of other grains for wheat flour. It was found that _the substitution should be based upon the relative weights of wheat flour and other flours or meals_ rather than upon their relative measures.

By comparing the weight of 1 cupful of wheat pastry flour with the same quantity of its substitutes, the following data have been obtained.

For 1 cupful of wheat flour substitute:

l 1/8 cupfuls barley flour 5/6 cupful buckwheat flour 1 1/6 cupfuls fine corn-meal 1 scant cupful peanut flour 7/8 cupful rice flour 1 1/2 cupfuls rolled oats 1 1/8 cupfuls rolled oats, ground in food chopper 1/3 cupful tapioca flour 7/8 cupful soy-bean flour 3/4 cupful potato flour 1 cupful rye flour

Although _yeast breads_ are not so satisfactory if made _entirely_ of a grain other than wheat, _quick breads of desirable grain and texture may be made without wheat_. It has been found, however, that a combination of two or more wheat substitutes gives more satisfactory results than a single substitute.

When no wheat is used in quick breads, the following combinations of substitutes are suggested by the _United States Department of Agriculture, States Relation Service_.

Rolled oats (ground) _or_ Barley flour _or_ Buckwheat flour _or_ Peanut flour _or_ Soy-bean flour

and

Corn flour _or_ Corn-meal _or_ Rice flour _or_ Potato flour _or_ Sweet potato flour

Since the wheat substitutes contain little or none of the kind of protein which when moistened forms a sticky and elastic substance, an increase in the number of eggs in quick breads containing no wheat produces a satisfactory texture. The albumin of eggs aids in holding the materials together.

By scalding certain of the wheat substitutes before adding them to other ingredients, a sticky starch paste is formed. This also aids in binding materials together.

When using a wheat substitute instead of wheat (as suggested in _Quantity of Baking Powder in Quick Breads_) it is advisable to increase the quantity of _baking powder_,--1/2 _teaspoonful for each cupful of the substitute_ used. Thus, if a muffin recipe calls for 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder and 2 cupfuls of corn flour are substituted for wheat, the quantity of baking powder should be increased to 4 1/2 teaspoonfuls.

WHY WHEAT IS POPULAR.--In this country, wheat is doubtless the most used of all grains. Its white or creamy color and mild flavor which blends well with that of many foods account in part for its popularity. From a culinary standpoint, wheat flour is more satisfactory to use than any other kind. It produces breads of pleasing texture,--tender but firm enough to hold their shape. Yeast breads made of wheat flour are larger than those made with other cereals.

Although wheat is generally used, its food value is not superior to that of other grains. It is doubtless because we are "used to" wheat that we have favored it more than other cereals.

COMPARING WHEAT WITH OTHER GRAINS.--Make a comparative study of the composition of the following:

_Wheat Flour and Corn-meal_.--From _U.S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour and of corn-meal. Which contains the more fat? Which contains the more ash?

Corn-meal does not contain as much protein as does wheat. The protein in corn-meal differs from that in wheat; it does not have the elastic property of the protein of wheat. It is this property which makes the latter so satisfactory in bread making. For this reason, it is always best to combine corn-meal with wheat flour or some other cereal in preparing corn breads.

It should be noted that corn-meal contains more fat than wheat flour, and it compares favorably in digestibility with wheat flour. There is a difference in flavor, but no difference in the nutritive value of yellow and of white corn-meal.

_Wheat Flour and Oatmeal_.--From _U.S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour and of oatmeal. Which contains the more protein, fat, and ash? Which contains the more carbohydrates?

Oatmeal contains more protein, fat, and ash than any of the cereals commonly used. It is a very tough cereal and requires long cooking in order to make it palatable.

_Wheat Flour and Rice_.--From _U.S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour (all analyses, average). Now tabulate the percentage composition of rice (average). Which contains the more carbohydrates? Which, the more protein and ash?

Polished rice contains the least ash and protein of all the common cereals. It is also deficient in fat in comparison with the other cereals.

Unpolished rice, however, contains more than twice as much ash as the polished cereal. It also contains more fat and protein. [Footnote 94: Composition of unpolished rice: protein, 8.02; fat, 1.96; carbohydrates, 76.98; ash, 1.15.] Hence it compares favorably with the composition of other

grains.

_Wheat Flour, Barley, Buckwheat, and Rye._--From _U. S. Department of Agriculture,_ Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour, of barley, of buckwheat, and of rye. Note the quantity of fat in barley and in buckwheat, and the small amount of protein in buckwheat and in rye.

CORN MUFFINS

1 1/3 cupfuls flour 2/3 cupful corn-meal 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 1/3 teaspoonful salt 1 egg 1 1/4 cupfuls milk 2 tablespoonfuls fat

Mix as plain muffins, and bake in oiled muffin tins 25 to 30 minutes at 400 F.

_Rye meal_ may be substituted for corn-meal in this recipe.

RICE MUFFINS

1 1/3 cupfuls flour 3 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 egg 2/3 cupful milk 1/2 cupful cooked rice 2 tablespoonfuls fat

Beat the egg; add the milk and the cooked rice. Add the dry ingredients (through a sifter) to the egg mixture; melt the fat; add it to the flour mixture. Mix quickly and thoroughly, and bake in buttered muffin tins in a hot oven (400 F.) for 25 to 30 minutes.

OATMEAL MUFFINS

Use the recipe for Plain Muffins as a basic rule. Substitute 1 cupful rolled oats for 1 cupful of wheat flour. Scald the milk, pour it over the rolled oats. Let the mixture stand for about 1/2 hour or until it is cool. Then add the other ingredients and mix as plain muffins. Use 4 teaspoonfuls of baking powder instead of 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls.

QUESTIONS

Explain why corn-meal is not used alone for corn-meal muffins (see _Wheat Flour and Corn-meal_).

Compare the quantity of milk used in Rice Muffins with that used in Plain Muffins. Account for the difference.

From _U. S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of boiled rice. Compare with the composition of the uncooked food. How much nourishment is lost by boiling?

By what method can rice be cooked to retain the most nourishment?

Explain why the per cent of nutrients in a food does not always indicate the quantity of nourishment that the nutrients yield to the body (see _Per Cent of Nutrients; Nutritive Values_).

LESSON CXXII

BAKING POWDER LOAF BREADS

QUICK LOAF BREADS.--The making of yeast bread requires kneading and covers a considerable period of time. A loaf of bread leavened with baking powder or other leavens suitable for quick breads may be made in a short time. The ingredients used for such a loaf, and the method of mixing it are about the same as for muffins. Baking the mixture in a bread pan rather than in muffin pans saves some effort in pouring the batter in the pan and in washing them. For those whose time is limited for food preparation, the making of baking powder loaf breads is recommended.

If it is necessary or desirable to use meals or flours other than wheat, baking powder loaf breads are advisable. Such

grains can be used successfully in greater quantity (i.e. with the addition of little or no wheat flour) in quick breads than in yeast breads.

A quick bread baked in a loaf should be placed in a moderate oven,--about 300 degrees F. Moderate heat is applied so that the loaf will rise sufficiently before a crust is formed. After 10 or 15 minutes, the temperature of the oven should be increased. Some secure desirable results by allowing a loaf of quick bread to stand 20 minutes before placing it in the oven. Such a procedure is unnecessary if the loaf is placed in an oven of proper temperature.

WHOLE WHEAT BAKING POWDER BREAD

3 cupfuls whole wheat flour 3 tablespoonfuls sugar 2 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 7/8 teaspoonful baking soda 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 1 egg 1 3/4 cupfuls sour milk 3 tablespoonfuls fat

Mix these ingredients in the same way as Plain Muffins. Pour into an oiled bread pan. Bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) 45 to 60 minutes.

The egg may be omitted. If this is done, increase the baking powder to 3 1/4 teaspoonfuls.

_Peanut Bread_ may be made by adding 1 cupful chopped peanuts. If commercial salted peanuts are used, decrease the salt to 1/2 teaspoonful.

PRUNE BAKING POWDER BREAD

1 1/2 cupfuls whole wheat flour 1 cupful pastry flour 3/8 cupful sugar 5 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1 teaspoonful salt 1 egg 1 cupful prunes (measured before soaking and cooking) 1 cupful liquid (prune water and milk) 2 tablespoonfuls fat

Wash the prunes, soak, and cook them as directed previously. Drain, stone, and cut in pieces or chop them.

Break an egg in the mixing bowl. Beat it and add the chopped prunes. Put the water drained from the prunes in a measuring cup and fill up the latter with milk. Add this liquid to the egg and prune mixture. Then proceed as in making Plain Muffins. Turn into an oiled bread pan. Bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) 45 to 60 minutes.

_Raisins_ or _dates_ may be used instead of prunes. These fruits may be cooked before adding to the other ingredients or they may be used uncooked. If the latter plan is followed, use 1 1/4 cupfuls milk instead of 1 cupful liquid.

QUESTIONS

Write a recipe for Prune Baking Powder Bread in which no eggs are used.

Write a recipe for Raisin Baking Powder Bread in which uncooked raisins are used, and sour milk is substituted for sweet milk.

Use the recipe for Whole Wheat Baking Powder Bread as a basis, and write a recipe for a loaf of quick bread in which fine white flour is used. Decrease the sour milk to 1 1/2 cupfuls. If the latter change is made, what ingredients will also require changing in quantity?

LESSON CXXIII

EGGS FOR QUICK BREADS--CREAM PUFFS

DRIED EGGS.--Eggs are a most valuable food, but they are extremely high in price. In the packing and transportation of eggs, many are broken. To save these cracked eggs, methods of drying them have been devised. If dried or desiccated eggs are cooked or used in cooked foods, they are not injurious. Their food value is high.

It has been found [Footnote 95: See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. XI, p. 108 (March, 1919), "The Use of Desiccated Eggs," by Lois Lhamon] that desiccated eggs can be used successfully in custards, quick breads, cakes, and salad dressings. _Use 1 slightly rounded tablespoonful of dried egg for each egg desired_. To this amount of powder, _add 3 tablespoonfuls of water_. Cover the mixture and allow to stand from 30 to 45 minutes, stirring occasionally. A solution is thus obtained, which resembles eggs in which the whites and yolks have been beaten together.

Desiccated eggs should not be confused with the so-called egg-substitute powders. The latter contain little and sometimes no dried egg. These usually are composed of starch, coloring material, with a little nitrogenous material in the form of gelatine, casein, or albumin. Their food value cannot be compared with that of eggs. For the amount of nutriment contained in egg-substitute powders, their price is high.

THE PREPARATION OF EGGS FOR DELICATE QUICK BREADS.--In all the quick bread mixtures given thus far, the whites and yolks of eggs were beaten together. It was shown in Experiments 41 and 43 that more air could be inclosed in an egg mixture when the white and yolk were beaten separately. It is well, therefore, to beat each part of an egg separately when a delicate bread is desired.

The reason that meringues, unless cooked, fall after a time, is because some of the inclosed air has escaped. From this it is apparent why eggs used in quick breads should not be beaten until ready for use.

It is possible, also, by much stirring and careless mixing, to lose some of the air inclosed in a beaten egg white. When the egg is to be separated, the method of cutting and folding, as used in Foamy Omelet, should be used for mixing the egg whites with the other ingredients of a quick bread.

CREAM PUFF BATTER.--The flour of cream puff mixture is usually cooked before baking so that a paste is formed. When the mixture containing the flour paste is dropped on a flat surface, it does not spread to a great extent and holds its shape. It is possible to mix Cream Puffs in the same manner as Popovers. If this method is followed and uncooked flour is added to the batter, it is necessary to bake the cream puff mixture in muffin tins or gem pans.

The method of leavening Cream Puffs is similar to that used in leavening Popovers, _i.e._ by means of steam and air inclosed in beaten eggs.

CREAM PUFFS

1/2 cupful water 3 tablespoonfuls vegetable oil 1 tablespoonful butter 5/8 cupful flour 1/4 teaspoonful salt 2 eggs

Mix the water and fat and heat the mixture until the water boils. Add all of the flour and salt and mix thoroughly. Stir and cook until the ingredients are well blended and the paste does not stick to the sides of the pan. (Care should be taken not to cook the mixture too long. If the fat separates from the other ingredients, the puffs will not be successful.) While the mixture is hot, add the eggs, unbeaten, one at a time. Beat until thoroughly mixed. Drop by tablespoonfuls on an oiled baking-sheet, and bake at 450 degrees F., for 20 minutes, then at 325 degrees F., for 25 minutes. When cool slit one side open and fill with Cream or Chocolate Filling or Whipped Cream.

Cream Puffs may also be filled with creamed chicken or veal, or a salad mixture.

CREAM FILLING

1 cupful flour 3/4 cupful sugar 2 cupfuls scalded milk 1/2 tablespoonful butter 1 egg 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful vanilla

Mix the flour and sugar together. Slowly add the hot milk. Pour the mixture into a double boiler and cook for 20 minutes. Remove from heat. Beat the egg, add the egg and butter to the flour and milk mixture. Return to the fire and cook over water until the egg is coagulated; then add the salt. Cool, and add flavoring.

For economy the butter may be omitted.

_Chocolate Filling_ may be made by following the recipe for Cream Filling, increasing the sugar to 1 cupful and adding a paste made by cooking 1 square (or ounce) of chocolate with 1/4 cupful of water as directed in Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding.

QUESTIONS

Note the quantity of flour and water used in cream puff mixture. What kind of batter do these quantities of flour and moisture usually make? How do you account for the consistency of the cream puff batter when it is ready to bake?

From the difference in the methods of preparing Cream Puffs and Popovers before baking, explain the difference in the stiffness of the mixtures.

By what gas is the mixture lightened? By what means is this gas introduced into the mixture?

Why is it necessary to bake the mixture for so long a time?

What is the result of baking this mixture for too short a time?

In Cream Filling, what is the purpose of mixing the flour and sugar before cooking (see Experiment 24)?

Give two reasons for cooking this mixture in the double boiler, rather than directly over the flame.

How long a time does it take to thicken the flour mixture? Why is it necessary to cook it for 20 minutes?

What is the use of eggs in the filling? Why are they not cooked as long as the flour mixture?

Determine the number of Cream Puffs this recipe will make.

From _U.S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of the edible portions of whole eggs (see Figure 75), of egg yolk, and of egg white. Compare the last two. Which contains the more fat? Which contains the more protein? Which contains the more water? Which contains the more nutriment?

Tabulate the percentage composition of milk (see Figure 64).

RELATED WORK

LESSON CXXIV

FOOD REQUIREMENT

DAILY ENERGY REQUIREMENT.--One hears much concerning working efficiency, _i.e._ the ability to do the maximum amount of work of the highest type with a minimum waste of effort. There is no doubt that the kind and quantity of food that an individual consumes has much to do with his working efficiency, and that it is consequently a matter worthy of serious consideration. Enough gasoline is used in an automobile so that there is produced sufficient power to move the car at the desired speed. So sufficient food should be used by the individual that enough energy be supplied to his body for its greatest usefulness.

Since foods furnish the body with energy, _the energy which the body spends in doing its work is a measure of the fuel food needed_. If the body requires a certain amount of energy for its needs, this energy, measured in Calories, can be supplied by a definite quantity of combustible food. Hence, daily energy requirements can be measured in Calories.

Scientists have done much experimenting and investigating concerning the quantity of food that individuals require. They have concluded that many factors may be taken into consideration in determining daily food requirements or _dietary standards_. Some of these factors are: (1) weight; (2) occupation; (3) age.

(1) _Relation of Weight, Size, and Shape to Daily Energy Requirement_.--In general the quantity of food required increases with the size of an individual but not at the same rate as the body weight increases. Two persons may be equal in weight, yet very different in height and shape. A tall, slender person requires more food than a short, fleshy person of the same weight. For this reason, size and shape rather than weight are found more accurate in computing the daily food requirement. However, for practical purposes, energy requirement is generally based upon body weight.

(2) _Relation of Occupation to Daily Energy Requirement_.--From the previous consideration of energy, it is obvious that muscular exercise, even though very slight, requires some expenditure of energy. It has been found that, even during sleep and rest, energy is required to carry on the functions of the body (such as the beating of the heart, etc.). Since the energy for both the voluntary and involuntary activities of the body is furnished by the fuel foods, it is clear that one's occupation is an important factor in determining the kind and quantity of food an individual should use.

The man who is doing hard physical work needs more food than the man who sits quietly at his employment.

The following table, showing the energy required for different conditions of activity, has been formulated by scientists: [Footnote 96: Atwater and Benedict, United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook 1904, p. 215.]

Man sleeping requires 65 Calories per hour
Man sitting at rest requires 100 Calories per hour
Man at light muscular exercise requires 170 Calories per hour
Man at active muscular exercise requires 290 Calories per hour
Man at severe muscular exercise requires 450 Calories per hour
Man at very severe muscular exercise requires 600 Calories per hour

From these data, it is possible to compute the dietaries of people of different occupations. For example, the energy requirement for a bookkeeper (male) leading an inactive muscular life is:

8 hours sleep (65 Calories per hour) 520 Calories 9 hours work at desk (100 Calories per hour) 900 Calories 4 hours sitting at rest and reading (100 Calories per hour) 400 Calories 3 hours walking (170 Calories per hour) 510 Calories ------------- 2330 Calories

The energy requirement for a man of severe muscular activity, such as excavating, is:

8 hours sleep (65 Calories per hour) 520 Calories 8 hours excavating (450 Calories per hour) 3600 Calories 1 hour walking (170 Calories per hour) 170 Calories 7 hours sitting at rest (100 Calories per hour) 700 Calories ------------- 4990 Calories

Another authority [Footnote 97: "Textbook of Physiology," p. 141, Tigerstedt.] gives these data pertaining to men engaged in muscular work:

Shoemaker requires 2001-2400 Calories per day Weaver requires 2401-2700 Calories per day Carpenter or mason requires 2701-3200 Calories per day Farm laborer requires 3201-4100 Calories per day Excavator requires 4101-5000 Calories per day Lumberman requires 5000 or more Calories per day

The following data regarding the energy requirements of the average woman in some of her common occupations have been formulated [Footnote 98: See "Feeding the Family," p. 76, by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D.]:

At rest 1600-1800 Calories per day
Sedentary occupations 2000-2200 Calories per day
Milliners Teachers
Bookkeepers Seamstresses
Stenographers Machine operatives
Occupations involving standing, walking,
or manual labor 2200-2500 Calories per day
Cooks in family groups Chamber maids
General housekeepers Waitresses
Occupations developing muscular
strength 2500-3000 Calories per day
Laundresses Cooks for large groups

(3) _Relation of Age to Daily Energy Requirement._--Young children, _i.e._ those under eight or nine years of age, do not require as much food as adults. The food requirement of a child and of an adult is not proportional to weight, however. In proportion to his weight a child requires more food than an adult. The growing child needs food, not only to give energy to the body and rebuild tissue, but to build new tissue. An aged person needs less food to build new tissue. Furthermore, since an old person's strength is somewhat lessened, he needs less food to carry on the activities of the body. Hence, the aged person requires less food than the adult of middle life. The following table [Footnote 99: From "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., p. 197.] gives the differences in energy requirement of children from one to seventeen years inclusive. It is thought that after the age of seventeen, food requirement will depend quite as much upon occupation as upon age. Hence, the foregoing tables can be used to estimate energy requirement for all ages above seventeen:

Children of 1-2 years inclusive 1000-1200 Calories per day Children of 2-5 years inclusive 1200-1500 Calories per day Children of 6-9 years inclusive 1400-2000 Calories per day Girls of 10-13 years inclusive 1800-2400 Calories per day Boys of 10-13 years inclusive 2300-3000 Calories per day Girls of 14-17 years inclusive 2200-2600 Calories per day Boys of 14-17 years inclusive 2800-4000 Calories per day

The fact that the energy requirement of the boy from 10 to 17 years is greater than that of the girl of equal age is due probably to the greater restlessness or muscular activity of the boy.

DAILY PROTEIN REQUIREMENT.--If a person's energy requirement were 2500 Calories, sufficient energy might be supplied by using butter or beef steak for a day's ration. Yet this would be extremely unpalatable and would not meet the needs of the body. The body should be nourished by all the combustible foodstuffs,--carbohydrates, fat, and protein. Now the question arises: How many of the required Calories shall be supplied by each of these foodstuffs?

Too much or too little protein is often harmful and produces serious results. As mentioned previously, too much protein may cause intestinal disturbances, and an overtaxing of the excretory organs. On the other hand, the use of too little protein may produce imperfect nourishment. Concerning the quantity of protein used in diet, there has been much difference of opinion. Atwater, an American authority, thought that there should be a generous supply, i.e. a surplus of protein, to supply the demands of body-building. Chittenden, another American authority, believes in just enough protein to meet the demands of the body. However, the use of sufficient protein food to produce from ten to fifteen per cent of the total Calories has been found both practical and satisfactory.

Daily Carbohydrate and Fat Requirement.--Although protein may furnish the body with energy, it should not serve as the principal source of fuel. Its more essential function is to help build the body. If carbohydrates and fat are present with protein, the former supply energy and allow the protein to perform its more important function of body-building. There should always be enough carbohydrates and fat to furnish energy to the body, so that the protein can be used chiefly for body-building. In the growing period of youth or after a wasting disease, it might seem that "flesh" could be "put on" by increasing the quantity of bodybuilding food. But such is not the case. The most effective work in building the body can be accomplished by using a normal amount of food rich in protein and a generous supply of foods rich in ash, carbohydrates, fat, and vitamines. With such a combination, the protein can be used to best advantage for body-building.

For practical purposes, the following general statement concerning the carbohydrates and fat requirement is believed to be adequate: If the total Calories and the number of Calories yielded by protein meet the requirement of a dietary standard and the food composing the diet is varied in composition, the carbohydrates and fat will exist in satisfactory proportion.

DAILY ASH REQUIREMENT.--Since ash is not a combustible foodstuff, it cannot be included in the foodstuffs whose energy requirement can be measured. Although ash exists in small quantity in food, the use of certain ash constituents is considered as necessary as the use of protein. A diet may meet the total energy, the protein, the carbohydrate, and the fat requirements, yet may be lacking in certain essential mineral materials. It is especially necessary to include food containing phosphorus, iron, and calcium in one's diet.

THE APPETITE AND FOOD REQUIREMENT.--The appetite is the most common measure of daily food requirement. If one relies upon his appetite as an index of the quantity of food he should consume, and if his health and weight remain normal, the appetite may serve as a guide for daily food requirement. But one may be a little over weight or under weight, and yet have normal body functions.

There can be no doubt, however, that the whims of the appetite often lead to unwise selection of food. A study of food composition is absolutely essential in overcoming this fault. Lack of energy or loss of flesh may be due to improper feeding. If the needs of the body and the kind and quantity of food that will supply these needs are understood by the home- keeper, she may do much in maintaining the health, happiness, and usefulness of the members of the family.

WEIGHT AS AN INDEX TO PROPER NOURISHMENT.--It has been found that the diet of an individual has a most decided effect upon his weight. Dr. Thomas D. Wood has prepared tables showing the normal height and weight of girls and boys of various ages. These tables are most valuable in determining whether or not a girl or boy is of the proper weight for his height. If the weight of a girl or boy is less than it should be, he is likely to be malnourished.

HEIGHT AND WEIGHT TABLE FOR GIRLS

HEIGHT 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 INCHES YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS

39 34 35 36
40 36 37 38
41 38 39 40
42 40 41 42 43
43 42 42 43 44
44 44 45 45 46
45 46 47 47 48 49
46 48 48 49 50 51
47 49 50 51 52 53
48 51 52 53 54 55 56
49 53 54 55 56 57 58
50 56 57 58 59 60 61
51 59 60 61 62 63 64
52 62 63 64 65 66 67
53 66 67 68 68 69 70
54 68 69 70 71 72 73
55 72 73 74 75 76 77
56 76 77 78 79 80 81
57 81 82 83 84 85 86
58 85 86 87 88 89 90 91
59 89 90 91 93 94 95 96 98
60 94 95 97 99 100 102 104 106
61 99 101 102 104 106 108 109 111
62 104 106 107 109 111 113 114 115
63 109 111 112 113 115 117 118 119
64 115 117 118 119 120 121 122
65 117 119 120 122 123 124 125
66 119 121 122 124 126 127 128
67 124 126 127 128 129 130
68 126 128 130 132 133 134
69 129 131 133 135 136 137
70 134 136 138 139 140
71 138 140 142 143 144
72 145 147 148 149

ABOUT WHAT A GIRL SHOULD GAIN EACH MONTH

Age Age 5 to 8 6 oz. 14 to 16 8 oz 8 to 11 8 oz. 16 to 18 4 oz 11 to 14 12 oz.

Weights and measures should be taken without shoes and in only the usual indoor clothes

CHILD HEALTH ORGANIZATION 156 Fifth Avenue, New York

Courtesy of _Child Health Organization_. Prepared by _Dr. Thomas D. Wood_.

HEIGHT AND WEIGHT TABLE FOR BOYS

HEIGHT 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 INCHES Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs

39 35 36 37 40 37 38 39 41 39 40 41 42 41 42 43 44 43 43 44 45 46 44 45 46 46 47 45 47 47 48 48 49 46 48 49 50 50 51 47 51 52 52 53 54 48 53 54 55 55 56 57 49 55 56 57 58 58 59 50 58 59 60 60 61 62 51 60 61 62 63 64 65 52 62 63 64 65 67 68 53 66 67 68 69 70 71 54 69 70 71 72 73 74 55 73 74 75 76 77 78 56 77 78 79 80 81 82 57 81 82 83 84 85 86 58 84 85 86 87 88 90 91 59 87 88 89 90 92 94 96 97 60 91 92 93 94 97 99 101 102 61 95 97 99 102 104 106 108 110 62 100 102 104 106 109 111 113 116 63 103 107 109 111 114 115 117 119 64 113 115 117 118 119 120 122 65 120 122 123 124 125 126 66 125 126 127 128 129 130 67 130 131 132 133 134 135 68 134 135 136 137 138 139 69 138 139 140 141 142 143 70 142 144 145 146 147 71 147 149 150 151 153 72 152 154 155 156 157 73 157 159 160 161 162 74 162 164 165 166 167 75 169 170 171 172 76 174 175 176 177

ABOUT WHAT A BOY SHOULD GAIN EACH MONTH

AGE AGE 5 to 8 6 oz 12 to 16 16 oz 8 to 12 8 oz 16 to 18 8 oz

Courtesy of _Child Health Organization_ Prepared by _Dr Thomas D Wood_

Dr. Wood's tables also indicate the proper rate of increase in weight. The rate of increase in weight is thought to be quite as important as is the correct proportion between weight and height. The use of scales in the home and school is to be recommended. They furnish a means of determining whether the proper amount is being eaten.

QUESTIONS

Compute the energy requirement of at least two members of your family. Compute your own energy requirement from this table.

Determine your height and weight. How does your weight compare with the normal weight given in the table for one of your height? If you are under weight, discuss with your teacher the kind and quantity of food needed to increase your weight. At the end of a month, again determine your weight. How does the gain compare with that given in the table for one of your age?

LESSON CXXV

PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A DINNER

Plan a dinner. [Footnote 100: See footnote 72.] Use seasonable foods and a meat-substitute. Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV.

Plan the menu so that the cost of the materials used does not exceed 25 cents per person. Analyze the menu and see that it meets the requirements stated in Lesson CV.

Cook and serve the dinner. Follow the Russian or Compromise style of serving. Serve the dinner with a maid, provided the pupils find it useful to know how to serve with a maid either in their own homes or in the homes of others. [Footnote 101: See Suggestions for Teaching, Appendix), regarding service with and without a maid.]

LESSON CXXVI

REVIEW--MEAL COOKING

MENU

Potato Soup Lettuce Salad with French Dressing Muffins

See Lesson XIV regarding suggestions for the preparation of the lesson.

LESSON CXXVII

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 102: See Lesson IX.]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Prepare muffins, baking powder biscuits, or baking powder loaf breads at least twice a week.

SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To learn to work quickly. Note the time required to mix these quick breads. Strive to lessen the number of minutes each time you prepare them.

(2) To use available materials. Use the food-materials you have on hand,-- such as sour or sweet milk, left-over cooked cereals, and different kinds of flours or meals.

DIVISION TWELVE

QUICK BREADS: SOFT DOUGHS

LESSON CXXVIII

METHOD OF MIXING FAT IN QUICK BREADS--DROP BISCUIT

MIXING FAT.--What method is used in mixing the fat in all batter quick breads (see previous lessons on _Batters_)?

In making quick breads, it is desirable to mix all ingredients thoroughly. Fat is mixed in a quick bread most easily and thoroughly by melting it and stirring it into the other ingredients, provided only that the quick bread mixture is thin, _i.e._ a batter.

When the quick bread is a stiff mixture, _i.e._ a dough, this method of mixing the fat is not considered satisfactory, although it has been found that biscuits of good quality can be made by adding melted fat, provided the dough is beaten thoroughly. Fat is usually added to doughs by working it, in solid form, into the dry ingredients, either with a knife or with the fingers. (In which method of mixing--with the knife or with the fingers--can the mixture be kept cooler? Which is the cleaner method?) If the fingers are used for mixing the fat, it is well to work it into the flour with the tips of the fingers rather than to rub the ingredients between the palms of the hands.

SOFT DOUGHS.--Doughs are most easily mixed by using a knife instead of a spoon. A soft dough contains approximately _three parts of flour to one part of moisture_. Baking Powder Biscuit is a typical soft dough mixture.

DROP BISCUITS

2 cupfuls flour 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/2 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls fat Milk or water, about 3/4 cupful