Chapter VII: Part 7

The time for roasting varies with the weight of the meat. Usually, for beef roasts, _15 minutes to each pound_ is allowed.

QUESTIONS

Explain the purpose of searing meat.

If meat is to be roasted, pan-broiled, or broiled, how is it seared?

Why is it necessary to remove the fat from meat that is to be broiled or pan-broiled?

Why cannot meat be broiled over _blazing_ coals?

What is the price per pound of porterhouse and of sirloin steak?

What is the average weight of sirloin steak? Of porterhouse steak?

How many persons will each serve?

LESSON LX

BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS (APPLIED TO CHOPPED BEEF) (A)

PROTEIN IN MEAT.--It was mentioned previously that there are several different kinds of protein in lean meat. It was also stated that proteins exist in:

(_a_) Connective tissue.

(_b_) Walls of muscle fibers.

(_c_) Muscle juice.

Two proteins exist in connective tissue, viz., _collagen_ and _elastin._ Collagen is changed into gelatine by cooking in water. Elastin is found not only in connective tissue, but in the walls of muscle fibers. In muscle juice, there are two proteins,--_myosin or muscle globulin_ and _albumin_.

Both myosin and albumin coagulate by heating. It is possible to sear meat because it contains proteins. The scum which invariably forms when meat broth is heated consists largely of protein, probably in the form of albumin. This protein as shown in experiments on eggs is soluble in cold water, but is coagulated by heating. If meat broth is skimmed, much of its nutriment is lost.

Of all proteins in meat, myosin is the most important; it exists in greater quantity than the other proteins. Myosin, is practically insoluble in both hot and cold water, though somewhat soluble in a salt solution. As not much myosin is extracted from meat in soup making, _the solid part of meat must be eaten in order to obtain the greatest nourishment_. Meat broth does not contain as much food value as meat.

CHOPPED BEEF.--If meat is chopped, what is the effect of the cutting on its structure? How would this affect its toughness?

It is possible to pan-broil or roast some of the tough cuts of meat, if the meat is chopped fine. Round (see Figure 54, p. 203) and shoulder or chuck (see Figure 55) are especially desirable cuts for this purpose.

CHOPPED STEAK

1 pound beef steak, chopped 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls chopped parsley 1 onion, grated 1 teaspoonful salt 1/2 cupful water or 3/4 cupful tomatoes 1/8 teaspoonful pepper

Mix all the ingredients and shape into firm cakes. Heat an iron frying pan until hot; oil it with a bit of fat from the meat; _then remove the fat_. Sear the cakes; then reduce the temperature to finish cooking. Turn the cakes often. Season with salt and pepper. Serve at once.

Half a cupful of soft bread crumbs and 1 egg may be added to this meat mixture.

The addition of 1 tablespoonful of lemon juice, or a dash of nutmeg is thought by some to improve the flavor of chopped beef.

Instead of shaping chopped beef into small cakes, it may be formed into one large cake or steak. The chopped steak may be either broiled or pan- broiled. If the latter method is followed, a pan-cake turner is useful in turning over the steak.

BEEF LOAF

Use the ingredients for Chopped Steak, adding the bread crumbs and egg. Shape into a loaf, and place in a greased baking-pan. Bake in a hot oven (450 degrees F.) for about 30 minutes. Serve hot, plain, or with Tomato or Brown Sauce.

The use of tomatoes instead of water in _Beef Loaf_ makes the meat especially tasty.

QUESTIONS

Why is it necessary to reduce the temperature to finish cooking meat after searing it?

What are the prices per pound of round and long shoulder?

How many cupfuls are there in one pound of chopped meat?

How many servings of Chopped Steak can be obtained from one pound of meat?

LESSON LXI

BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS (APPLIED TO CHOPPED BEEF) (B)

STUFFED MEAT ROAST

2 pounds chopped meat 2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper

Mix these ingredients. Take about three fourths of the mixture, put it into a greased baking-dish or pan, shape it into a loaf, and make a large cavity in the center. Into the cavity, put a stuffing prepared as follows:

2 cupfuls bread crumbs 1 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful marjoram 1/4 teaspoonful thyme 1/4 teaspoonful savory 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 tablespoonfuls fat

Mix the crumbs and seasoning. Melt the fat, add the seasoned crumbs. Stir and heat until the crumbs are slightly browned.

Put the remainder of the meat mixture on top of the crumbs, so that the latter are entirely surrounded by the meat mixture. Place in a hot oven and bake from 1/2 to 3/4 hour. Serve hot,--plain or with Brown Sauce (see below).

Instead of bread stuffing, potato stuffing prepared as follows may be used in _Stuffed Meat Roast_.

Tomatoes may be added to the meat mixture (see _Beef Loaf_).

POTATO STUFFING [Footnote 55: From United States Food Administration Bulletin.]

2 cupfuls dry mashed potatoes 1 egg (beaten) 1 small onion, grated 1 tablespoonful fat 1 stalk celery finely minced _or_ 1/2 teaspoonful celery salt 1 teaspoonful salt Pepper

Mix the ingredients and use in place of ordinary bread stuffing.

EXPERIMENT 53: COMPARISON OF STARCH AND DEXTRIN FOR THICKENING.--When flour is browned what substance is formed from some of the starch (see Experiment 26, above)?

Make a White Sauce, using 1 teaspoonful of fat, 1/2 tablespoonful of flour, and 1/4 cupful of water. Make a Brown Sauce with the same ingredients, browning the fat and flour. Compare the Brown and White Sauce as to thickness. Which has the greater thickening property,--starch or dextrin? Estimate the quantity of flour to use for Brown Sauce in order to make it equal in thickness to a White Sauce made by using 1, 2, and 3 tablespoonfuls of flour to 1 cupful of liquid.

NOTE.--If a suitable fat has been used, the Brown Sauce may be seasoned and used with the Stuffed Meat Roast.

BROWN SAUCE

1 1/2 tablespoonfuls fat 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt Pepper 1 cupful meat stock or hot water 1 teaspoonful scraped onion

If there is any meat stock in the roasting pan, remove it and make the "Brown Sauce" in the pan. Put fat and onion in the pan, and brown them. Add the flour and brown it, then add the other ingredients and cook as _White Sauce_.

QUESTIONS

What cuts of meat are suitable for roasting? Why?

Explain how it is possible to use tough cuts of meat and roast them successfully.

LESSON LXII

BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (A)

EXPERIMENT 54: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON MEAT.--Place a bit of meat in a test tube or glass measuring cup and add cold water. Allow it to stand for a few minutes and note the appearance. What has been drawn out into the water? What practical application as to washing meat can be made from this?

Heat the water in which the meat has been soaked. What does the water contain? In soup making, should this material be strained out of broth? Explain. If broth must be strained, should a coarse or a fine strainer be used? Why?

EXPERIMENT 55: EFFECT OF BOILING WATER ON MEAT.--Pour boiling water over a bit of meat, then heat it. Has the juice been drawn out into the water? Explain how hot water prevents the juices from being drawn out.

EXPERIMENT 56: EFFECT OF SALT ON MEAT.--Sprinkle some salt on a piece of meat. Let stand for 10 minutes or longer and note results. What practical application as to seasoning meats can be drawn from this?

NOTE.--The bits of meat used in these three experiments should be saved and used for soup-making.

TOUGH CUTS OF BEEF.--From the Experiments of Lesson LIX, what was found to be the toughest portion of the muscle of meat? What method of cooking was used to make this tough part tender (see Experiments 51 and 52)? Toughness of meat depends upon (_a_) amount of connective tissue, and (_b_) character of the walls of muscle-fiber tubes (thick or thin). These conditions depend upon (_a_) the age of the animal, and (_b_) locality of muscle or cut of meat.

Although meat contains some materials which are better slightly cooked, tough cuts of meat contain so much connective tissue that long cooking is necessary to make them palatable. _The long cooking must be accomplished in water or steam_ in order that the meat may not burn or become too dry.

Meat from old animals is usually tough. Veal and lamb are more tender than beef and mutton. The muscles that are used most are toughest, because they are developed to a greater extent and contain more connective tissue. Muscles that are constantly used contain more extractives, hence tough cuts of meat have more flavor than tender cuts. This is not always appreciated, however, since all the flavor of tough meat is rarely extracted because it is so hard to chew. Moreover, as mentioned previously, dry heat usually applied to tender cuts tends to develop flavor in meat.

USE OF BONE AND FAT IN SOUP-MAKING.--Bone contains a substance which long cooking changes into a jellylike mass called _gelatine_. In the center of the bone there is a fatty substance called _marrow_. This fat in the bone and that in and around the muscles liquefies in making soup stock. In cooling, the fat rises to the top, hardens, excludes the air from the stock, and thus prevents it from spoiling readily. Hence, in soup-making, it is of advantage to use both the fat and the bone with the lean meat. The fat, however, should be removed carefully from the stock before using.

BEEF STOCK

2 pounds meat, bone and fat 1/4 teaspoonful celery seed 5 peppercorns 2 cloves 2 quarts cold water 1/2 bay leaf 2 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt

Cut the meat and fat into small pieces. Try out some of the fat and brown about 1/3 of the meat in it. Put all the meat in a kettle, add the seasoning and water; cover, and allow to soak one hour. Then cook below boiling temperature for 3 hours; strain through a coarse strainer. Pour it through a fat separator or set aside to cool. If the fat has been allowed to solidify, skim it from the surface when the stock is to be used.

1 can of tomatoes, 1 carrot, 1 turnip, and 1 onion (all cut in small pieces) may be added to the ingredients of beef stock. Trimmings and bones of fresh meats or bones and pieces of roasts or unused meat may be cut into small pieces and used for soup stock. No smoked or charred pieces of meat or bone should be used, however. Stock may be colored with caramel, provided the sugar has been cooked sufficiently to lose its sweetness.

CUTS OF BEEF (see Figure 56).--The feeding, care, and age of an animal have much to do with the _quality_ of its meat. It is considered that good beef is obtained from an animal four or five years old. Beef should be firm, of bright red color, and of fine grain. There should also be a generous supply of suet. The latter should be dry and easily crumbled. In most markets, meat is made more tender by allowing it to hang for several days at a temperature near freezing.

The _cost_ of the different cuts of meat varies greatly. The difference in cost is based upon the tenderness of the cut of meat, and upon the demand,--not upon the nutritive value. Prices vary in different localities, and in different seasons.

The _waste_ of a cut of meat is a factor which the housekeeper needs to consider in determining the cost of meat. The cuts of meat containing no waste may be "cheaper" than some cuts whose price per pound is lower.

The line dividing the rib and loin cuts and the plate and flank, marks the division of the beef into hind and fore quarters. The position of the various cuts is indicated by letters. The names of the cuts are indicated around the outer boundary of the diagram.

The closely spaced lines such as shown in the round cut indicate that the cut is sliced into steaks, while the more widely spaced lines such as shown in the rib cut, indicate that the cut is separated into pieces for roasting or stewing. The numerals indicate the number of steaks or pieces into which a cut is usually divided.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE 56. CUTS OF BEEF

HIND QUARTER

NAME AND FORM OF CUT METHOD OF COOKING

ROUND A. Rump. Pot-roasting.
1. Rump piece (see Figure Stewing.
57). Corning.

B. Round (not including Sauteing.
rump and shank). Stewing.
2-14. Round steaks (see Braising.
Figure 54). Pot-roasting.

C. Horseshoe or Heel. Pot-roasting.
15. Pot roast. Stewing.

D. Hind shank.
16. Knuckle soup bone. Soup-making.
17-19. Soup bones.

LOIN E. Sirloin. Broiling
1-4. Round-bone sirloin Roasting (when cut into
steaks (see Figure 48). thick pieces
5-6. Flat-bone sirloin
steaks (see Figure 47).
7. Hip-bone sirloin steak
(see Figure 46).

F. Porterhouse. Broiling.
8-15. Porterhouse steaks Roasting (when cut into
(see Figure 45). thick pieces).
16-18. Club or Delmonico
steaks (see Figure 44).

FLANK G. Flank steak (see Figure 59). Sauteing.
Rolling and Braising

H-H. Flank stew. Stewing.
Corning.

FORE QUARTER

NAME AND FORM OF CUT METHOD OF COOKING
RIB I. Rib roasts. Roasting.
1-4. Prime-rib roasts (see
Figures 49 and 50).

CHUCK J. Chuck roasts and steaks
1. Chuck-rib roast (see Braising.
Figures 51 and 52). Pot-roasting.
2-9. Chuck or shoulder steaks Broiling.
(see Figure 55). Sauteing.
10-13. Pot roasts.
NOTE.--In some localities, a pot
roast is cut from the lower portion
of the chuck. It is called Cross
Rib, Boston Cut, or English Cut
(see Figure 58).
14. Clod, no bone (over knuckle
soup bone).

L. Neck. Stewing.
15. Stew. Soup-making.
Corning.

PLATE M. Rib ends. Stewing.
1, 2. Stews. Soup-making.
Corning.

N. Navel. Stewing.
3. Stew. Soup-making.
Corning.

O. Brisket. Stewing.
4. Stew. Soup-making.
Corning.

FORE P. Shin.
SHANK 1. Stew.
2. Knuckle soup bone (underneath Stewing.
clod, _J_, 14). Soup-making.
3-6. Soup bones ("3" underneath
clod, _J_, 14).

Skirt steak,--diaphragm inside of Rolling and Braising.
ribs (see Figure 59). Stewing.

Tail. Soup-making.

QUESTIONS

Other than the differences in cost, what advantages are there in using tough cuts of meat for soup?

Name at least three cuts of meat that would be suitable for soup-making. Give the price per pound of these cuts.

In soup-making, what is the purpose of cutting the meat into pieces and of cracking the bone?

Why should salt be added to the water in which meat is soaked (see Experiment 56)?

LESSON LXIII

BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (B)

EXAMINATION OF COLD BEEF STOCK.--Examine the beef stock of the previous lesson. Why has the fat risen to the top (see Experiment 35)? Why is fat cooked with meat and bone in making soup stock? What use can be made of the fat after removing it from the stock? Remove the fat from the stock. Stir the stock with a spoon. How do you account for its jellylike consistency? From what material has the gelatine been formed? What solid material is found in the stock? Should this be strained out when the stock is used for soup? Explain your answer (see Experiment 54).

VEGETABLE SOUP

2 quarts beef stock 2 tablespoonfuls fat 1 onion, sliced 1 carrot 1 turnip 1/2 stalk celery or dried celery leaves

Heat the fat and sliced onion. Cook until the onion is browned; add a small quantity of water. Cut the vegetables into dice, add them to the water containing browned onion and cook until the vegetables are tender. Add the beef stock to the vegetables and vegetable stock; heat; evaporate, if necessary, and then serve.

The vegetables may be strained from the soup, and cooked rice, macaroni, or barley added; or the rice, macaroni, or barley may be cooked with the vegetables. Pearl barley should be soaked in water before being cooked in the stock.

Other vegetables may be used for soup-making, as tomatoes, green peas, asparagus, and cauliflower. Indeed, ingenuity in combining flavors and utilizing "left overs" should form no small part of soup-making.

EXAMINATION OF MEAT LEFT FROM SOUP-MAKING.--Which contains the more nutriment,--beef stock or the meat from which the stock was prepared? What valuable protein material does the solid meat contain (see _Protein in Meat_)? Taste a bit of the meat. What does it lack? In what does the flavoring of this meat exist? What can be added to this "left over" meat as a substitute for its flavor? In the recipe for Baked Hash (below), what supplies flavor to the meat?

BAKED HASH

l 1/2 cupfuls chopped meat and fat 1/3 cupful (or more) boiling water 1 1/2 cupfuls mashed potatoes or stock Salt and pepper 1 cupful cracker crumbs, _or_ 2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 1 teaspoonful scraped onion Chopped parsley 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute

Mix all the ingredients, except the fat and crumbs. Add enough water or stock to moisten all ingredients. Place the mixture in a buttered baking- dish. Mix the fat with the bread or cracker crumbs. Cover the hash mixture with the crumbs, and bake slowly until the meat is thoroughly heated and the crumbs browned. Serve at once.

LESSON LXIV

BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (C)

ROLLED BEEFSTEAK

1 pound round steak 1 cupful soft bread crumbs 1/8 teaspoonful ground cloves Pepper 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 small onion, chopped Hot water or milk, salt, pepper, flour and fat

Cut round steak of 1/2 inch thickness into pieces 3 by 4 inches. Make a stuffing of the bread crumbs, chopped onions, cloves, salt, pepper, with enough hot water or milk to moisten. Spread the stuffing over the pieces of steak, roll up each piece and tie it with a piece of string, or skewer it with toothpicks. Dredge generously with flour and add salt and pepper. Brown in beef drippings or other fat, cover with boiling water, and simmer for 1 1/2 hours or until tender. Remove the strings or toothpicks, and serve the meat with the sauce in which it was cooked.

If the meat has not been cut thin enough, it may be pounded with a wooden potato masher or mallet to make it sufficiently thin.

BEEF STEW

2 pounds beef 1/4 cupful flour 2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 onion cut into slices 1 quart hot water 2 carrots, cut in dice 1 turnip, cut in dice 4 potatoes, cut in dice 1 tablespoonful kitchen bouquet

Remove the fat from the meat to be stewed; cut the meat into 1-inch pieces. Dredge the meat with the flour; add the salt and pepper. Try out the fat in a frying pan; remove the scraps. Brown the onion and then the meat in the hot fat. Add the hot water and pieces of bone and cook in the frying pan for 2 hours at a low temperature; or turn into a double boiler and cook for the same length of time. Add vegetables, except potatoes, and cook for I hour longer; add the potatoes 1/2 hour before the stew is done. If desired, more flour,--mixed with enough cold water to pour easily,--may be added when the potatoes are added. Remove the bone, add kitchen bouquet, and serve.

THICKENING THE SAUCE OF MEAT COOKED IN WATER.--When meat is dipped in flour, then browned in fat, and finally cooked in water, the flour thickens the water and forms a sauce around the meat. Usually, however, more flour needs to be added to the sauce to make it sufficiently thick. Sometimes directions for adding a flour-and-water paste to the hot meat stock are given, but unless the flour-and-water paste is cooked for some time (boiled for 5 minutes at least) the sauce does not have a pleasing flavor. This is because the starch is insufficiently cooked or the flour is not browned. It has been found much more satisfactory to sprinkle a little extra flour into the hot fat while browning the floured meat. Thus the sauce is made smooth, and the starch cooked thoroughly by the time the sauce is ready to serve.

QUESTIONS

If round steak has been cut too thick for rolling, what is a practical way of making it of one half inch thickness?

For what purpose is rolled steak browned in fat before cooking in water?

Explain why the rolled steak is cooked in water at simmering rather than at boiling temperature.

What is the purpose of dredging these meats in flour?

Why are not the vegetables added to the Beef Stew when the boiling water is added? Why are not the potatoes added with the other vegetables?

Why is the bone added to the Beef Stew?

Name at least two cuts of beef that would be suitable for Beef Stew. What are the prices per pound of these cuts?

LESSON LXV

BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (D)

SWISS STEAK

1 1/2 pounds round steak, cut 1 to 1 1/2 inches thick 1/2 to 1 cupful flour Suet or bacon fat 1/2 onion, sliced 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt Dash pepper

With the edge of a saucer, pound the flour into both sides of the steak. In a frying pan, put the suet or bacon fat and brown the onion in it. Then brown both sides of the floured meat in the fat. Cover with boiling water and let the meat cook at simmering temperature either on top of the range or in the oven from 1 1/2 to 2 hours or until it is tender. Add enough salt and pepper to season the meat. If necessary, evaporate the sauce around the meat until it is of sufficient thickness to serve as Brown Sauce. Serve the meat and sauce hot.

If desired, the meat may be stewed in tomato juice instead of water. (If tomato is added, what kind of frying pan (_i.e._ of what material) should be used in cooking the meat? See _Suggestions for Cooking Fruits._)

This variation may also be made: One half green pepper may be chopped and sprinkled over the surface of the steak while the latter is simmering. The onion may be omitted, if desired.

POT ROAST

3 pounds beef Flour Salt pork or suet 1/2 bay leaf 6 peppercorns Salt and pepper 1/4 cupful each,--diced carrot, turnip, onion, and celery

Try out the fat and remove the scraps. Dredge the meat generously with flour and brown the entire surface in the fat. Place the meat on a rack in the kettle; surround it with the vegetables and spices, and season it with salt and pepper. Add 3 cupfuls of boiling water; cover closely and simmer for 4 hours. Turn after the second hour. Serve hot both the meat and the sauce containing vegetables.

NOTE--This meat may be saved and used in the following lesson regarding the uses of cooked beef

SUMMARY OF THE METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS OF MEAT--There are many recipes for cooking meats All, however, are modifications of a few methods. Moist heat must be applied to tough cuts of meat (see _Tough Cuts of Beef_) The methods of cooking such cuts can be summed up as follows

1 _Soup-making_--Soak meat, bone, and fat in cold salted water, and then cook below boiling temperature in the water.

2. "_Boiling" or Stewing_.--Plunge meat into boiling water; boil until well seared; then cook in water below the boiling temperature.

3. _Pot-roasting and Braising_.--Sear meat by boiling or browning in fat, then cook in steam. If the cooking is done on the top of the range, it is called pot-roasting. If it is done in the oven, it is called braising.

QUESTIONS

What is the chief difference between pot-roasting and braising?

Why is it not necessary to baste meats cooked by these methods?

What is the difference between braising and roasting meats (see _Roasting_)? Why is braising suitable for tough cuts, and roasting for tender cuts (see Experiments 51 and 52)?

Name at least three cuts of meat suitable for pot roasts. Give the price per pound of each.

LESSON LXVI

BEEF: USES OF COOKED BEEF

"LEFT OVERS"--Small pieces of cooked meat should not be thrown away; they can be used in many ways. Even though the meat has been cooked so as to extract its juices, there still remains practically all of the myosin, and this is a valuable constituent. If the juices have been drawn from the meat, a little fresh meat should be added to it, or it should be seasoned well with condiments, spices, or herbs. Water in which the meat has been cooked, and "left over" gravy, should be utilized in making sauces for cooked meats. Cooked meat of tender cut should merely be reheated, not recooked. Hence it is usually well to cut it into pieces or chop it fine in order to heat it quickly.

As in soup-making, ingenuity in combining and using "left over" materials is required in making meat dishes. Stewed tomatoes can be substituted for stock or gravy, and one starchy food substituted for another. The recipes here given simply serve as suggestions. The ingredients and proportions should be changed to utilize available materials.

SCALLOPED MEAT

2 cupfuls chopped meat 2 tablespoonfuls fat 3 tablespoonfuls flour l-1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 teaspoonful scraped onion or chopped parsley l-1/2 cupfuls milk, stock, or water 2 cupfuls buttered crumbs (See _Crumbs for Scalloped Dishes_.)

Make a Brown Sauce of the fat, salt, pepper, flour, onion or parsley, and milk or stock. Mix with the meat. Butter the crumbs, and place about one half cupful in the bottom of the buttered baking-dish. Add the meat mixture, and cover the top with the remainder of the crumbs. Bake in the oven until the mixture is thoroughly heated and the crumbs are brown.

_Cold fish_ may be shredded and used in the same way.

COTTAGE PIE.--Use the same ingredients as for Scalloped Meat, substituting mashed potatoes for buttered bread crumbs. Place the potato only on the top of the mixture. A little nutmeg may be substituted for the onion.

QUESTIONS

How does meat left from beef stock differ from fresh meat in nutritive value? How does it differ in taste?

Name a starchy food that could be substituted for potatoes in Baked Hash.

Why are spices and herbs added to left over meat dishes?

Name at least three vegetable-and-meat combinations that would be desirable for hash.

How many cupfuls of chopped cooked meat can be obtained from one pound of fresh meat?

Why should cooked meat of tender cut be reheated rather than recooked?

LESSON LXVII

GELATINE (A)

EXPERIMENT 57: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON GELATINE.--Pour 1 teaspoonful of cold water on 1/4 teaspoonful gelatine. Cover and let stand a few minutes. Examine. Has the water combined with the gelatine? Press a bit of the gelatine with a spoon. How does it compare with the dry gelatine as to hardness?

EXPERIMENT 58: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON GELATINE.--Pour 1 teaspoonful boiling water on 1/4 teaspoonful gelatine. Place the mixture over hot water. Stir. What is the effect of boiling water on gelatine?

NOTE.--Use the gelatine from these two experiments for the preparation of the gelatine dessert of the lesson.

GELATINE.--When the beef stock of Lesson LXII was strained and cooled, what material, other than fat and protein, was present in it? From what substance in the meat and bone was this material formed (see _Protein in Meat_; _Use of Bone and Fat in Soup-making_; _Examination of Cold Beef Stock_)?

The gelatine which is found at market is prepared from the bones, gristle, skin, and other portions of animals. Although gelatine may be purchased in several different forms, housekeepers find the granulated or pulverized gelatine the most convenient to use.

One ounce of granulated gelatine will stiffen 1 1/2 to 2 quarts of jelly. In hot weather more is required. If fruit, vegetables, or nuts are to be molded in the jelly, use 1 1/2 ounces of gelatine.

Gelatine should be first hydrated (_i.e._ combined with water) by means of cold water, and then dissolved in boiling water.

THE VALUE OF GELATINE.--Gelatine is an incomplete protein, _i.e._ it is lacking in certain amino acids and hence while a good fuel, it does not, without the help of other proteins, both build and repair the body.

The usual gelatine dish contains such a small quantity of gelatine that the question of its food value may be disregarded. The sugar and fruit, however, that are invariably used in gelatine dishes give them food value. Since gelatine liquefies readily by heating, it is valuable in liquid diet.

LEMON JELLY

1 tablespoonful granulated gelatine _or_ 1/4 ounce shredded gelatine 1/4 cupful cold water 3/4 cupful sugar Salt 1 1/2 cupfuls boiling water 1/4 cupful lemon juice

Mix the gelatine and cold water. Let them stand until the water is absorbed. Add the boiling water, sugar, and salt. Stir until the gelatine is dissolved completely, then add the fruit juice, strain, and pour into a mold. Set in a cool place to harden. _Gelatine mixtures should be covered while soaking and cooling_.

_To remove jelly from the mold_, apply a cloth wrung out of hot water to the outside of the mold.

FRUIT JELLY

Prepare lemon jelly mixture. Cover and allow to cool until it begins to stiffen. Peel oranges and bananas; cut them into small pieces or slices. Cut nuts into pieces. Stir in the prepared fruit and nuts. Turn into a mold, cover, and put in a cool place until firm. Serve cold, with or without cream.

Other fruits may be used instead of those mentioned in the recipe. If pineapple is used it must be cooked before adding to jelly. Pineapple contains an enzyme which liquefies gelatine. Hence jelly containing fresh pineapple fails to stiffen.

WHIPPED JELLY

When a gelatine mixture is cool and begins to stiffen, it may be whipped with a Dover egg beater. Air beaten into a gelatine dessert changes it in appearance and quantity.

Lemon Jelly may be varied as follows:

Prepare lemon jelly mixture. Cover and set aside to cool. Then divide into two portions. Add fruit to one portion and turn it into a mold and set aside in a cool place.

Whip the second portion of jelly. When the jelly in the mold is stiff, pour the whipped jelly over it and set aside to cool.

When ready to serve, unmold, garnish with fruit or nuts, if desired. Serve with top milk, plain or whipped cream or Custard Sauce.

QUESTIONS

What is the purpose of covering the gelatine while soaking and cooling?

Why is it necessary to dissolve the gelatine completely?

What would be the effect of adding cold fruit juice to the hot gelatine mixture? What must be the temperature of water to dissolve gelatine? From this explain why the gelatine should be dissolved before the fruit juice is added.

What is the purpose of straining gelatine mixtures?

Through what should gelatine mixtures be strained?

Of what material should jelly molds be made? Why?

How are jellies removed from the molds without breaking or marring the jellies? Explain.

When fruit is to be added to jelly, what is the purpose of allowing the jelly to cool and almost stiffen before adding the fruit?

LESSON LXVIII

GELATINE (B)

SNOW PUDDING

1 tablespoonful granulated gelatine 1/4 cupful cold water 1 cupful sugar Salt 1 cupful boiling water 1/4 cupful lemon juice 2 or 3 egg whites

Mix these ingredients (except egg whites) as for Lemon Jelly. Set aside to cool. Beat the egg whites until stiff. When the gelatine mixture begins to stiffen, beat it (surrounded by ice water) until it becomes frothy, then add the beaten egg whites and continue beating until the mixture begins to stiffen. Turn into a mold and set aside in a cool place. Serve with chilled Custard Sauce.

For the sauce, follow the recipe for Soft Custard, using egg yolks (instead of whole eggs) and 3/8 cupful of sugar (instead of 1/4 cupful). In case only 2 egg yolks are used in making the custard, 1 teaspoonful of corn-starch may be used for additional thickening, as suggested.

The addition of 1/2 cupful of chopped nuts to Snow Pudding makes a pleasing variation. The nuts should be added just before turning the mixture into the mold.

Snow Pudding may be prepared by whipping plain Lemon Jelly as directed in the previous lesson and serving it with Custard Sauce. The use of egg whites, however, adds to the food value of the dessert and makes it more tasty.

PINEAPPLE BAVARIAN CREAM

1 tablespoonful gelatine 1/4 cupful cold water 1 small can (8 ounces) shredded pineapple Boiling water 1/2 cupful sugar Salt 2 tablespoonfuls lemon juice 1/2 cupful (or more) whipped cream

Mix the gelatine and cold water and let stand until the water is absorbed.

Drain the sirup from the shredded pineapple and add enough water to it to make 1 1/2 cupfuls. Heat the pineapple sirup and water to boiling point. Then pour it over the gelatine mixture. Stir until the gelatine is dissolved. Add the sugar and salt and continue stirring until they are dissolved. Add the lemon juice. Cover and set aside in a cold place until the mixture begins to stiffen.

Whip the cream. Add the shredded pineapple and whipped cream to the gelatine mixture. Surround this with ice water and beat until the mixture again begins to stiffen. Turn into a mold and set aside in a cool place. Serve cold.

QUESTIONS

What is the price per package of gelatine?

How many ounces are there in one package? How many tablespoonfuls in one package?

Determine the cost of Lemon Jelly. Of Snow Pudding. What is the difference in the cost?

Which is lighter in weight,--beaten egg white or plain Lemon Jelly? From this, explain why it is necessary to set the gelatine mixture aside until it begins to stiffen before adding the beaten egg-white in the preparation of Snow Pudding.

Explain why the gelatine mixture should be in a slightly stiffened condition before the whipped cream is added to it in the preparation of Bavarian Cream.

LESSON LXIX

FISH (A)

EXPERIMENT 59: EFFECT OF SOAKING FISH IN WATER.--Soak a piece of fresh fish in water for at least 10 minutes. Strain the water and heat it to the boiling point. What foodstuff is found in the water? What practical application can be drawn from the result of this experiment as to washing fish?

EXPERIMENT 60: EFFECT OF BOILING FISH RAPIDLY.--Boil a small piece of fresh fish rapidly for a few minutes. What happens to the fish? Judging from this experiment, what care must be taken in cooking and serving fish?

From the results of Experiments 59 and 60, which method,--boiling or baking,--would be more desirable for cooking fish? Why?

COMPARISON OF BEEF WITH FISH.--Fish is an animal food containing protein. It differs from beef in structure and composition. Most fish contains more water than does beef, hence it has not as high a nutritive value. In the quantity of protein, however, fish is about equal to beef; its protein is also complete. Hence many consider it quite as nutritious as beef. It is lacking in extractives, and needs careful seasoning.

FAT OF FISH.--The fat content of fish varies greatly in different kinds of fish. A few fish, such as salmon for example, contain considerable fat. The edible portion of most fish, however, contains less fat than beef. The ease with which we digest fish depends upon the fat it contains. Fish containing the least quantity of fat is the most easily digested.

CLASSES OF FISH.--According to the quantity of fat it contains, fish may be divided into two classes: _(_a_) dry, or_ lean _fish_, and _(_b_) oily fish_. Cod, haddock, smelt, flounder, perch, bass, brook trout, and pike are dry, or lean fish. Salmon, shad, mackerel, herring, eel, halibut, lake trout, and white fish are oily fish. (This latter group contains from 5 to 10 per cent of fat.)

Fish may also be divided into two classes, according to the water in which they live, fish from the sea being termed _salt-water fish_, and those from rivers and lakes _fresh-water fish_

Since fish contains about as much protein as does beef, it should be generally used as a meat alternative. Inspection of the fish found at market will doubtless acquaint you with many kinds of fish.

SALMON TIMBALE OR LOAF

1 can salmon 1 cupful soft bread crumbs 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls chopped parsley 1/2 teaspoonful salt Pepper 1 or 2 eggs 1 tablespoonful lemon juice 1/4 to 1/2 cupful milk

Mix all the ingredients thoroughly, adding enough milk to moisten. Pour into buttered timbale molds or into one bowl. Place on a rack in a pan, surround with hot water, and cover. Bake in the oven or cook on top of the range until the fish mixture is firm and is heated thoroughly. Turn out, and serve with White Sauce to which chopped parsley has been added (for White Sauce, see _White Sauce for Vegetables_. For the fat of the White Sauce, use the oil drained from the salmon).

Peas in White Sauce make a pleasing addition to Salmon Timbale, _Tuna fish_ or other cooked fish may be used instead of salmon.

CASSEROLE OF FISH

Cook 1 cupful of rice or barley (see page 85). Measure the ingredients given in Salmon Timbale or Loaf, using salmon or any kind of canned or cooked fish, and prepare a fish loaf.

Let the cereal cool slightly after cooking. Then line a baking dish or a mold with about three fourths of the cooked rice or barley, pressing it in the dish firmly with a spoon. Put the fish mixture in the cavity and cover it with the remainder of the cereal. Steam the food 30 to 45 minutes. Turn from the mold and serve hot with White Sauce as directed for Salmon Timbale.

Any kind of _cooked_ and _chopped meat_ may be used instead of fish and combined with rice or barley as described above. QUESTIONS

What purpose do the eggs serve in Salmon Loaf?

Think of the effect of intense heat upon the different ingredients in this fish mixture, and then explain why it should not cook for a long time or at a high temperature.

What is the price per can of salmon? Of tuna fish?

Name two fresh fish that are in market now. What is the price per pound of each?

LESSON LXX

FISH (B)

FRESHNESS OF FISH.--Fish is a food which spoils very quickly, and which is dangerous to eat if not fresh. For this reason the housekeeper should be able to judge of the freshness of fish. In fresh fish:

(_a_) The flesh is firm and elastic, especially along the backbone.

(6) The gills are bright.

(_c_) The eyes are bright and bulging.

The sinking of fish when placed in water has also been given as an indication of its fitness for use as food. Decayed fish floats on water.

Since fish spoils readily, it must be frozen if kept for any length of time. Frozen fish is not undesirable provided it is kept in a frozen state until used; it should be thawed out by placing it in cold water _just before cooking_. Fish that has been thawed out and kept for some time before cooking may contain at times poisonous substances called _ptomaines_. Ptomaines in food may produce distressing effects or may even prove fatal.

Fresh fish should be kept in a cool place until used, but should not be placed uncovered in the refrigerator. It may, however, be tightly covered,--put in a tin pail or glass jar,--and placed in the refrigerator. Before cooking, fish should be washed thoroughly with a wet cloth. On account of the odor, all utensils used in the cooking of fish should be washed in salted water.

BAKED FISH

Clean and wash a large fish. The head or tail may or may not be removed before baking. If the head is retained, the eyes should be removed before serving; this is done more easily after cooking. If the tail is retained, it should be wrapped in oiled paper to prevent it from burning.

Sprinkle salt on the inside of the fish and also on the outside, and then fill with stuffing. Skewer the cut edges of the fish together or close the incision as follows:

Hold the edges of the skin together and thrust toothpicks across the opening, through both cut edges of the fish. Then fasten the opening by _"lacing"_ string around the toothpicks. Cut gashes on each side across the fish and put strips of salt

pork into them or insert strips of pork with a larding needle. Oil a baking sheet or the rack of a fish kettle (see Figure 60) and place the fish on it, forming the fish into an "S" by means of skewers. Place the sheet in a baking-pan and add pieces of salt pork. Bake 15 minutes for each pound, or until the flesh can be separated easily from the bones by means of a skewer or a fork. If the baking-pan is uncovered, baste every 10 minutes. When done, carefully remove the fish from the pan and place on a platter, garnish with parsley and lemon, and serve with _Tomato Sauce_ or _Sauce for Fish_ (see below).

In the absence of a baking sheet, two well oiled strips of muslin may be placed across the baking-pan, underneath the fish. When baked, the fish may be removed easily from the pan by means of the strips of muslin.

STUFFING FOR FISH

2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper Cayenne 1 teaspoonful scraped onion 1 teaspoonful chopped parsley 1 teaspoonful capers or chopped pickles 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute

Mix the ingredients in the order given (see _Crumbs for Scalloped Dishes_)

SAUCE FOR FISH

3 tablespoons butter or substitute 1/4 cupful flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt Cayenne l 3/4 cupfuls hot water 1/4 cupful vinegar _or_ 1 large lemon,--juice 1 tablespoonful chopped parsley

Prepare the first five ingredients as in White Sauce (see _White Sauce for Vegetables_. Then add vinegar or lemon juice and chopped parsley. Serve hot over fish.

Hard-cooked eggs make a pleasing addition to this sauce. Chop the whole eggs or slice the whites and mash the yolks with a fork; then add to the sauce.

QUESTIONS

Why should fish not be left uncovered in the refrigerator?

Why should fish be cleaned by wiping with a cloth, rather than by placing in a pan of water (see Experiment 59)?

What is the purpose of placing fish on a baking sheet or placing strips of muslin underneath for baking (see Experiment 60)?

How is fish tested for sufficient cooking?

How can the odor be removed from utensils in which fish has been cooked?

LESSON LXXI

FISH (C)

PLANKED (BROILED) FISH

An oak plank,--one inch in thickness and as long and wide as a large platter,--is a satisfactory device for broiling fish. For planking or broiling, fish steaks or thin, flat fish, such as mackerel or bluefish, should be selected.

Clean the fish, then place it, skin side down, on the plank. Sprinkle with salt and pepper, and spread with softened or melted butter. Place in the broiling oven and broil until done, usually 15 or 20 minutes.

A border of potato puff mixture makes a pleasing addition to the fish (see _Potato Puff_). A few minutes before the fish is done, remove it from the oven and arrange the potato mixture around it. (A pastry bag and tube may be used for this purpose.) Brush the potato with egg diluted with water (1 tablespoonful of water to 1 egg). Return the plank to the oven to finish broiling the fish and to brown the potatoes. Serve the fish and potatoes on the plank.

FRIED OR SAUTEED FISH

Clean fish and season with salt and pepper. Mix equal parts of corn-meal and flour. Dip the fish in this mixture. Fry in deep fat or saute. Drain and serve with a sauce. Dried bread or cracker crumbs, and egg may be used for dipping instead of the corn-meal and flour mixture (see _Fried Oysters_).

FISH CHOWDER

1/2 pound salt fish _or_ 2 pounds fresh fish 1 quart potatoes cut in pieces 2 tablespoonfuls bacon drippings _or_ other fat 1 onion, chopped 2 tablespoonfuls corn-meal 1 pint milk Crackers

If salt fish is used, hold it under running water for a few minutes (why?), then shred it.

If fresh fish is used, Wash it, remove bones if possible, and cut it into six or eight pieces.

Brown the onion in the fat. Into a kettle put layers of fish and potatoes and add a little browned onion and corn-meal to each layer. Cover with hot water and boil gently until the potatoes are tender. Add the milk and continue heating until the mixture is hot. Just before serving, add a few crackers broken into pieces.

QUESTIONS

State the advantages of using a plank for broiling fish.

Why select fish steaks or thin, flat fish for broiling?

What is the purpose of brushing the potato mixture with egg?

Give two reasons for using well seasoned sauces and stuffing with fish (see _Comparison of Beef with Fish_).

LESSON LXXII

LEGUMES (A)

THE LEGUMES include peas, beans, lentils, and peanuts. These plants bear pods containing seeds; the seeds--green or ripened--and the pods of some of the plants are commonly used as foods.

PROTEIN IN SEEDS.--Many foods rich in protein belong to the animal kingdom. The seeds of plants, however, contain protein. The common cereals, wheat and corn, contain almost 10 per cent of protein, while oats contain about 16 per cent. But the dried seeds of legumes exceed all seeds in protein content. Peas, beans, lentils, and peanuts contain more protein than most cuts of meat. About 25 per cent of their composition is protein. Soy-beans are much richer in protein than any of the other legumes. They contain about 37 per cent.

It has been mentioned that proteins differ in quality. Although the dried legumes are especially rich in protein, they do not all contain complete protein. With the exception of peanuts and soy-beans, these foods need to be supplemented with other protein-rich foods such as milk, eggs, and cheese.

Since the dried legumes are a much cheaper source of protein than meat, they should be used oftener than they are. Legumes supplemented with milk or combined with a small quantity of meat furnish economical sources of protein food. The protein in legumes is called _legumin_.

COOKING DRIED LEGUMES.--The dried legumes should be soaked overnight in water, to which a little baking soda has been added. These vegetables require long cooking to soften them, and also to develop flavor. A little soda added to the water in which they are cooked also aids in softening them and neutralizes the vegetable acid found in some of the legumes. During the long heating, dried legumes break up, if not carefully cooked.

Dried soy-beans have a strong flavor which is objectionable. This can be removed as follows: Soak the beans overnight in a large quantity of hot water, drain, add fresh water and baking soda (about 1 teaspoonful for each cupful of beans), and cook the beans for about 40 minutes, then drain, add more water, and cook until they are tender. Dried soy-beans require long cooking,--usually 4 or 5 hours. After the 40-minute cooking, they may be drained, heated in more water, and then placed in a _fireless cooker_. The _pressure cooker_ may be used effectively in cooking these dried beans.

Soy-beans may also be baked after the 40-minute cooking in the same manner as navy beans (see _Boston Baked Beans_). Serve cooked soy-beans with Tomato Sauce.

Although dried legumes are comparatively cheap, the fuel required to cook them for so long a time may increase their cost to a considerable extent. In cooking these foods, care should be taken to utilize fuel that is already required for some other purpose. The _fireless cooker_ is most satisfactory in cooking these dried foods.

BOSTON BAKED BEANS

2 cupfuls navy beans 2 tablespoonfuls molasses or brown sugar 2 teaspoonfuls salt 2 ounces salt pork or bacon 1/2 teaspoonful mustard

Soak the beans overnight as directed in _Cooking Dried Legumes_. Add a little baking soda and gradually heat to the boiling point. Then add the seasoning to the beans; place half of them in a bean crock; and add the pork which has been scraped and scored. (To score salt pork cut gashes in it nearly to the rind.) Add the remainder of the beans and enough water to cover them slightly. Bake in a slow oven (250 degrees F.) 6 to 12 hours. Keep the beans below the boiling point and see that they are covered with liquid.

_Lentils_ may be baked in the same way as beans.

SALTED PEANUTS

1/2 cupful salt 1 cupful shelled unroasted peanuts 3 cupfuls water 2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute

Remove the skins from the peanuts by placing them in boiling water for 3 minutes; drain, cover with cold water; and then slip off the skins. Heat the salt and water, and when boiling, add the peanuts. _Cook 8 minutes_. Drain, rinse off the salt, place in a baking-pan, add the fat, and bake until slightly browned, stirring often. Turn from the pan on paper.

QUESTIONS

Why should dried vegetables be soaked in water before cooking?

Measure the beans after soaking. How much have they increased in bulk?

What is the reason for keeping the beans below the boiling point while baking?

Devise a method for preparing Baked Beans, when they can remain in the oven but an hour or two.

How are fatty meats cleaned? Why can they not be cleaned by washing in water (see Experiment 35)?

What is the purpose of scoring the salt pork or bacon?

What is the advantage of seasoning peanuts by cooking in strong salted water rather than sprinkling salt over them after browning?

What are the prices of beans and raw peanuts per pound?

How many cupfuls in a pound of each?

LESSON LXXIII

LEGUMES (B)

BEAN SOUP

2 cupfuls beans 3 quarts water Baking soda 1 piece of celery root _or_ 1/2 teaspoonful celery salt _or_ Dried celery leaves l 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 2 slices onion Cayenne 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/4 teaspoonful mustard 2 tablespoonfuls flour

Soak the beans overnight; add soda, onion, and celery. Cook slowly until the beans are soft. Add more water, if more than one quart evaporates. Press through a strainer. Use the remainder of the ingredients in making a sauce. The strained beans should be used as the liquid for the sauce (see _Thick Soups_).

Slices of lemon and of hard-cooked eggs may be used as a garnish for this soup.

SPLIT PEA SOUP

1 cupful split peas 2 1/2 quarts water Baking soda 2 slices onion 1 pint milk 1/8 teaspoonful pepper l 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt 3 tablespoonfuls flour 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute

Soak the peas overnight; add soda and onion; and cook slowly until the peas are soft. Press through a strainer. Make a White Sauce of the remainder of the ingredients. Add the strained peas, heat, and serve.

Cooking a ham bone with the split peas changes the flavor.

GREEN PEA SOUP

1 pint or can of peas 1/2 teaspoonful sugar 1 pint liquid round peas and water Pepper 1 teaspoonful salt 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1 pint milk 2 tablespoonfuls flour

Turn the peas into a saucepan; add the liquid, water, and sugar; and cook until very soft. Press the peas through a strainer. Make a White Sauce of the remaining ingredients. Add the strained peas, heat, and serve.

Peas too old to serve as a vegetable may be used for soup. Some of the pods of fresh peas may be cooked with the peas.

CRISP CRACKERS

Spread thin crackers very lightly with butter. Brown in the oven and serve with soup.

QUESTIONS

How should the water boil to prevent dried legumes from breaking (see _Cooking Vegetables in Water_)?

What is the simplest way of thickening soup, if it is too thin? Too thick?

If a ham bone is cooked with split peas, what ingredient should be omitted in making the soup? Why?

How many persons will these recipes for soup serve?

How many cupfuls in a pound of split peas? What is the cost per pound of split peas? How much does one cupful of split peas increase in bulk by soaking? What quantity of split peas would be equal to a can of peas? What is the cost of a can of peas? How much is saved in making soup by using split peas rather than green peas?

LESSON LXXIV

LEGUMES (C)

BEAN ROAST

1 cupful white beans, cooked 1 cupful roasted peanuts 1/2 cupful bread crumbs 1 teaspoonful salt Speck pepper 1/2 cupful milk

Put the beans and peanuts through a food chopper, add the remaining ingredients. Mix and shape into a loaf. Place in an oiled dish and bake 30 minutes in a moderate oven. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce.

PEANUT BUTTER SOUP

1 cupful peanut butter 1/2 cupful chopped celery 1 1/2 cupfuls water 3 cupfuls milk 2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 grated potato